D.N. Jha. Ancient India in Historical Outline. 3rd Ed.

New Delhi, IN: Manohar Publishers & Distributors,

2015, 238p., ISBN 978-93-5098-075-0.

Ancient India was one of the great four original Eurasian centres of
civilisation, birthplace of three world religions and had a long and fruitful Matthew G. Marsh
connection with the Near East. Beginning with the trading connections University of North Dakota
arising between the Early Dynastic Sumerian city-states and the Harappan [email protected]
Civilisation along the Indus River in the mid-to-late 3rd Millennium B.C. to
the international contacts between the Gupta Empire and the rest of Eurasia,
India was a longstanding presence in the Ancient World. However, despite
the culturally rich and politically dynamic civilisations which arose in Ancient
India, it is frequently only mentioned in passing, or in reference to Alexander
the Great. A gap such as this in Near Eastern studies makes works like the one
under review exceedingly helpful in introducing students in Ancient History
or World History courses to a complex and dynamic civilisation.
D. N. Jha is former Professor of History at the University of New
Delhi, and is the author of Revenue System in Post-Mauryan and Gupta Times,
Economy and Society in Early India, The Myth of the Holy Cow, Early India,
Rethinking Hindu Identity, and Against the Grain: Notes on Identity, Intolerance
and History.1 He is also the editor of several works, most recently two volumes
of essays in honour of the late R. S. Sharma.2 Ancient India in Historical Outline
was originally published in 1977. It was then revised and re-written for a
second edition in 1998, which would be reprinted nineteen times. With this
third edition Jha has made some minor emendations and added an epilogue
focusing “on the contact of ancient India with the outside world, and on
those developments which influence our life and thought in modern times.”3
Aiming this work at the general reader, and presumably undergraduate
students, Jha takes a chronological approach to the history of Ancient India.
He divides his work into eight chapters: Introduction, From Prehistory to the
Harappan Civilization, The Aryans and the Vedic Life, The Material Background
of Religious Dissent: Janism and Buddhism, The First Territorial States, The First
Empire, Invasions, Trade and Culture c. 200 BC-AD 300, and The Myth of the
Golden Age. An extensive epilogue follows these chapters, looking at India’s
cultural contacts with the outside world, and the long-term legacy of Ancient
India. Rounding out the book are a twenty page annotated bibliography and
DOI: 10.14795/j.v5i4.350
the index.
In Chapter 1: Introduction Jha sets out to provide a compact, yet ISSN 2360 – 266X
informative, look at the growth of modern historiography in India. Beginning ISSN–L 2360 – 266X
with the early European contacts during the later period of the Mughul
Empire Jha traces the evolution of historical approaches to Indian history.
He emphasises that the foundations of Indology laid by the officers of the
East India Company as they sought to understand and gain familiarity with
the history, laws, and customs of India. Their efforts, and the translations of
1
JHA 1967; JHA 1993; JHA 2002; JHA 2004, JHA 2009 & JHA 2018.
2
The Complex Heritage of Early India: Essays in Memory of R.S. Sharma and The Evolution of a
Nation Pre-colonial to Post-colonial: Essays in Memory of R.S. Sharma.
3
JHA 2015 11.

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 Reviews
Indian writings they began, would give rise to the study of Harappan civilisation to be based on the material remains
Ancient India at European universities. While Orientalists found at the numerous archaeological sites. Techonologically
thought highly, if inaccurately, of India, this view would advanced the Harappans practised bronze metalworking,
increasingly come to be displaced by the Utilitarian/Christian textile manufacture, brick manufacturing (used to make the
missionary intellectual establishment in Europe. This massive brick structures that characterise Harappan cities),
establishment saw India in a highly critical light, and their and wheel-turned mass-produced pottery. Harappans appear
interpretation of Indian history would dominate scholarship to have used some form of irrigation to water their crops
for nearly a century. John Mills work History of India would due to the large-scale nature of agricultural production.
be the dominant introductory work to India for decades, While agricultural production varied at the different
and required reading for British officers and administrators Harappan sites, types of peas, varieties of wheat and barley,
headed to India. Mills work characterised India as ‘barbarous and other crops have been found. The Harappans also
and anti-rational’ and its society as one that was stagnant processed extensive trade networks throughout southwest
and unchanging. It is this view that would permeate into Asia, from which they procured the raw materials needed
the works of the British administrator/historians of the for producing finished goods. In addition to their contacts
late 19th and early 20th century. Jha emphasises that these with South India, Afghanistan, and Central Asia, land and
British historians frequently wrote with a view of justifying sea routes connected the Harappans with the city-states of
British rule in India. However, in the early 20th century this Mesopotamia in the Early Dynastic and Akkadian periods.5
historiographical interpretation would come to be challenged Here, references in Sumerian & Akkadian literature to ships
by Indian reformers and nationalists, ultimately leading this from Meleha are linked to Harappan India, while Harappan
wave of scholarship to become highly anti-imperialistic. seals and artefacts have been found at several Mesopotamian
Seeking to refute the image of Ancient India constructed sites. At this point, Jha turns to the puzzling question of the
by the British historians, and build a national self-respect, decline and fall of the Harappan civilisation. He notes that
Indian Nationalist historians came to regard the period as the consensus is that decline seems to have set in by about
an era of prosperity and contentment. At the same time they 2000BC, when urban settlements began to shrink and decay,
also began to make aspects of ancient Indian political thought while the cities themselves appear to be completely deserted
and practise equate to the modern legislation and reforms of by 1800BC. Reasons for the Harappan collapse include large-
the European states. With this also came a glorification by scale changes in the courses of the Indus and its tributary
some historians of a “Hindu India,” in which the composite rivers, catastrophic flooding leading to population pressures
character of Indian culture, or the fact that a large number of on the cities, iridisation of agricultural lands, and possibly
major dynasties were not of Hindu religious avocation, were military confrontation with ‘barbarian tribes.’
ignored in favour of a mythical idealised view of India. The Chapter 3: The Aryans and the Vedic Life
final strand of historiographic tradition involves the debate After briefly looking at the main sources for the Vedic
over periodisation and expansion of history to include greater period, the Vedas, Jha moves to a discussion of the initial
attention to socio-economic and cultural factors linked with Indo-Aryan settlement. Far from being an instantaneous
political change. Jha holds the late D. D. Kosambi’s two massive invasion of India the settlement was a long, slow
books on Ancient India, with their sophisticated adaptation process, taking several centuries. Initial settlements were
of Marxist historical interpretation, to be some of the most founded in eastern Afghanistan, the Panjab, and the western
influential work on this historiographic trend. Holding Uttar Pradesh, otherwise known as the land of the seven
to the periodisation established by Kosambi, Jha puts the rivers. Only in the Later Vedic period (1000-600BC) did
boundary between Ancient and Mediaeval India at the end settlement and conquest extended into the Gangetic river
of the 6th century, not AD 1200 as has been in the past. valley. Frequently Indo-Aryans found their occupation
With Chapter 2: From Prehistory to the Harappan contested by the indigenous inhabitants of India. For these
Civilisation Jha begins his inquiry into Ancient India, launching natives the arrival and conquest by the Indo-Aryans meant a
into a quick overview of the Palaeolithic and Chalcolithic reversion to a more primitive way of life. Far from being an
settlements in India. Using archaeological evidence Jha advanced civilisation, the Indo-Aryans were semi-nomadic
provides a snapshot view of settlement and society during pastoralists whose only technological innovations were
these periods, in which the major innovation would be the chariot and bronze technology, and were known for
the beginnings of metalworking (originally just copper) to their destruction of towns and cities. Originally the Vedic
make tools. These Chalcolithic settlements were primarily peoples were cattle raisers who practised a mixed pastoral
rural in nature, held domesticated animals, and had begun and agricultural economy. Jha notes that while cattle formed
cultivating cereal crops. Jha emphasises that Chalcolithic the basis of wealth for the Vedic peoples, they were not yet
settlements in India have an extremely long chronological considered sacred and were regularly sacrificed or used as
timespan that in some cases overlays or post-dates the more food. Vedic political and administrative traditions were quite
technologically advanced Harappan civilisation. From here, limited. Kingship appears to have mostly been equal to a
Jha shifts towards greater detail as he discusses the Indus tribal chieftainship, while tribal assemblies acted as a check
River or Harappan civilisation. He notes that while more on their power. Initially society in the period structured
than 2,000 seals have been found bearing Harappan script on itself around a three-way division into warriors (Kshatriya),
them, the script itself has not been successfully deciphered
claiming to have deciphered the script.
yet.4 This leaves our understanding and interpretation of the 5
For a concise introduction to 3rd millennia Sumer & Akkad see ARNOLD
4
Though this has not stopped numerous books from being published 2004, 17-33.

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Reviews
priests (Brahmana), and commoners (Vaishya). As Vedic Jha moves from religious to political developments
conquests expanded into Northern India a fourth class, with this chapter, discussing the growth of the Majanapadas
the Shudras, appears to have emerged from the conquered (large states) who dominated 6th- 4th century BC India. While
tribes incorporated. These social divisions would later be Jha notes that even at the end of the Later Vedic period
given religious sanction, laying the foundation for the historians can begin to see a shift from tribal organisation
practise of Varna or caste distinctions. While the initial Vedic to territorial state, this process rapid accelerated after the 6th
settlements were in the Indus river valley, by the later Vedic century BC. While Jha very briefly runs through all sixteen
period (1000-600BC) their population was pushing into the states, his main focus will be on the state of Magadha in
Ganges river valley, as indicated by finds of ‘Painted Grey- the Gangetic basin as it will become the political centre of
ware pottery’ throughout the region. With the shift east the North India. Last and most important of the Magadhan
Vedic economy began its move from one primarily pastoral, dynasties were the Nanda, who are sometimes credited
to one primarily agricultural in origin. Agricultural surplus with overthrowing all other contemporary royal houses
in term prompted an expansion in crafts, technologies, and and incorporating them into the Magadhan state. Jha
urbanisation. As Vedic life became more settled the social emphasises the favourable geographic and climatic position
norms associated with the Varna system became more of Magadha, along with the rich mineral deposits as a key
crystallised, strengthening the power of the Brahmana and factor in their success. Nanda expansion coincided with
Kshatriya classes at the expense of the lower orders. Alexander II of Macedon’s conquest of the Achaemenid
Chapter 4: Material Background of Religious Dissent empire and his subsequent campaign into the Indus region
In the first portion of this chapter, Jha examines of Northwest India. While in the long-term Alexander’s
the expansion of a more complex economy and society in conquest reconnected India to external trade routes, in the
the Later Vedic (1000-600BC) world, positing its growth short-term his invasion destroyed or forced the consolidation
provided a foundation for Jain and Buddhist religious of the tribes and small states of the North-West. Ultimately,
development. Using archaeological data, Jha stresses that this power vacuum would be exploited by the first of the
the growth evident in trade, farming, and the expansion Mauryan Emperor’s, Chandragupta, when he began building
of towns caused economic surpluses to develop, allowing his state. Jha then briefly looks at a curious feature of early
for diversification in arts and crafts. At the same time, Jha Indian statehood, the republics found particularly in the
highlights the fact that the rise of a new wealthy class had long Panjab and Himalayan foothills. Emphasising the corporate
lasting effects on Vedic society, causing a rise in inequalities nature of these states Jha sees them less as republics, and
to develop. These developments also helped to end tribal more as undemocratic oligarchies.
notions of kinship and reinforce the fourfold division of Chapter 6: The First Empire is exclusively devoted
society. Conflict between Vedic religious practises, with their to the Mauryan Empire, the first and largest of the Indian
emphasis on animal sacrifices (particularly cattle), and the empires. While Jha provides a sketch overview of the
new social groups were responsible in part for the emergence reigns of Chandragupta, Bindusara, and Asoka Maurya, his
of new religious and philosophical ideas during this period. primary focus is on how the Mauryan state functioned. He
Moving from economics to religion Jha briefly sketches the emphasises that Mauryan political supremacy was obtained
beginnings of the two major alternative sects to appear out and maintained due to the enormous army, given as 400,000-
of 6th century India: Jainism and Buddhism. Turning first to 600,000 in sources, the Mauryan emperors were able to field.
the Jains, Jha provides a brief synopsis of Jine Mahavisa’s Administratively the Mauryan emperors divided their state
life and the core Jain beliefs. He notes that the concept of into a number of provinces carefully regulated at national,
God is nearly irrelevant to Jainism. Instead, the sole focus of provincial, and local levels of government. With the need
life is the purification of the soul through fasting, rigorous to support such as large army the Mauryan state became
practise of non-violence, truth etc. Jains were not only incredibly centralised, taking control of and regulating many
forbidden to wage war, but also to farm, something that of the crafts and industries to make a profit. Jha looks at
would lead Jains to become involved in trade and mercantile how the main Indian source for the period, Kautilya, seems
endeavours. Moving onto Buddhism, Jha again provides to reinforce the image of an all-powerful state, though he
a brief synopsis of Siddhartha’s life before discussing cautions that in reality actual control will have varied by
the ashtangamarga or eight-fold path towards achieving region. Also noted is the persistent tension between the
salvation, regardless of social origin or birth. From here Vedic, Jain, and Buddhist sects, a fact Jha sees as a possible
common features of Jainism and Buddhism are discussed, reason for Asoka Maurya to promote his policy of dhamma.
such as their austerity, opposition to animal sacrifice, and Dhamma, from dharma in Sanskrit, appears to have been
their denial of Vedic authority that that brought both an ethical code to build up a social responsibility in the
religions into conflict with the Brahmana class. Buddhism Mauryan population, including measures relating to social
in particular with its moderate emphasis on ahimasa (non- welfare. Asoka inscribed his Dhamma principles on several
injury of animals) showed awareness of cattle’s importance rocks and pillars throughout the Mauryan Empire, often in
in agricultural cultivation. While neither religion sought to the local language of the province. In his examination of the
abolish the Varna caste system, they adapted a much more decline and fall of the Mauryan Empire Jha puts most of his
liberal attitude towards the lower orders, and certainly emphasis on economic reasons for the collapse, rather than
did not proscribe their ability to gain knowledge, as the military or political reasons.
Brahmana were wont to do. Chapter 7: Invasions, Trade and Culture 200BC-
Chapter 5: First Territorial States AD300 represents the longest chapter of Ancient India as

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 Reviews
Jha pulls together a number of elements across a broad (binding peasants to their land) emerged and increased.
chronological period. He explores the complicated political Jha notes that the period also saw a decline in long-distance
history of the period first by looking at the immediate trade, particularly with the West. In turn this led to a
successors to the Maurya, the Shunga, followed briefly by shrinking of the coastal towns, and a reduction in population
a succession of tribal states. However, the most important movement within the Gupta Empire. While urban centres
political development Jha sees in the period is the repeated did not disappear altogether, their size and wealth shrunk
movement of people across the Hindu Kush mountains into considerably. The Varna caste system seems to have
Northwest India, as it promoted active interaction with the expanded dramatically with a massive increase in Shudra and
outside world and presented new cultural elements that untouchable caste members. Pronounced distinctions in the
added ‘new dimensions’ to Indian culture. First of these social/economic treatment of different castes became much
movements were the Indo-Greeks, originally based out more rigid and unyielding. Overall Jha sees the Gupta period
of Bactria, who overran much of Northwest India in the as one primarily of decline, and a transition to the primarily
early 2nd century BC. Followed by the Saka, and the Indo- feudal period of the 6th – 12th centuries. Jha takes especial
Parthians, the most important movement was that of the aim at Indian historians who see the Gupta period as a sort of
Kushana in the early 1st century AD. Under rulers such as Pax Guptana of Indian history, a Hindu renaissance. Instead
Kadphises and Kanishka the Kushana incorporated not of a renaissance, the Gupta period was one of economic
only Northwest India, but most of the Gangetic valley, decline, social stratification, and political decentralisation.
into a large polity based in Central Asia. At its height, the The Epilogue represents what is essentially an all-
borders of the Kushan Empire stretched not only from the new chapter for the book. Here Jha explores first the
Arsacid Empire in Iran, but also to the Eastern Han Empire cultural contacts between both West and East Asia. While
of China. Kushan rulers converted to Buddhism and were discussing the impact of the Achaemenids, Alexander, and
responsible for Buddhist missions journeying to Central the wide-ranging contacts during the Mauryan Empire, most
Asia and China. On the economic side, Jha highlights the of his coverage is reserved for the Kushana. Jha effectively
thriving trade that existed between Indian and the Western emphasises the two-way cultural contacts between India
world through overland and seaborne trade routes. He also and the Kushana, particularly their role in transmitting
sees the expanding trade as being connected to the growth Buddhism to Central Asia and China. The bulk of the epilogue
of a monetary economy in India, as the archaeological record is concerned with the legacy of Ancient India. Taking a
reveals varying denominations of coinage being used in thematic approach Jha looks at a wide range of cultural,
day-to-day transactions. Following this Jha examines the religious, technological, and philosophical contributions
main religious developments of the Post-Mauryan era. This made to Indian society during the Ancient period. In
era saw the definite split of Buddhism into two different particular, Jha’s discussion of the Philosophical, and the
strands: the more orthodox Hirayana (Lesser Vehicle), and Mathematics & Science contributions of Ancient India are
the Mahayana (Greater Vehicle) which dominated in India lucid and concise syntheses.
and Central Asia. A hallmark of the Mahayana was the Ancient India is a compact work, and given the
evolution of the Buddha from a religious teacher to a mighty chronological span of time covered it is natural that there
spiritual being through the Bodhisattva doctrine. Within would be areas that could have received greater coverage.
the Vedic tradition, due to the attacks of Buddhism and In particular, the following are a few points the review
Jainism, the period saw the assimilation of several popular wishes Jha devoted greater coverage. In Chapter 1 while Jha
cults, leading to several important changes in beliefs. Not provides an excellent introduction to roots of Indology, and
the least of these was the emergence of Brahma, Vishnu, and the historiographical roots of the British administrator/
Shiva as the three principle deities of Brahmanical pantheon. historians of the late 19th and early 20th centuries, his
Another innovation was the shift in attitude towards cattle discussion falters ironically with the emergence of a Marxist
as they went from favourite sacrifice to sacred animal during interpretation of Indian history. While D.D. Kosambi
the Post-Mauryan period. was indeed the pioneer of Indian Marxist interpretation
With Chapter 8: Myth of the Golden Age Jha examines of Ancient India, Jha overlooks that long influence and
the Gupta period of Ancient India, roughly stretching from impact of fellow Marxist R.S. Sharma (Ram Saran Sharma).
the 4th – 6th centuries AD. After a very quick sprint through Sharma’s work, frequently updated and revised based upon
the political history of the Gupta dynasty, Jha begins new research, spans a fifty-year period, and he had a great
looking at administration and society of the Gupta Empire. impact on younger scholars. In his coverage of the Harappan
He highlights that, in contrast with the Mauryan Empire, Civilisation in Chapter 2 Jha only obliquely references
the Gupta did not seem to have a large professional army. the controversy over some Hindu revivalist historians
Instead, they relied, to a great extent, on the military forces attempting to set the centre of Harappan civilisation on the
of the feudatory states who were vassals of the Gupta. elusive Sarasvati river, which just so happens to be located in
In addition to a smaller army, the Gupta administration India not Pakistan. Assertions that the Harappan civilisation
was far less centralised than the Maurya. Indeed, over the was in fact Indo-Aryan have also been made, attempting
lifetime of the empire, administration throughout the Gupta to make Vedic civilisation native to India, provides an
polity began to decentralise as extensive land grants to additional element to this controversy that Jha does not
priests, royal officials, and feudatories transferred portions discuss. In Chapter 4 the reviewer wishes that Jha had spent
of Imperial authority with the grants. While slavery as an greater space discussing the religious beliefs of Jainism
institution weakened during the Gupta period, serfdom and Buddhism, since as they stand the discussion is rather

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Reviews
sketchy and incomplete. While Jha provides some brief Krishna Mohan Shrimali. The Age of Iron and the
coverage of the Ancient Indian republics in Chapter 5, greater Religious Revolution. 6th Ed. New Delhi: Tulika Books, 2016.
discussion of these non-monarchical governments would Irfan Habib & Vivekanand Jha. Mauryan India. 7th Ed.
have been appreciated rather than simple denunciations New Delhi: Tulika Books, 2015.
that they were not democratic republics. While Jha does not Irfan Habib. Post-Mauryan India 200BC-AD300. New
in the introduction that he is not primarily concerned with Delhi: Tulia Books, 2012.
political history, the coverage of political events in Chapters Bhairabi Prasad Sahu & Kesavan Veluthat. Society and
6- 8 is extremely perfunctory and does not truly provide Culture in Post-Mauryan India c. 200BC-AD300. New Delhi:
enough context for the administrative and economic analysis Tulika Books, 2015.
that follows. While ten-fold-out maps have been provided, A.K. Majumdar. A Concise History of Ancient India. 3
the towns and regions referenced in the particular chapter Volumes. 2nd Ed. New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal, 1992.
the map is located frequently do not correspond with those Though not published after 1998, Majumdar’s. work is a
shown on the map. Additionally, the inclusion of modern- frequently overlooked and extremely comprehensive work,
day national boundaries is particularly unhelpful, a several divided into three volumes on history, administration &
of the maps appear to be somewhat crude redrawing of maps economic life, and Hinduism.
from An Historical Atlas of the Indian Peninsula, and the map J.L. Mehta & Sarita Mehta. History of Ancient India
on Trade routes is effectively unreadable due to the level of (From the Earliest Times to 1206 AD). New Delhi: Lotus Press,
detail.6 The largest problem though with Ancient India is the 2013. Though not based on the most recent scholarship,
fact that this 3rd edition is essentially the 2nd edition with a this book is a lucid, balanced interpretation of the past that
new epilogue. Any emendations Jha made are minor, leaving provides ample coverage to social and economic history, as
the text practically unaltered from the 1998 publication and well as political.
a bibliography that has not been updated. This is particularly R.S. Sharma. Rethinking India’s Past. New Delhi:
frustrating because Jha revised substantial parts of these Oxford University Press, 2009. A thematic approach to
chapters for publication in Early India: A Concise History in specific concepts, models, or frameworks used in interpreting
2004.7 While this does not mean the Ancient India cannot Ancient India.
be read with profit, it does mean that its utility has been R.S. Sharma. India’s Ancient Past. New Delhi: Oxford
superseded by newer publications that came out after the 2nd University Press, 2005. A chronological synthesis of Ancient
edition in 1998. In particular, R.S. Sharma’s India’s Ancient Indian history by one of the great Indian historians of the
Past covers much the same period, but in greater detail and late 20th century. Readable, concise and well laid out Sharma
in some places greater clarity. provides the best concise introduction to Ancient India.
On the whole, this is a good introduction to ancient Romilia Thapar. Early India: From the Origins to AD
Indian history. Inexpensive, well-bound, and quite readable 1300. Berkley, CA: University of California Press, 2002.
it would provide a good supplement to an Ancient History or The second edition of a work originally published in 1961.
World History course. However, the decision to not update Thapar shortened the chronological span of the book, while
the text from the 2nd edition is disappointing and reduces the expanding and rewriting the entirety. An important work.
utility of the book. Recommended with qualifications.
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APPENDIX I: ADDITIONAL WORKS ARNOLD 2004
ON ANCIENT INDIA Arnold, B. Who Were the Babylonians? (Atlanta: Society of
The following is a short selective list of works Biblical Literature.)
COLLIN DAVIES 1959.
published since 1998 that provide an introduction to all, or
Collin Davies, C. An Historical Atlas of the Indian Peninsula.
specific periods, of Ancient India. 2nd Ed. (New Delhi: Oxford University Press.)
P. N. Chopra, B. N. Puri, M.N. Das, A. C. Pradhan. A JHA 2018
Comprehensive History of Ancient India. New Delhi: Sterling Jha, D.N. Against the Grain: Notes on Identity, Intolerance and
Publishers Private Limited, 2003. Well written, clearly laid History. (New Delhi: Manohar Publishers)
out textbook. JHA 2015
A People’s History of India – General Editor: Irfan Jha, D.N. Ancient India in Historical Outline. 3rd Ed. (New
Habib. Important new ongoing series that looks to cover Delhi: Manohar Publishers.)
the entireity of Indian history. These volumes are clear, JHA 2009
Jha, D.N. Rethinking Hindu Identity. (London: Equinox
concise, and perfect introduction to specific periods for
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undergraduate students. JHA 2004
Irfan Habib. Prehistory. 9th Ed. New Delhi: Tulika Jha, D.N. Early India: A Concise History. (New Delhi:
Books, 2012. Manohar Publishers.)
Irfan Habib. The Indus Civilization. 9th Ed. New Delhi: JHA 2002
Tulika Books, 2015. Jha, D.N. The Myth of the Holy Cow. (London: Verso)
Irfan Habib & Vijay Kumar Thakur. The Vedic Age. 8th JHA 1998
Ed. New Delhi: Tulika Books, 2016. Jha, D.N. Ancient India in Historical Outline. 2nd Ed. (New
Delhi: Manohar Publishers)
6 COLLIN DAVIES 1959. JHA 1993
7 JHA 2004. This publication extended Ancient India’s coverage to look at Jha, D. N. Economy and Society in Early India: Issues and
the early feudal period up to AD1200.

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Paradigms. (New Delhi: Munshiram Manoharlal Publishers.)
JHA 1967
Jha, D.N. Revenue System in Post-Maurya and Gupta Times.
(Calcutta: Punthi Pustak.)
SHARMA 2005
Sharma, R.S. India’s Ancient Past. (New Delhi: Oxford
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