Chapter 6

Bandwidth Utilization:

Multiplexing and Spreading

Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of available bandwidth to achieve specific goals.

Efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing; i.e., sharing of the bandwidth between multiple users.

Bandwidth utilization is the wise use of available bandwidth to achieve specific goals.

Efficiency can be achieved by multiplexing; i.e., sharing of the bandwidth between multiple users.

MULTIPLEXING

Whenever the bandwidth of a medium linking two devices is greater than the bandwidth needs of the

devices, the link can be shared. Multiplexing is the set of techniques that allows the (simultaneous)

transmission of multiple signals across a single data link. As data and telecommunications use increases,
so does traffic.

FDM is an analog multiplexing technique that combines analog signals.

Example 6.1

Assume that a voice channel occupies a bandwidth of 4

kHz. We need to combine three voice channels into a link

with a bandwidth of 12 kHz, from 20 to 32 kHz. Show the

configuration, using the frequency domain. Assume there

are no guard bands.

Solution

We shift (modulate) each of the three voice channels to a

different bandwidth, as shown in Figure 6.6 (in next

slide). We use the 20- to 24-kHz bandwidth for the first

channel, the 24- to 28-kHz bandwidth for the second

channel, and the 28- to 32-kHz bandwidth for the third

one.

Example 6.2

Five channels, each with a 100-kHz bandwidth, are to be

multiplexed together. What is the minimum bandwidth of

the link if there is a need for a guard band of 10 kHz

between the channels to prevent interference?

Solution

For five channels, we need at least four guard bands.

This means that the required bandwidth is at least

5 × 100 + 4 × 10 = 540 kHz.

Wavelength-division multiplexing (WDM) : WDM is an analog multiplexing

technique to combine optical signals.

Time Division Multiplexing (TDM)

TDM is a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate digital channels into one high-rate
one.

In synchronous TDM, the data rate of the link is n times faster, and the unit duration is n times shorter.

Example 6.5

In Figure 6.13, the data rate for each one of the 3 input

connection is 1 kbps. If 1 bit at a time is multiplexed (a

unit is 1 bit), what is the duration of (a) each input slot,

(b) each output slot, and (c) each frame?

Solution

We can answer the questions as follows:

a. The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps. This means that the bit duration is 1/1000 s or 1 ms.
The

duration of the input time slot is 1 ms (same as bit duration).

b. The duration of each output time slot is one-third of the input time slot. This means that the duration
of the output time slot is 1/3 ms.

c. Each frame carries three output time slots. So the duration of a frame is 3 × 1/3 ms, or 1 ms.

Note: The duration of a frame is the same as the duration

of an input unit.

Example 6.6

Figure 6.14 shows synchronous TDM with 4 1Mbps data

stream inputs and one data stream for the output. The

unit of data is 1 bit. Find (a) the input bit duration, (b)

the output bit duration, (c) the output bit rate, and (d) the

output frame rate.

Solution

We can answer the questions as follows:

a. The input bit duration is the inverse of the bit rate:

1/1 Mbps = 1 μs.

b. The output bit duration is one-fourth of the input bit

duration, or 1⁄4 μs.

c. The output bit rate is the inverse of the output bit

duration or 1/(4μs) or 4 Mbps. This can also be

deduced from the fact that the output rate is 4 times as

fast as any input rate; so the output rate = 4 × 1 Mbps

= 4 Mbps.

d. The frame rate is always the same as any input rate. So

the frame rate is 1,000,000 frames per second.

Because we are sending 4 bits in each frame, we can

verify the result of the previous question by

multiplying the frame rate by the number of bits per

frame.

Example 6.7

Four 1-kbps connections are multiplexed together. A unit

is 1 bit. Find (a) the duration of 1 bit before multiplexing,

(b) the transmission rate of the link, (c) the duration of a

time slot, and (d) the duration of a frame.

Solution

We can answer the questions as follows:

a. The duration of 1 bit before multiplexing is 1 / 1 kbps,

or 0.001 s (1 ms).

b. The rate of the link is 4 times the rate of a connection,

or 4 kbps.

c. The duration of each time slot is one-fourth of the

duration of each bit before multiplexing, or 1/4 ms or

250 μs. Note that we can also calculate this from the

data rate of the link, 4 kbps. The bit duration is the

inverse of the data rate, or 1/4 kbps or 250 μs.

d. The duration of a frame is always the same as the

duration of a unit before multiplexing, or 1 ms. We

can also calculate this in another way. Each frame in

this case has four time slots. So the duration of a

frame is 4 times 250 μs, or 1 ms.

Example 6.8

Four channels are multiplexed using TDM. If each

channel sends 100 bytes/s and we multiplex 1 byte per

channel, show the frame traveling on the link, the size of

the frame, the duration of a frame, the frame rate, and

the bit rate for the link.

Solution

The multiplexer is shown in Figure 6.16. Each frame

carries 1 byte from each channel; the size of each frame,

therefore, is 4 bytes, or 32 bits. Because each channel is

sending 100 bytes/s and a frame carries 1 byte from each

channel, the frame rate must be 100 frames per second.

The bit rate is 100 × 32, or 3200 bps.

Example 6.9

A multiplexer combines four 100-kbps channels using a

time slot of 2 bits. Show the output with four arbitrary

inputs. What is the frame rate? What is the frame

duration? What is the bit rate? What is the bit duration?

Solution

Figure 6.17 shows the output (4x100kbps) for four

arbitrary inputs. The link carries 400K/(2x4)=50,000

2x4=8bit frames per second. The frame duration is

therefore 1/50,000 s or 20 μs. The bit duration on the

output link is 1/400,000 s, or 2.5 μs.

Data Rate Management:

• Not all input links have the same data rate.

• Some links maybe slower. There maybe

several different input link speeds.

• There are three strategies that can be used to

overcome the data rate mismatch: multilevel,

multiple-slot and pulse stuffing

Multilevel Multiplexing: Multilevel Multiplexing is used when the data rate of the input links are
multiples of each other.

Multiple slot allocation: Multiple slot allocation is used to allot more than one slot in a frame to a single
input line.

Pulse Stuffing: Pulse Stuffing is used to make the highest input data

rate the dominant data rate and then add dummy

bits to the input lines with lower rates.

Frame Synchronization:

• Multiplexer and demultiplexer must be

synchronized

• Framing bits are used to provide synchronization

• They are part of the overhead of transmission.

Example 6.10

We have four sources, each creating 250 8-bit characters

per second. If the interleaved unit is a character and 1

synchronizing bit is added to each frame, find (a) the data

rate of each source, (b) the duration of each character in

each source, (c) the frame rate, (d) the duration of each

frame, (e) the number of bits in each frame, and (f) the

data rate of the link.

Solution:

We can answer the questions as follows:

a. The data rate of each source is 250 × 8 = 2000 bps = 2

kbps.

b. Each source sends 250 characters per second;

therefore, the duration of a character is 1/250 s, or

4 ms.

c. Each frame has one character from each source, which

means the link needs to send 250 frames per second to

keep the transmission rate of each source.

d. The duration of each frame is 1/250 s, or 4 ms. Note

that the duration of each frame is the same as the

duration of each character coming from each source.

e. Each frame carries 4 characters and 1 extra

synchronizing bit. This means that each frame is

4 × 8 + 1 = 33 bits.

f. The link sends 250 frames per second, and each frame

contains 33 bits. This means that the data rate of the

link is 250 × 33, or 8250 bps.

Note that the bit rate of the link is greater than the

combined bit rates of the four channels. If we add the

bit rates of four channels, we get 250x4x8= 8000 bps.

Because 250 frames are traveling per second and each

contains 1 extra bit for synchronizing, we need to add

250 to the sum to get 8250 bps.

Example 6.11

Two channels, one with a bit rate of 100 kbps and

another with a bit rate of 200 kbps, are to be multiplexed.

How this can be achieved? What is the frame rate? What

is the frame duration? What is the bit rate of the link?

Solution:

We can allocate one slot to the first channel and two slots

to the second channel. Each frame carries 3 bits. The

frame rate is 100,000 frames per second because it carries

1 bit from the first channel. The bit rate is 100,000

frames/s × 3 bits per frame, or 300 kbps.

SPREAD SPECTRUM

In spread spectrum (SS), we combine signals from

different sources to fit into a larger bandwidth, but our

goals are to prevent eavesdropping and jamming. To

achieve these goals, spread spectrum techniques add

redundancy.

◼ Spread signal to use larger bandwidth

◼ To prevent eavesdropping (privacy)

◼ To reduce effect from interference (anti-

jamming)

◼ If the required bandwidth for each station is B,

spread spectrum expands it to BSS;

BSS >> B.

◼ Two principles

◼ Redundancy - The bandwidth allocated to each

station needs to be larger than what is needed.

◼ Independent process - The spreading process

occurs after the signal is created by the source.

Frequency-Hopping Spread Spectrum (FHSS):

◼ Uses M different carrier frequencies that are

modulated by the source signal.

◼ At one moment, the signal modulates one

carrier frequency; at the next moment, the

signal modulates another carrier frequency.

◼ The bandwidth occupied by a source after

spreading is BFHSS >> B.

◼ Used in Bluetooth technology.

FHSS

◼ It can preserve privacy

◼ If an intruder tries to intercept the transmitted

signal, (s)he can only access a small piece of

data because (s)he does not know the

spreading sequence to quickly adapt to the next

hop.

◼ Anti-jamming effect

◼ A malicious sender may be able to send noise

to jam the signal for one hopping period

(randomly), but not for the whole period.

Bandwidth Sharing in FHSS:

◼ If the number of hopping frequencies is M, we

can multiplex M channels into one by using

the same Bss bandwidth.

◼ This is possible because a station uses just one

frequency in each hopping period; M − 1

other frequencies can be used by M − 1 other

stations.

◼ In other words, M different stations can use

the same Bss if an appropriate modulation

technique such as multiple FSK (MFSK) is

used.

Bandwidth Sharing in DSSS

• Can we share a bandwidth in DSSS?

• The answer is no and yes.

• If we use a spreading code that spreads signals

(from different stations) that cannot be

combined and separated, we cannot share a

bandwidth.

• By using a special type of sequence code that

allows the combining and separating of spread

signals, we can share the bandwidth.