BASIC TECH

Scheme of Work
1. REVISION
2. AREA OF PLANE FIGURES.
3. WOODWORK MACHINE.
4. METALWORK MACHINES.
5. FRICTION
6. BELT AND CHAIN DRIVES.
7. GEAR
8. MID-TERM BREAK
9. HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC
10. BUIDING CONSTRUCTION
11. REVISION
12. EXAMINATION
WEEK TWO
TOPIC: Area of Plane Figure
Area of Plane Figures
A plane shape is a closed, two-dimensional, or flat figure. The characteristics of various plane shapes vary, such as the
number of sides or corners (or vertices). Plane figures are two-dimensional surfaces that have no height or thickness.
Plane figures or plane shapes are classified into regular and irregular figures. We will require several parameters to
determine a figure's area depending on its form.
Perimeter of a Plane Figure
The entire distance surrounding a plane figure's boundaries is known as the perimeter of plane figures. The lengths of
each side of the figure are added to determine the perimeter. We measure the perimeter using one-dimensional units
like metres or centimetres since it is a length. For example, it is possible to form a circle using a string and then use
the same string to form a square. Depending on the figure's shape and the number of sides, the perimeter formula
varies for various plane shapes.
Area of a Plane Figure
The region that a plane figure covers is referred to as the area of the plane figure. Area is a two-dimensional
measurement, so we use square units like m2 or cm2 to measure it. The plane figure's shape affects the area formula.
Rectangle
A rectangle is defined as a four-sided figure with right angles. All interior angles in a rectangle measure 90∘ and their
opposite sides are parallel and equal.
Square
A square has all its interior angles equal to 90 degrees. Also, it has all its sides equal. A square is a figure in two
dimensions with four equal sides. Since all of a square's inner angles are 90 degrees, it is a particular kind of rectangle.
Triangles
A triangle is a 3-sided plane shape. The general formula used in calculating the area of a
triangle is the product of half of its base and the height.
Circle
A circle is a round plane figure whose boundary (circumference) consists of points equidistant from a fixed point
called the center. A line that passes the circle from one end of the circle to another through its center is the diameter.
A line drawn from any part of the circle's circumference to the center of the circle is the radius. A fully round shape is
what defines the circle as a 2D figure. The area and perimeter of a circle are determined by its radius.
Rhombus
A rhombus is also called a diamond. It also has all its sides equal. Its opposite sides are parallel. Its area is calculated
by multiplying its diagonals and dividing by 2.
Parallelogram
A parallelogram has its opposite sides parallel and equal. Its area is calculated by finding the product between the base
and height of the parallelogram.
Kite
A kite has its adjacent sides equal the opposite interior angles are equal. The area of a kite is calculated by finding the
product between its two diagonals and dividing them by 2.
Trapezium
A trapezium is a two-dimensional shape, which has two of its sides parallel usually called the bases. Its area is derived
by getting the sum of bases and multiplying by half of its height.
Pentagon
A pentagon is a plane figure with 5 sides. The sum of all interior angles of a pentagon is 540 degrees while each
interior angle equals 108 degrees for a regular pentagon.
Hexagon
A hexagon is a 6-sided polygon. The sum of all interior angles in a hexagon equals 720 degrees and each interior
angle of a regular hexagon equals 120 degrees.
Types of area of plane figures
Plane figures or plane shapes are classified into regular and irregular figures.
1. Regular plane figures.
It is when regular plane shape, interior angles and length of sides are equal. Examples of regular plane shapes are:
A. Square
B. Equilateral triangle
C. Regular polygon (regular pentagon, regular hexagon, regular heptagon, regular octagon, etc.).
2. Irregular plane figures occur when either the interior angles or the length of their sides are unequal. Examples of
irregular plane figures are:
A. Rectangle,
B. Parallelogram
C. Non-equilateral triangle (right, isosceles, scalene)
D. Irregular quadrilateral
E. Irregular pentagons
F. Irregular hexagons, etc.
PROPERTIES OF SOME PLANE SHAPES

o Every interior angle of a rectangle is equal to 90°, i.e. ∠A = ∠B = ∠C = ∠D = 90°

 Rectangle:

o The sum of the interior angles is equal to 360°.

o The opposite sides are equal and parallel to one another, i.e. AB = CD & AC = BD.
o The diagonals are congruent.
o The diagonals bisect each other, i.e AO = OD & BO = OC.
o The diagonals bisect each other at different angles. One of them is an acute angle, while the other is an
obtuse angle.
o Any diagonal of a rectangle is a diameter of its circumcircle.
 Square:

o Each of the interior angles is equal 90°, i.e. ∠A = ∠B = ∠C = ∠D = 90°.

o A square has 4 vertices and 4 sides.

o The sum of the interior angles is equal to 360°.

o Each side of a square is equal, i.e. AB = BD = CD = AC
o The opposite sides of a square are parallel to each other.
o The diagonals of a square are equal.
o The diagonals of the square bisect each other at 90°.
o The diagonal of a square divides it into two similar isosceles triangles.
 Circle:
o Circles are said to be congruent if they have equal radii.
o Equal chords and equal circles have equal circumference.
o The diameter of a circle is the longest chord of a circle.
o The radius drawn perpendicular to the chord bisects the chord.
o Circles having different radii are similar.
o A circle can circumscribe a rectangle, trapezium, triangle, square, kite.
o A circle can be inscribed inside a square, triangle, and kite.
o The chords that are equidistant from the center are equal in length.
o The distance from the center of the circle to the longest chord (diameter) is zero.
 o The perpendicular distance from the center of the circle decreases when the length of the chord
increases.
o If the tangents are drawn at the end of the diameter, they are parallel to each other.
o An isosceles triangle is formed when the radii joining the ends of a chord to the center of a circle.
Kite:
Two disjoint pairs of consecutive sides are congruent by definition, i.e. AB = AD and BC = CD.
o
The diagonals are perpendicular; they meet at right angles.
o
One diagonal (segment AC) is the perpendicular bisector of the other diagonal (segment BD)
o
The diagonal AC bisects a pair of opposite angles (angle A and angle C).
o
The opposite angles at the endpoints of the cross diagonal are congruent (angle D and angle B)
o
PERIMETER OF PLANE SHAPES
 The perimeter of a shape is a measure of the distance round the boundary or edge of the shape.
 With the usual lettering, the perimeter of a rectangle is 2(L + B), square is 4L, circle is 2πr or πd.
 The perimeter of a circle is called the circumference.
AREA OF PLANE SHAPES
 The area of a shape is a measure of its surface.
 Area is measured in units such as cm² or m², which are derived from the SI units of length.
 The areas of common plane shapes are as follows:
o Rectangle = L × B
o Square = L²
o Parallelogram = Base × Height
o Triangle = ½ × Base × Height
o Trapezium = ½ h(a + b)
o Circle = πr²

WEEK THREE
TOPIC: Woodwork Machine
Woodwork Machine
The Woodwork machine is a type of machine that is utilized to process wood to make different objects, artefacts, etc.
These woodworking machines are generally powered by electric motors and are exclusively used in woodworking.
Two sections of woodwork machine:
1. Portable power tools
2. Machines
a. Portable Power Tools: These are tools that are held in the hand and operated with electric current. The examples
to be discussed here are:
a. Sanders: Sanding means smoothing of work with coated abrasives. The abrasives may be made of glass, garnet (a
type of precious stone), silicon carbide, aluminum oxide (a brown African abrasive), etc. Available portable sanders
for wood-work smoothing including belt sanders and drum sanders.
b. Hand Drills: Are used to make holes in materials can be made by many methods, e.g. punching, flame cutting,
boring and drilling. There are different types of drills used in a metal workshop: Twist, Flat , Straight-flated , Counter-
sink, Sensitive Drilling Machine (Bench)
c. Fret-Saw: This saw is used for complex shapes and curves in plywood and veneers. The blade of this saw is tiner
than the coping saw blade. It has a high frame which allows it to be used over a wide area.
Different Types of Woodwork Machines.
Handheld Power Tools
a. Electric Drill:The electric drill consists of a motor enclosed in a body that also forms the handle. A chuck on the
end of the frame holds different drills and bits to drill holes and drive screws. A good drill machine will have the
option of varying its speed.
b. Jig Saw: We use a jigsaw to cut irregular curves. It consists of an electric motor that drives a reciprocating blade,
which means that the blade moves in a forward-backward direction.
c. Handheld Electric Plane: This handheld power tool does the job of smoothing the surface of wood just as a hand
plane does.
d. Nail Gun: A nail gun, also called a nailer, enables us to drive nails into wood and other materials. It does the work
of a hammer, but in a fraction of the time and with much less effort.
e. Handheld Sanders: The variations in handheld sanders include orbital sander, belt sander, and random orbit sander
fixed machines. A sander enables us to finish surfaces with sandpaper, much faster than doing it by hand.
f. Router: This handheld power tool enables us to be hollow out (rout) sections in wood and other materials. The
router looks somewhat like a handheld sander, having a circular blade like a sander.
2. Machines: The other types of the equipments used in woodworks are those equipment which are not portable. They
are fixed on a spot most of the times. Examples are circular saw, band saw, wood lathe, surface planner, thicknesser,
sanders, drills, etc.
a Surface/Thickness Planer: The wood surface planer or better-known as thickness planer is used for finishing flat
wooden surfaces to provide consistency in thickness and shape.
b. Tenoning Machine: The tenoning machine is typically used to craft out those tenons, where mortise is a hole drilled
on a wooden piece and tenon is a projection designed to fit inside that hole with best-fit dimensions on another piece.
c. Chain/Chisel Mortiser: Are used for drilling up holes into wooden surfaces, these mortisers are typically utilized in
workshops for making square or rectangular slots in lumber pieces in order to get the desired mortise and tenon joints.
d. Jig Saw: The jig-saw machine is capable of cutting the most arbitrary and most irregular shapes out of wooden
pieces.
e. Grinder/Grinding Machine: Can be utilized for accomplishing various tasks like finishing of internal cylinders or
bores, sharpening multiple cutting tools in workshops, getting rid of some rough projections from castings, cleaning,
polishing, and buffing surfaces and so much more.
f. Nail Gun: A nail gun, or sometimes known as a nailer, gives us the capability to drive nails into wood and other
materials.
g. Handheld Sanders: A handheld sander enables us to provide a smooth finish to wooden surfaces with sandpaper but
with much less effort and much faster speeds than doing it by hand.
h. Wood Lathe: The wood lathe is much like the regular lathe used for turning wood and it enables us to shape any
wooden workpiece. The wooden lathe has a chuck that rotates at high speeds on a belt-driven central axis. The end
that holds the workpiece is known as the headstock. An electric motor is utilized to drive the axis of this lathe. The
center is responsible for holing the workpiece at the opposite side of the chuck, which is generally known as the
tailstock. As the workpiece spins on the lathe, it can be shaped by holding a chisel against its spinning surface.
i. Bandsaw: Bandsaw is a flexible saw-toothed blade that comes in the form of a band, this saw-toothed blade passes
vertically through a slot present in the workbench surface. The workpiece then slides against the fast-moving blade to
get cut.
j. Table Saw: The table saw is a handy machine for rough sizing of wooden planks and beams
k. Router: This handheld power tool provides us the capability to be hollow out sections in any wood workpiece and
any other materials.
l. Jointer:We use a jointer to create a flat surface across the length of a board. A jointer prepares the edges of boards
for them to be joined to each other as in butt joints or if they are to be integrated into panels.
Safety Hints in Using the Woodwork Machines
1. Remove loose fitting clothings, rolling sleeves aprons and eye shield.
2. Remove scraps from saws, tables and floor.
3. Regular oiling and greasing of bearing must be encouraged.
4. Use the correct saw for each job.
5. Saws should be properly set and should be sharp.
6. Before switching one, make sure the blade runs free.
7. Stand to one side when switching on.
8. Switching on to make adjustments on machine or checking measurements or changing belt speed.
9. Do not overload the machine or force it to work beyond its capacity.
10. Make sure you know how to use the machine that you want to use.

WEEK FOUR
TOPIC: Metalwork machine
Metalwork machine is the process of working with metals to create individual parts, assemblies, or large-scale
structures. Aside from hand tools, machine tools are also used during metalworking. A machine tool is a machine that
cuts metals and performs some other operations by manipulation of its parts.
Types of metal work machines
They include:
1. Lathe Machine: They are multipurpose machines that can be used to perform operations like cutting, sanding,
knurling, drilling, boring, threading, facing, and turning. There are two types of metal lathes – plain and screw cutting
lathe. Lathes are equipped with various devices as presented below:
a. Setting the tail stock
b. Checking for correctness.
c. Turning between centers
i. Taper Turning:Taper turning is the production of a piece of round work in which one end is bigger than the other.
It involves the use of shaped tool or cutter fed into the work piece to produce the taper required.
ii. Surfacing: Surfacing is achieved when the cutting tool moves perpendicular to the axis of rotation of the job being
machined and therefore produces a flat surface.
iii. Turning: This is better achieved with the use of carriage movement, because the straightness of the bed ways
ensures the parallelism of the work piece, and can be power-operated and produced at one setting.
2. Milling Machine: The milling machine is a metalworking device that uses rotary cutters to remove undesired
material. The two major operations that a milling machine performs are face milling and peripheral milling. In face
milling, the operator mills a flat surface that’s at a right angle to the rotation of the cutter, whereas, in peripheral
milling, the cutter is placed parallel to the work piece.They are used for a variety of purposes, from simple cutting to
complex shaping and drilling.
3. Grinding Machine: Grinding machine is device that is used to shape, flatten, and smooth the surfaces on pieces
that have been cut with other tools, such as saws or lathes.
4. Drilling Machines: They can be used to drill holes into a diverse range of materials, including metals, cement,
and even concrete.
5. Shaper Machines: A shaper machine can be used to cut, shape, or form metal into the desired shape.
6. Broaching Machines: A broaching machine cuts, forms, and shapes a variety of materials. This machine is used
to remove material from the work piece. There are two types of broaching processes – linear and rotary. The more
common of the two is linear broaching, in which the machine is placed in line with the work piece. In rotary
broaching, however, the broach is rotated as it’s applied to the work piece.
7. Saw Machines
They are meant for cutting metals and similar kinds of things (not like the movie Saw) in two, with its blade that tends
to be rotating fairly quickly. There are three types of saw machines:
i. Band Saw:It can be used to create long pieces, such as pipes or solid bars, in any desired length and in large
quantities.
ii.Circular Saw: Circular saws uses a round blade that rotates or reciprocates to make the cut.
iii. Hacksaw: This hand-powered machine features a straight blade with many small teeth for cutting through various
metal objects, such as pipes, rods, and even sheet metal.
8. Planer Machine
Planar machines are used to reduce the thickness and size of materials like steel plates, bars, and rods by shaving off
some excess material during machining processes, flat surfaces from rough or uneven .
9. Shearing Machine:A shearing machine is a one that is used for cutting sheet metal into desired shapes and sizes.
Other major metal cutting operations that are similar to shearing are blanking and piercing.
10. Hobbing Machines:They are a variant of milling machine that uses a special type of cutting tool for producing
high-precision shafts, gears, splines, and other cylindrical parts that are needed for many different applications.
11.Drill Press: A drill press is a machine tool typically used in metalworking industries to perform drilling
operations.

WEEK FIVE
TOPIC:Friction
Friction is a force that resists the relative motion or tendency of such motion of two surfaces in contact. It acts
parallel to the surface of contact and opposite to the direction of motion or tendency of motion. Here are some key
points about friction:
Types of Friction
1. Static Friction: This type of friction prevents an object from moving when a force is applied to it but is not enough
to overcome static friction.

2. Kinetic Friction: Also known as dynamic friction, it opposes the motion of two surfaces sliding against each other.
3. Rolling Friction: This occurs when an object rolls over a surface, like a wheel on a road.
Factors Affecting Friction:
1. Surface Roughness: Rougher surfaces tend to have more friction.

2. Normal Force: The force exerted perpendicular to the surfaces in contact affects friction. Greater normal force
usually means more friction.

3. Type of Material: Different materials exhibit different levels of friction.

Applications:
1. Friction is crucial for walking, driving, and various other forms of movement.
2. It's also important in machines and mechanisms, where it's sometimes minimized (like in ball bearings) and
sometimes maximized (like in brakes).
Coefficient of Friction: It's a value that represents the ratio of the force of friction between two bodies and the force
pressing them together. It's denoted by the symbol "μ".
Reducing Friction: In many situations, reducing friction is desirable. This can be achieved through lubrication,
polishing surfaces, or using materials with low friction coefficients.
Negative Effects of Friction: While friction is necessary in many cases, it can also be problematic. It causes wear and
tear on surfaces, reduces efficiency in machines, and generates heat.
Effects of Friction
1. Motion Control.

2. Surface Stability.
3. Wear and Tear.
4. Heat Generation.
5. Efficiency Considerations.
6. Industrial Processes.
7. Earthquake Mechanics.
Advantages of Friction:
1. Grip and Traction.

2. Stopping Power.
3. Control and Stability.
4. Essential for Functioning of Machinery
Disadvantages of Friction:
1. Energy Loss.

2. Heat Generation.
3. Resistance to Motion.
4. Wear and Tear.
Lubrication refers to the process of applying a lubricant, typically a fluid or semi-fluid substance, to reduce friction
between two surfaces in contact with each other. Lubrication helps to minimize wear and tear, heat generation, and
energy consumption in machinery and mechanical systems by creating a protective film between moving parts. It is
crucial for maintaining the efficiency, longevity, and smooth operation of various devices and equipment, ranging
from engines and gears to bearings and joints.
Types of lubrication:
1. Fluid Film Lubrication.
2. Boundary Lubrication.
3. Mixed Lubrication.
4. Solid Lubrication.
Uses of Lubrication
1. Friction Reduction: Lubricants minimize friction between moving parts, reducing wear and tear on machinery and
equipment. This friction reduction is essential for smooth operation and prevents overheating and damage.
2. Wear Protection: Lubricants form a protective layer between surfaces, shielding them from direct contact and
minimizing wear. This is particularly vital in high-stress environments where components are subjected to intense
friction.
3. Corrosion Prevention: Lubricants help prevent corrosion by creating a barrier that seals out moisture and
contaminants. This is especially important in environments with high humidity or exposure to harsh chemicals.
4. Temperature Regulation: Lubricants can dissipate heat generated during operation, helping to maintain optimal
operating temperatures in machinery. This prevents overheating, which can lead to premature failure of components.
5. Sealing and Tightness: Lubricants can assist in sealing gaps and preventing leaks in machinery, ensuring that
fluids remain contained within the system. This is critical for hydraulic and pneumatic systems where leakage can lead
to loss of pressure and performance.
6. Noise Reduction: Proper lubrication can dampen vibrations and reduce noise generated by moving parts, creating a
quieter operating environment. This is beneficial in both industrial settings and consumer products where noise
reduction is desired.
7. Improved Efficiency: By reducing friction and optimizing performance, lubricants contribute to overall system
efficiency. Machinery operates more smoothly and consumes less energy, leading to cost savings and environmental
benefits.

WEEK SIX
TOPIC: Belt Drive and Chain drive.
Belt Drive
A belt drive is a frictional drive that transmits power between two or more shafts using pulleys and an elastic belt.
Belt Tension and Slack
This belt tension, in addition to the static belt tension, is responsible for the transfer of mechanical force. On the other side,
the driving pulley pushes the belt away towards the driven pulley. This causes slacking of the belt.
Types of Belt Drives
1. Flat belt: This belt has a rectangular cross-section. These belts are capable of transmitting power over long
distances between pulley centres. Some excellent features of flat belts are: A flat belt can deliver high power at high belt
speeds, Low noise operation, High efficiency (up to 98%), Small bending loss due to small bending cross-section, High
flexibility, No need for grooves, Long service life as they handle dust and dirt reasonably well, Can be reinforced for greater
strength
2. V-belts: v-belts also used with grooved pulleys, V-belts are trapezoidal in cross-section. These belts permit large
speed ration and can transmit higher power. Multiple drives are possible.
3. Circular: This type of belt has a circular cross-section and is used with the grooved pulleys.
4. Open Belt Drive: The belt is employing when the two parallel shafts have to rotate in the same direction.
5. Cross Belt Drive: These types of belt drives, the belt is employing when two parallel shafts have to rotate in the
opposite direction. At the junction where the belts cross, it rubs against itself and wears off.
6. Stepped Cone Pulley or Speed Cone Drive: This types of belt drives are used when the speed of the driven shaft
is to be changed very frequently as in the case of machine tools such as lathe, drilling machine, etc.
7. Fast and Loose Pulley Drive: This types of belt drives are used when the driven or machine shaft is to be started
or stopped whenever desired without interfering with the driving shaft.
8. Jockey Pulley Drive: In an open belt drive arrangement, if the center distance is small, or if the driven pulleys are
very small, then the arc of contact of the belt with the driven pulley will be very small, which reduces the tensions in
the belt, or if the required tension of the belt cannot be obtained by other means, an idler pulley, called jockey pulley
is placed on the slack side of the belt
9. Slip in Belt: When this frictional grip becomes insufficient, there is a possibility of forwarding motion of driver
without pulley with it, this is known as the slip in a belt.
10. Creep in Belts: This uneven expansion and contraction of the belt over the pulleys, there will be a relative
movement (motion) of the belt over the pulleys this phenomenon is known as Creep in a belt.
11. Quarter turn belt drive: Quarter turn belt drives (aka right angle belt drives) it is a belt that goes around two
perpendicular shafts after making a quarter turn.
12. Compound belt drive: A compound belt drive consists of more than two shafts with multiple pulleys keyed to at least
one of the shafts. The driving pulley transfers power from one shaft to another through multiple shafts.
This setup improves the speed ratio without requiring a larger driven pulley or too much extra space.
13. Round belt: Round belts are used in motion control as well as power transmission applications. These belts find use in
line shafts, industrial conveyors, packaging machinery, photocopiers, printers, etc. Some other beneficial features of round
belts are: Available in different sizes, colours and textures, No fraying., Economical, Strong and durable., Easy to clean., Fit
various pulley shapes, Non-marking, Can be reinforced for greater strength, Features such as abrasion and UV resistance
can be improved on need.
14. Toothed belt: A toothed belt is a positive transfer belt that does not need friction for power transfer. It transfers force
via teeth similar to chain or gear drives but with much lower noise levels and without the need for excessive lubrication.
15. Link belt: Link belts offer features similar to endless belts and do not need special pulleys to function. They have the
same power and speed ratings as similarly-sized endless belts. They are easy and fast to install as the machine does not need
to be disassembled.
16. Slip in Belt: When this frictional grip becomes insufficient, there is a possibility of forwarding motion of driver
without pulley with it.
17. Creep in Belts: This uneven expansion and contraction of the belt over the pulleys, there will be a relative
movement (motion) of the belt over the pulleys this phenomenon is known as Creep in a belt.
Belt Drive Selection
Some of these important factors are:Power transmission requirements, Shaft separation, Service environment, Space
constraints, Type of driven load, Speed ratio.
Advantages
i. Belt drives are quite affordable thanks to low component cost and high efficiency.
ii. They can transmit power over long distances, contrary to gears, couplings and lead screws.
iii. Compared to chain drives, they operate smoother and more quietly.
iv. They can absorb shock and vibrations.
v. Overload protection through the slipping of the belt.
vi. Lightweight and relatively durable
Disadvantages
i. Belt slippage can vary the velocity ratio.
ii. They apply a heavy load on the bearings and shafts
iii. Finite speed range.
iv. Short service life if not maintained well.
v. They need an idler pulley or some adjustment of center distance to compensate for belt stretching and wear
vi. Loss of power sue to slip and creep in turn results in low efficiency.
Materials Used For Belts
The materials used for belts must be strong, flexible and durable. It should have a high coefficient of friction. The
various material used are:
1. Leather: The leather may be oak-tanned or mineral salt tanned ex: Chrome tanned. When the thickness of the belt
required is more than, two or more strips are cemented together. Leather belts require periodic cleaning.
2. Fabric: Fabric belts are made by folding canvas or cotton ducks is a layer (depending on the required thickness)
and stitching together.
3. Rubber: The belts are made of Fabric with a rubber layer. These are used in sawmills, paper mills, etc.
4. Balata: The belts are made out of these materials are similar to rubber belts expect that balata gym is used instead
of rubber. The belts of these materials are acid and waterproof but cannot be used where the temperature is above 45°.

Chain drive: A chain drive is a type of mechanical power transmission system that uses chains to transfer power from
one place to another. A conventional chain drive consists of two or more sprockets and the chain itself.
Types of Chain Drives
1. Power transmission chain drive: This type of chain drive is specifically used for transmitting power between two
shafts. Most machines that produce power cannot consume it at the same place, e.g. pumps with attached motors.
2. Conveyor chain drive: Conveyors use chain drives that are crafted especially for material transportation. Conveyor
chain drives find use in industries such as packaging, automotive, food and beverage production, pharmaceuticals and
textiles.
3. Hoisting and hauling chain drive: Chain hoists are probably the most common piece of machinery used to lift and
lower equipment. Hoist chains can be divided into two categories:
i. Oval link chains: They are commonly used as hoisting chains for low to medium loads and are generally meant to be
used in low-speed lifting applications.
ii. Stud link chains: Stud link chains are a better alternative for high-load applications.
4. Roller chain: Roller or bush roller chains are widely used for power transmission in bicycles, motorcycles and other
applications in the transportation industry.
5. Silent chain (inverted tooth chain):A silent chain can transmit large amounts of power at high speeds while
maintaining a quiet operation. The chain consists of flat plates stacked in rows and connected through one or more pins.
6. Leaf chain: Leaf chains find use in lifting and counterbalancing applications. Some common examples of applications
using leaf chains are lifts, lift trucks, forklifts, straddle carriers and lift masts.
7. Flat-top chain: They can replace conveyor belts and belt drives as the material can be carried directly on its links. An
individual link is usually made out of a steel plate with barrel-shaped hollow protrusions on its bottom side.
8. Engineering steel chain: This chain was designed to handle the toughest environments and the most demanding
applications.

How to Select the Right Chain Drive for Your Application

The right way to go about this selection is to eliminate unsuitable options by evaluating the chain’s application and features.
The most important factors in chain drive selection are as follows: Loading, Chain speed, Shaft layout, Distance between
the shafts, Service environment, Lubrication.
Classification of chain drives
On the basis of application chain drives can be classified into three types.
1. Load lifting chains
2. Power transmission chains
3. Hauling chains
Hauling chains
They are used for carrying materials continuously by sliding, pulling or carrying in conveyor.
Power transmission chains
They are used for transmitting power from one shaft to another.
Load lifting chains
They are used for suspending, raising or lowering loads in material handling operations.
Some Features of Chain Drive:- The alignment of the shaft should be more precise than that of the belt. Center
distance is not as important as gear drives. Proper lubrication must be provided for satisfactory service life. Their
efficiency is compared to any other type of positive motivation. Chain drives have greater versatility, adaptability, and
reliability. They are an important component of lifting and moving machinery.
Chain Drives in Automobile Vehicles: The chain-drive system transmits power from a differential to the rear axle in
a vehicle. Chain drives are straighter forward to design than drive shafts and universal joints.
Chain Used in Bicycle: A most bicycle chain is made of plain carbon or alloy steel, but some are nickel-plated to
prevent corrosion or just for stylishness.
Sprocket Drive
Sprockets are sturdy wheels with teeth that lock onto a chain. As the sprocket spins, the teeth grab onto the chain and
move other parts that interlock with the chain.
Applications of chain drives
The Chain drives are used in a variety of industrial applications, such as: A chain drive is a device widely used for the
transmission of electricity where shafts are separated by a distance greater than that for which gears are practical,
Rigging and moving heavy materials, Hydraulic lift truck fork operation, Overhead Hoist, Operating Belt Conveyor,
Chain drives are used in many industries for many purposes, such as the transportation industry, agricultural
machinery, material handling equipment, and building construction, Increase or decrease the driver’s output speed by
changing the gear ratio between the driver and the driving sprocket.
Advantages of Chain Drives
i. Able to transfer torque over long distances
ii. Contrary to a belt drive, a chain drive does not slip
iii. A chain drive is more compact than a belt drive and can fit into relatively tight spaces
iv. Multiple shafts can be powered by one chain drive
v. Versatile drive that can work at high temperatures and in all kinds of service environments (dry, wet, abrasive, corrosive,
etc.)
vi. It is a low-friction system that guarantees high mechanical efficiency
vii. They can be used for both long and short distances
viii. A number of shafts and be driven from a single chain
Disadvantages of Chain Drives
i. Cannot work with non-parallel shafts
 ii. Chain drives are known to be noisy and they can also cause vibrations
iii. Misalignment may cause the chain to slip off
iv. Some designs require constant lubrication
v. An enclosure is usually needed
vi. They require chain tensioning from time to time in the form of a tightening idler sprocket
vii. They cannot be used where slip is the system requirement
viii. They require precise alignment compared to belt drive

WEEK SEVEN
TOPIC: Gear
A Gear is a machine component, which is used to transmit mechanical power from one shaft to the other by
successively engaging its teeth. Gear is a toothed cylindrical or roller-shaped element of a machine that meshes with
another toothed cylindrical element to transmit power from one shaft to another.
Principle of Gear
Gear works on the fundamental principle of thermodynamics, the law of conservation, or the first law of
thermodynamics, which states that energy can neither be created nor destroyed. We can say it is conservative. It can
be transformed from one form to another. We know that power is the function of the shaft's torque (force in rotary
motion) and speed (P = TV).
Types of Gears
There are several dimensions to which gears are classified, use, the direction of motion transfer, etc. However,
primary gears are classified according to the design of teeth. The most common types of gears, along with their
applications, are enlisted in the below table.
Type of Gear Application
Spur Gear Clocks, Electric Screwdrivers, Pumps, Watering Systems, Power Plant Machinery
Helical Gear Elevators, Conveyors, Compressors, Blowers
Bevel Gear Locomotive, Marine Applications, Automobiles, Railway Track Inspection Machines
Steering Mechanism, Lifting Mechanism (Vertical Movement),Positioning Mechanisms,
Rack and Pinion
Stoppers
Worm Gear Packaging Equipment,Worm Drive Speed Reducers
1. Spur Gear: These gears transfer power in the same plane as when the driving and driven shafts are parallel.
2. Helical Gear: It's also used to transmit power in parallel shafts, but it's also used in non-parallel shafts on occasion.
3. Double Helical or Herringbone Gear: Power is transmitted between parallel shafts using the double-helical gear,
often known as the herringbone gear.
4. Bevel Gear: A bevel gear is a toothed rotating mechanical device that transfers mechanical energy or shaft power
between shafts that cross at an angle or perpendicularly.
5. Worm Gear: This gear transmits power to a shaft that does not intersect and is at an angle.
6. Spiral bevel gears: Spiral bevel gears are used for power transmission in the shafts which are perpendicular to each
other.
7. Skew shafts: This is the case when the shafts (between which the power is to be transmitted) are non-parallel and
non-intersecting.
8. Cross helical gears: Cross helical gears are used for non-parallel and non-intersecting shafts.
9. Hypoid gears: Hypoid gears as same as spiral bevel gears but the only difference is that the center line of both the
shafts do not intersect in Hypoid gears.
Advantages of Gear drive
i. It is positive drive hence velocity remains constan
ii. Provisions for changing velocity ratios can be made with the help of gear box
iii. Its efficiency is very high
iv. It can be used even for low speeds
v. It can transmit high torque values
vi. It is compact in construction
vii. Disadvantages of Gear drive
 They are not suitable when shafts are distant
  At high speeds noise and vibration happens
 It requires lubrication
 It has no flexibility
Reasons of Gear failure
There are following reasons of Gear failure.
 Abrasive wear
 Corrosive wear
 Initial pitting
 Destructive pitting
 Scoring
Uses of gears
1. It is use for transmitting power.
2. Gears can be used to change the direction of travel by transmitting force of speed at 900 with the use of a bevel gear.
3. Gears can be used to change speed, either to increase or decrease the speed.
4. Back movement with the selection of bevel gear is possible in most engines with the use of gears.

WEEK NINE
TOPIC: HYDRAULIC AND PNEUMATIC MACHINE.
Hydraulic Machines
Hydraulic Machines are machinery and tools that use fluid power for its functioning. In these machines, a large
amount of power is transferred through small tubes and hoses.
Uses of Hydraulic Machines
a. Some examples are the usage of cranes in construction, tractors in agriculture, forklifts in manufacturing, and
braking in transportation.
b. Hydraulic machines use hydraulic fluid pressure to power movement or to provide a basic source of energy.
c. Dump trucks, aluminium or plastic extruders, cranes, jackhammers, and hose crimpers are all examples of
hydraulic machines.
d. Metal stamping, injection moulding, and hose crimping are other activities performed by hydraulic machinery.
e. The spinning motors, such as the Ferris wheel, are a great source of enjoyment in amusement parks. They use
hydraulics technology to power rides and subsequently offer a motion to them.
f. The concept of Hydraulics is used in almost every vehicle on the road. Brake fluid is an essential component of a
vehicle's braking system.
Hydraulic Machines and their Applications
a. Hydraulic Lifts: The hydraulic lift that we are discussing is an elevator that is operated by fluid pressure generated
by a suitable fluid. It is generally used to raise automobiles in service stations and even in garages.
b. Hydraulic Brakes: The breakers which are called the hydraulic brake are an arrangement of the braking
mechanism in which suitable brake fluid is used to transfer pressure from the control mechanism to the mechanism of
the brake.
c. Hydraulic Jacks: Hydraulic jacks are more powerful than other tools as they can lift more weight. Hydraulic jacks
are divided into two categories: Floor Jacks and Bottle Jacks.
d. Hydraulic Shock Absorbers: This is stress absorption and dampening device.
Hydraulics in Everyday Life
a. Entertainment - We can say here that spinning motors are a great source of entertainment in amusement parks.
They apply hydraulics technology which is to power rides and then later provides motion, for instance, a Ferris wheel.
b. Vehicle Braking - Virtually all vehicles on the road are powered by hydraulics. Specifically, if we look at the brake
fluid which is an important component of a vehicle’s braking system.
c. Lifting and Repair & Maintenance - As we know, without a hydraulic system it would be very difficult to lift a
very heavy motor vehicle to facilitate repair and maintenance. The system generally uses hydraulic fluid to help lift
any heavy load to the desired height.
d. Construction - The construction industry has greatly benefited from technological advancements due to
hydraulics.
Examples of Hydraulic System
1. Hydraulic Lifts
2. Hydraulic Brakes
3. Hydraulic Steering
4. Hydraulic Jacks
5. Heavy Equipment
6. Airplanes
7. Hydraulic Shock Absorbers

TYPES OF HYDRAULIC MACHINES

1. EXCAVATORS: They are used for a variety of purposes, including excavating, demolition, heavy lifting, and
river dredging.
2. DRAGLINE EXCAVATORS: A dragline excavator is equipped with a long boom. A digging bucket is
suspended from the top of the boom by a cable.
3. BACKHOES: A backhoe has a hoe arrangement on the backside of the machine. A loading bucket is attached to
the front.
4. BULLDOZERS: A bulldozer is equipped at its front end with a wide metal plate with a sharp edge.
5. TRENCHERS: Trenchers are used to excavate trenches for pipeline or cable laying or drainage purposes.
6. LOADERS: Loaders are used on development sites to load material such as soil, demolition waste, and raw
materials onto trucks, dumpers, and other places they may need to be deposited.
Hydraulic System Components.
a. Reservoir: The purpose of the hydraulic reservoir is to hold a volume of fluid, transfer heat from the system, allow
solid contaminants to settle and facilitate the release of air and moisture from the fluid.
b. Pump: The hydraulic pump transmits mechanical energy into hydraulic energy. This is done by the movement of
fluid which is the transmission medium.
c. Valves: Hydraulic valves are used in a system to start, stop and direct fluid flow. Hydraulic valves are made up of
poppets or spools and can be actuated by means of pneumatic, hydraulic, electrical, manual or mechanical means.
d. Actuators: This is where the hydraulic energy is converted back to mechanical energy.
Pneumatic Machine:
A pneumatic machine is a connection of various components such as (compressors, intercoolers, controllers, and
actuators), that converts the pressure energy of compressed air into mechanical work. Pneumatic systems are systems
that use compressed air instead of a fluid to transmit power. They rely on a constant source of compressed air to
control energy and actuate motion devices. Examples include rock drills, pavement breakers, riveters, forging
presses, paint sprayers, blast cleaners, and atomizers.
Pneumatic System Components:
a. Prime driver: A prime driver, such as an electric motor or a gas-powered engine, provides the power to an air
compressor.
b. Air tank: A tank holds compressed air for delivery to mechanical devices.
c. Transmission system: A network of pipes and tubing transports the compressed air to actuators.
d. Air filter: The air filter is a fibrous or porous material that traps the solid particulate and allows air to move in. It
may also contain some absorbent material such as charcoal that absorbs pollutant gas particles and soot.
e. Air compressor: Air compressor the device used to compress the air.
f. Motor: It is used to run the compressor in a pneumatic system. The motor is directly connected to the power supply.
g. Air cooler: Air temperature increases when the air is compressed in the compressor. This hot air is not suitable for
further operation.
There are two types of commonly used air coolers.
1. Air-cooled air cooler.
2. Water-cooled air cooler.
h. Storage reservoir: It is used to store compressed air under high pressure..
i. FRL unit: It is used to reduces losses and increases the efficiency of the system.
j. Directional control valve: They are used to control the direction and the amount of air entering the actuators.
k. Actuators: Actuators are devices that convert the pressure energy of fluid into mechanical movement.
Pneumatic system Working:
The air comes into the compressor through an air filter due to the vacuum generated by the blades of the compressor .
The air is filtered out in the air filter and then goes into the compressor. The compressed air then enters the air cooler
where the temperature of the air is reduced to improve the efficiency of the system.
This compressed cold air is then stored in the storage reservoir to make the air readily available. The air then enters
the FRL unit where it is filtered again, pressure is regulated and some oil is added to lubricate the air.
From the FRL unit, the air goes into the direction control valve where the air is sent according to the user’s action.
From DCV the air finally enters the actuator where the pressure energy is converted to mechanical work.
Advantages of Pneumatic System:
 The air used is infinitely available.
 The working medium is inflammable.
 It is independent of the outside temperature.
 The system is safe and tidy.
 Generates instant mechanical work.
 Corrosion problems are not severe.
Disadvantages of Pneumatic system:
 The system is noisy.
 There are often leaks in the system.
 Low power-to-weight ratio.
 Always prone to dust and contaminants.
 Suitable only for low-pressure applications.

Applications of Pneumatic System:

 Automatic production lines.
 Doors of metro trains.
 Medical equipment.
 Car washing.
 Pneumatic brakes.
 Air compressors
 Vacuum pumps

Difference between the Hydraulic System and the Pneumatic System:

Pneumatic system Hydraulic system

The pneumatic system uses air as the working

fluid. The Hydraulic system uses oil as the working fluid.

This is an open-loop system. This is a closed-loop system.

The construction of pneumatic systems is

simple. The construction of the hydraulic system is complex.

The cost of a pneumatic system is low The cost of a hydraulic system is high

Pressure in the system is low hence the size is

small. The system’s internal pressure is high, hence the size is bigger.

Accuracy is less. Accuracy is high.

WEEK TEN
TOPIC: BUILDING CONSTRUCTION
Setting out refers to the process of establishing the location, level, and dimensions of structures on a construction site
according to the construction plans or drawings. It involves marking the positions of foundations, walls, columns, etc.,
on the ground before construction work begins.
Site preparation refers to the process of readying a piece of land for construction or development. It involves various
tasks and activities aimed at clearing the site, making it suitable for the intended purpose. Site preparation typically
includes activities such as:
1. Clearing vegetation and debris: This involves removing trees, bushes, rocks, and other obstructions from the site.
2. Grading the land: Grading involves leveling the ground to ensure proper drainage and to create a stable base for
construction.
3. Excavation: Excavation may be necessary to remove soil or rock from the site or to create foundations for buildings
or infrastructure.
4. Soil compaction: Compacting the soil helps to increase its stability and load-bearing capacity, which is important
for supporting structures.
5. Installation of utilities: This includes installing utilities such as water, sewer, electricity, and telecommunications
infrastructure to support the development.
6. Erosion control: Measures are taken to prevent erosion and sediment runoff from the site during and after
construction.
List of tools used in site preparation/setting out and their respective uses:
1. Excavator: Excavators are versatile heavy machinery used for digging, trenching, and earthmoving tasks. They can
be used to clear land, dig foundations, and create trenches for utilities.
2. Bulldozer: Bulldozers are powerful machines with a broad, flat blade attached to the front. They are used for
pushing soil, rocks, and debris, leveling terrain, and clearing vegetation.
3. Backhoe Loader: Backhoe loaders combine the capabilities of a tractor and a loader with a backhoe attachment.
They are used for digging, loading, backfilling, and trenching.
4. Grader: Graders, also known as motor graders, are used for grading and leveling surfaces. They are equipped with a
long blade that can be adjusted to create a smooth, even surface.
5. Dump Truck: Dump trucks are used to transport materials such as soil, gravel, and debris on and off the site. They
have a hydraulic bed that can be tilted to unload materials easily.
6. Compact Track Loader (CTL): CTLs are compact, maneuverable machines with tracks instead of wheels. They are
used for tasks such as grading, excavation, and material handling in tight or sensitive areas.
7. Chain Saw: Chain saws are used for cutting and removing trees and large vegetation from the site.
8. Brush Cutter: Brush cutters are specialized tools used to clear small trees, bushes, and thick vegetation from the
site.
9. Hand Tools (Shovels, Rakes, Picks): Hand tools are essential for tasks that require manual labor, such as digging
trenches, spreading gravel, and clearing debris.
10. Compactor: Compactors, such as plate compactors or rollers, are used to compact soil, gravel, or asphalt to create
a stable foundation for construction.
11. Surveying Equipment (Total Station, GPS): Surveying equipment is used to measure and map the site accurately,
including elevation, boundaries, and existing structures.
12. Water Truck: Water trucks are used to suppress dust on the site and to water down surfaces for compaction.
Uses of site preparation:
1. Construction Projects: Before starting any construction, site preparation is essential to clear the land, remove any
obstacles, and level the ground. This ensures a stable foundation for buildings, roads, bridges, and other structures.
2. Land Development: Site preparation is often required when developing raw land for residential, commercial, or
industrial purposes. This involves clearing vegetation, grading the land, and installing necessary infrastructure such as
utilities and drainage systems.
3. Infrastructure Development: Site preparation is necessary for the construction of infrastructure projects like
highways, railways, airports, and ports. It involves clearing the land, excavating, and grading to accommodate the
infrastructure's footprint and ensure proper drainage.
4. Landscaping: Before landscaping projects such as gardens, parks, or recreational areas can begin, site preparation is
needed to clear the area, level the ground, and prepare the soil. This may also involve installing irrigation systems and
other landscaping features.
5. Environmental Restoration: Site preparation plays a vital role in environmental restoration projects aimed at
rehabilitating degraded ecosystems, such as wetlands, forests, or coastal areas. It involves removing invasive species,
restoring natural habitats, and implementing erosion control measures.
6. Demolition: Site preparation is necessary before demolishing existing structures to ensure safety and proper
disposal of debris. This may involve asbestos removal, hazardous material abatement, and clearing the site for future
development or repurposing.
7. Mining and Extraction: In mining and extraction industries, site preparation is crucial for establishing access roads,
clearing vegetation, and excavating the area for mineral extraction. It also involves creating infrastructure for
processing facilities and waste management.
8. Utility Installation: Site preparation is required for installing utilities such as water, sewer, electricity, and
telecommunications infrastructure. This involves excavating trenches, laying pipes or cables, and backfilling to ensure
proper functioning and accessibility.
9. Disaster Response and Recovery: In the aftermath of natural disasters like floods, hurricanes, or earthquakes, site
preparation is necessary for clearing debris, restoring infrastructure, and rebuilding communities.
10. Agriculture: Before establishing agricultural activities such as crop cultivation or livestock farming, site
preparation is needed to clear land, remove rocks and debris, and prepare the soil for planting or grazing.

Excavation refers to the process of digging, removing, and clearing material, typically earth or rock, from a site to
uncover artifacts, fossils, or other remains, or to prepare the ground for construction purposes such as building
foundations, roads, or pipelines. It involves the use of various tools and machinery, such as shovels, excavators,
bulldozers, and backhoes, depending on the scale and nature of the project. Excavation is a crucial step in
archaeology, construction, mining, and civil engineering projects.

Timbering typically refers to the process of supporting the walls, ceilings, or sides of an underground excavation or
trench with timber supports. It's a common technique in construction and mining to prevent collapse and ensure
worker safety. Timbering can also refer to the use of timber in construction, particularly in framing or supporting
structures. Additionally, in forestry, timbering refers to the process of harvesting trees for lumber or other wood
products.