Prepared by tds

Learning Objectives

At the end of the lesson the students will be able to :

➢ Admire nervous system as the control and coordinating centre of the body.
➢ Learn the components of the nervous system.
➢ Analyse the transmission of nerve impulses.
➢ Understand the divisions of human nervous system.
➢ Interpret the different sections of brain which handle different functions.
➢ Know the significance of reflex action and its operative pathway.
 Introduction

One of the characteristic features of all

living organisms is responding to stimuli. ‘Stimulus’ refers to the
changes in the environmental condition, that are detected by
receptors present in the body. Relevant changes in the activities of
organisms to a particular stimuli are called their reactions or
responses. Living organisms show their response to different kinds
of stimuli like light, heat, cold, sound, smell, taste, touch,
pressure, pain or the force of gravity etc. For example, withdrawal
of hand when we touch hot objects or closing the eyes when
flashed with bright light, in this condition heat or light is the
stimulus to which the body shows its response. Thus, on receiving
a stimulus, the body responds in a manner that is most
appropriate for its survival and functioning.
 To provide the correct response to a stimulus, it is
necessary that all the organs work together in a proper
coordinated manner. This working together of various organs in a
systematic, controlled and efficient way to produce proper
response to various stimuli is called coordination. In animals
including human the coordination between the various cells and
organs is essential for their diverse activities to maintain
physiological balance called homeostasis. In this unit we shall
learn about one of the major regulatory systems the nervous
system and its control over the body activities.
 Nervous System

The nervous system is made up of nervous tissues. It is formed of

three distinct components namely the neurons, neuroglia and nerve fibres.

Neuron or nerve cell: A neuron or nerve cell is the structural and functional
unit of the nervous system. It is the longest cell of the human body with a
length of over 100mm. These cells are highly specialised to detect, receive and
transmit different kinds of stimuli. Information is conducted through neurons
in the form of electrical impulses from one part of the body to another.

Neuroglia: Neuroglia are also called as glial cells. They are non-exciting,
supporting cell of the nervous system. They do not initiate or conduct nerve
impulses.

Nerve fibres: The nerve fibres are the long slender processes of neurons. A
number of nerve fibres are bundled up together to form nerves.
 Structure of Neuron
A neuron typically consists of three basic parts: Cyton,
Dendrites and Axon.
Cyton: Cyton is also called cell body or perikaryon. It has a
central nucleus with abundant cytoplasm called
neuroplasm. The cytoplasm has large granular body called
Nissl’s granules and the other cell organelles like
mitochondria, ribosomes, lysosomes, and endoplasmic Structure of Neuron
recticulum. Neurons do not have the ability to divide.
Several neurofibrils are present in the cytoplasm that help
in transmission of nerve impulses to and from the cell
body.
Dendrites: These are the numerous branched cytoplasmic
processes that project from the surface of the cell body.
They conduct nerve impulses towards the cyton. The
branched projections increase the surface area for
receiving the signals from other nerve cells.
Axon: The axon is a single, elongated, slender projection. The end
of axon terminates as fine branches which terminate into knob like
swellings called synaptic knob. The plasma membrane of axon is
called axolemma, while the cytoplasm is called axoplasm. It carries
impulses away from the cyton. The axons may be covered by a
protective sheath called myelin sheath which is further covered by
a layer of Schwann cells called neurilemma. Myelin sheath breaks
at intervals by depressions called Nodes of Ranvier. The region
between the nodes is called as internode. Myelin sheath acts as
insulator and ensures rapid transmission of nerve impulses.

Synapse: A junction between synaptic knob of axon of one neuron

and dendron of next neuron is called synaptic junction. Information
from one neuron can pass to another neuron through these
junctions with the release of chemicals known as neurotransmitters
from the synaptic knob.
 Types of Neurons

The neurons may be of different types based on their structure and functions.

Unipolar

multipolar

Bipolar
➢ Unipolar neurons: Only one nerve
process arises from the cyton
which acts as both axon and
dendron.

➢ Bipolar neurons: The cyton gives

rise to two nerve processes of
which one acts as an axon while
another as a dendron.

➢ Multipolar neurons: The cyton

gives rise to many dendrons and an
axon
 On the basis of functions neurons are categorised as:-
❖ Sensory or afferent neurons which carry impulses from the sense
organ to the central nervous system.
❖ Motor or efferent neurons which carry impulses from the central
nervous system to effector organ such as the muscle fibre or the
gland.
❖ Association neurons conduct impulses between sensory and motor
neurons.

Types of Nerve Fibres

Nerve fibres are of two types based on the presence or absence of
myelin sheath.
(i) Myelinated nerve fibre: The axon is covered with myelin sheath
(ii) Non-myelinated nerve fibre: The axon is not covered by myelin
sheath.

Myelinated and non-myelinated nerve fibres form the white matter

and grey matter of the brain.
 Transmission of Nerve Impulse

All the information from the environment are detected by the

receptors located in our sense organs such as the eyes, the nose, the skin etc.
Information from the receptors is transmitted as electrical impulse and is
received by the dendritic tips of the neuron. This impulse travels from the
dendrite to the cell body and then along the axon to its terminal end. On
reaching the axonal end, it causes the nerve endings to release a chemical
(neurotransmitter) which diffuses across a synapse and starts a similar
electrical impulse in the dendrites of the next neuron, then to their cell body to
be carried along the axon.

In this way, the electrical signal reaches the brain or spinal cord.
The response from brain (or spinal cord) is similarly passed on to the effector
organs such as the muscle or gland cell, that undergoes the desired response.
 The flow of nerve impulses from
axonal end of one neuron to dendrite of Nerve impulse transmission
another neuron through a synapse is called
synaptic transmission.

Each neuron can transmit 1,000 nerve

impulses per second and make as many as
ten thousands of synaptic contacts with other
neurons.
Neurotransmitters
Neurotransmitters are the chemicals
which allow the transmission of nerve
impulse from the axon terminal of one
neuron to the dendron of another neuron or
to an effector organ. The important
neurotransmitter released by neurons is
called Acetylcholine.
 Human Nervous System

The complexity of nervous system can be

observed during the course of evolution. We the human beings
differ from other animals in our ability to think and take
actions, which is due to the well developed nervous system.
Human nervous system is differentiated into central nervous
system (CNS), peripheral nervous system (PNS) and autonomic
nervous system (ANS).

The CNS acts as centre for information processing and

control. It consists of the brain and the spinal cord. The PNS is
made up of the nerves which connect the brain and spinal cord
to all parts of the body. The ANS is formed of sympathetic and
parasympathetic nerves.
 Central Nervous System
The brain and the spinal cord being delicate vital
structures are well protected in bony cavities of the skull and
the vertebral column respectively. CNS is formed of two types
of matter such as white matter or grey matter with respect to
the presence or absence of myelin sheath which we have
discussed earlier.
The brain is the controlling centre of all the body
activities. It is covered by three connective tissue membrane
or meninges :
(i) Duramater (dura: tough; mater: membrane)is the
outermost thick fibrous membrane
(ii) Arachnoid membrane (arachnoid: spider) is the middle,
thin vascular membrane providing web like cushion
(iii) Piamater (Pia: soft or tender) is the innermost, thin
delicate membrane richly supplied with blood. Meninges of Brain
Meningeal membranes protect the brain from
mechanical injury.
Meningitis is an inflammation of the meninges.
It can occur when fluid surrounding the meninges
becomes infected. The most common causes of
meningitis are viral and bacterial infections.
A human brain is formed of three main parts:
(a) forebrain (b) midbrain and (c) hindbrain.

Forebrain: The forebrain is formed of cerebrum

and diencephalon. The latter consists of dorsal
thalamus and ventral hypothalamus.

Cerebrum
It is the largest portion forming nearly two-third of the
brain. The cerebrum is longitudinally divided into two halves as right and
left cerebral hemispheres by a deep cleft called median cleft. Two cerebral
hemispheres are interconnected by thick band of nerve fibres called corpus
callosum.
 The outer portion of each cerebral hemisphere is formed of grey
matter and is called cerebral cortex. The inner or deeper part is formed of white
matter and is called cerebral medulla. The cortex is extremely folded forming
elevations called gyri with depressions between them termed as sulci that
increase its surface area.

Each cerebral hemisphere is divisble into a frontal lobe, a parietal

lobe, a temporal lobe and an occipital lobe. These lobes are also known as
cerebral lobes and are associated with specific functions. Any damage in
specific lobe inturn affects its function.
The cerebrum is responsible for the thinking, intelligence,
consciousness, memory, imagination, reasoning and willpower.

Thalamus
Thalamus present in cerebral medulla is a major conducting centre for sensory
and motor signalling. It acts as a relay centre.
 Hypothalamus
It lies at the base of the thalamus. It controls involuntary functions like hunger, thirst,
sleep, sweating, sexual desire, anger, fear, water balance, blood pressure etc. It acts as
a thermoregulatory (temperature control) center of the body. It controls the secretion
of hormones from anterior pituitary gland and is an important link between nervous
system and endocrine system.

Midbrain
It is located between thalamus and hind brain. The dorsal portion of the mid brain
consists of four rounded bodies called corpora quadrigemina that control visual and
auditory (hearing) reflexes.
Hindbrain
It is formed of three parts cerebellum, pons and medulla oblongata.

The human brain constitutes nearly 60 percent of fat. The most crucial
molecules that determine our brain’s integrity and the ability are Essential Fatty Acids
(EFAs). EFAs cannot be synthesised and must be obtained from food. Fish, green leafy
vegetables, almond, walnut are rich sources of EFAs.
 Cerebellum
It is second largest part of the brain formed of two
large sized hemispheres and middle vermis. It
coordinates voluntary movements and also
maintains body balance.
Pons
‘Pons’ a latin word meaning bridge. It is a bridge of
nerve fibre that connects the lobes of cerebellum. It
relay signals between the cerebellum, spinal cord,
midbrain and cerebrum. It controls respiration and
sleep cycle.
Medulla Oblongata
Medulla oblongata is the posterior most part of the
brain that connects spinal cord and various parts of
brain. It has cardiac centres, respiratory centres,
vasomotor centres to control heart beat, respiration
and contractions of blood vessels respectively. It also
regulates vomiting and salivation.
 Spinal Cord
Spinal cord is a cylindrical structure lying in the
neural canal of the vertebral column. It is also covered by
meninges. It extends from the lower end of medulla
oblongata to the first lumbar vertebra. The posterior most
region of spinal cord tapers into a thin fibrous thread like
structure called filum terminale.
Internally, the spinal cord contains a cerebrospinal
fluid filled cavity known as the central canal. The grey
matter of spinal cord is ‘H’ shaped. The upper end of letter
‘H” forms posterior horns and lower end forms anterior
horns. A bundle of fibres pass into the posterior horn
forming dorsal or afferent root. Fibres pass outward from
the anterior horn forming ventral or efferent root. These
two roots joins to form spinal nerves. The white matter is
Structure of spinal cord
external and have bundle of nerve tracts. Spinal cord
conducts sensory and motor impulses to and from the
brain. It controls reflex actions of the body.
 Electroencephalogram (EEG) is an instrument which records the
electrical impulses of brain. An EEG can detect abnormalities in the brain
waves and help in diagnoses of seizures, epilepsy, brain tumors, head
injuries,etc.

Cerebrospinal Fluid
The brain is suspended in a special fluid environment called
cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). It is lymph like, watery fluid that surrounds and
protects the brain within the skull. It also fills the central canal of the
spinal cord. Functions:

➢ It acts as shock absorbing fluid and protects the brain from damage
when it is subjected to sudden jerk.
➢ It supplies nutrients to the brain.
➢ It collects and removes wastes from the brain.
➢ It is also responsible for maintaining a constant pressure inside the
cranium.
 Reflex Action

A reflex is any response that occurs automatically without

consciouness. There are two types of reflexes.

(i) Simple or basic reflexes: These reflexes are inbuilt and unlearned
responses. Many of the actions we perform in our day to day life
are simple reflexes. e.g., winking of eyes when any dust particles
enters, sneezing, coughing, yawning, etc. We perform these
actions without thinking.

(ii) Acquired or conditioned reflexes: These reflexes are the result of

practice and learning. Playing harmonium by striking a particular key
on seeing a music note is an example of conditioned reflexes which
required conscious training effort. Can you think of some more
examples of conditioned reflexes?
Most of the reflex actions are monitored and controlled by the spinal
cord, hence also known as spinal reflexes.
 The pathway taken by nerve impulse to accomplish
reflex action is called reflex arc. Now, let us understand how the
body executes reflex action when we touch a hot plate.
➢ When we touch a very hot pan, the stimulus is the heat
which is sensed by receptor called as heat receptors or
thermoreceptors in our hand. This stimulus (heat) inturn
triggers an impulse in sensory neuron.
➢ The sensory neuron transmits or conveys the message to the
spinal cord.
➢ Spinal cord interprets the stimulus and the impulse is passed
on to the relay neuron which inturn transmits it to a motor
neuron.
➢ Motor neurons carry command from spinal cord to our arm.
Reflex action and its pathway
➢ Muscle in our arm contracts and we withdraw our hand
immediately from the pan.
In this example, muscle is an effector organ which has
responded to the heat. You will study in higher classes how the
neuronal impulse triggers the muscular movement.
 Peripheral Nervous System
Peripheral nervous system is formed by the nerves arising from the
brain and the spinal cord. The nerves arising from the brain are called cranial
nerves. Nerves arising from spinal cord are called spinal nerves.
Cranial Nerves
In man, there are 12 pairs of cranial nerves. Some of the cranial nerves
are sensory e.g. optic nerve which innervates the eye. Some are motor nerves
which helps in rotation of eyeball. It also innervates the eye muscles, muscles of
iris and tear gland.
Spinal Nerves
There are 31 pairs of spinal nerves. Each spinal nerve has a dorsal
sensory root and the ventral motor root. The direction of impulses in dorsal
spinal root is towards the spinal cord and in ventral spinal root away from the
spinal cord.
 Autonomic Nervous System
Autonomic nervous system
(ANS) is also called as visceral nervous
system as it regulates the function of
internal visceral organs of our body
through its two antagonistic (opposite)
components sympathetic and
parasympathetic systems. They enable
the body to perform rapid and specific
visceral activities in order to maintain
steady state. It controls the involuntary
functions of the visceral organs. Sympathetic and
Parasympathetic nervous
system

Thank u Subbiah palaniyandi