SYNCHRONOUS DIGITAL HIERARCHY

Introduced in the end of 1980. Created to meet the ever growing demand for bandwidth hungry application and services.

The PLESIOCHRONOUS DIGITAL HEIRARCHY (PDH) has two primary systems: Used mainly in he USA, CANDA and JAPAN. European and certain non-European countries use the E1 system.

PCM COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

T1 system based on 1544kbit/s that is recommended by ANSI E1 system based on 2048kbits/s that is recommended by ITU-T.

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PCM COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

PCM COMMUNICATION SYSTEM

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TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

SYNCHRONOUS TDM STATISTICAL TDM

TIME DIVISION MULTIPLEXING

is

a digital multiplexing technique for combining several low-rate channels into one high-rate one. is a digital process that allows several connections to share the high bandwidth of a link.

McGraw-Hill

6.5 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000

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Figure 6.12 TDM

SYNCHRONOUS TDM
the

data rate of the link is n times faster, and the unit duration is n times shorter. In synchronous TDM, each input connection has an allotment in the output even if it is not sending data.

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Example 6.5
Figure 6.13 Synchronous time-division multiplexing

In Figure 6.13, the data rate for each input connection is 3 kbps. If 1 bit at a time is multiplexed (a unit is 1 bit), what is the duration of (a) each input slot, (b) each output slot, and (c) each frame?

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Example 6.5 (continued)

Solution We can answer the questions as follows: a. The data rate of each input connection is 1 kbps. This means that the bit duration is 1/1000 s or 1 ms. The duration of the input time slot is 1 ms (same as bit duration). b. The duration of each output time slot is one-third of the input time slot. This means that the duration of the output time slot is 1/3 ms. c. Each frame carries three output time slots. So the duration of a frame is 3 1/3 ms, or 1 ms. The duration of a frame is the same as the duration of an input unit.
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Example 6.6
Figure 6.14 shows synchronous TDM with a data stream for each input and one data stream for the output. The unit of data is 1 bit. Find (a) the input bit duration, (b) the output bit duration, (c) the output bit rate, and (d) the output frame rate.

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Example 6.6 (continued) Solution We can answer the questions as follows: a. The input bit duration is the inverse of the bit rate: 1/1 Mbps = 1 s. b. The output bit duration is one-fourth of the input bit duration, or s.
c. The output bit rate is the inverse of the output bit duration or 1/(4s) or 4 Mbps. This can also be deduced from the fact that the output rate is 4 times as fast as any input rate; so the output rate = 4 1 Mbps = 4 Mbps. d. The frame rate is always the same as any input rate. So the frame rate is 1,000,000 frames per second. Because we are sending 4 bits in each frame, we can verify the result of the previous question by multiplying the frame rate by the number of bits per frame. 6.1
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Example 6.7
Four 1-kbps connections are multiplexed together. A unit is 1 bit. Find (a) the duration of 1 bit before multiplexing, (b) the transmission rate of the link, (c) the duration of a time slot, and (d) the duration of a frame. Solution We can answer the questions as follows: a. The duration of 1 bit before multiplexing is 1 / 1 kbps, or 0.001 s (1 ms). b. The rate of the link is 4 times the rate of a connection, or 4 kbps.
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Example 6.7 (continued)

c. The duration of each time slot is one-fourth of the duration of each bit before multiplexing, or 1/4 ms or 250 s. Note that we can also calculate this from the data rate of the link, 4 kbps. The bit duration is the inverse of the data rate, or 1/4 kbps or 250 s. d. The duration of a frame is always the same as the duration of a unit before multiplexing, or 1 ms. We can also calculate this in another way. Each frame in this case has four time slots. So the duration of a frame is 4 times 250 s, or 1 ms.
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Figure 6.15 Interleaving

Figure 6.15 Interleaving

The switches are synchronized and rotate at the same speed, but in opposite directions. On the multiplexing side, as the switch opens in front of a connection, that connection has the opportunity to send a unit onto the path. This process is called interleaving.

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Figure 6.18 Empty slots

DATA RATE MANAGEMENT

If a source does not have data to send, the corresponding slot in the output frame is empty.

Refers to how TDM handle a disparity in the input data rates.

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MULTILEVEL MULTIPLEXING
is a technique used when the data rate of an input line is a multiple of others.

Figure 6.19 Multilevel multiplexing

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MULTIPLE-SLOT MULTIPLEXING
it is more efficient to allot more than one slot in a frame to a single input line. serial-to-parallel converter is inserted.

Figure 6.20 Multiple-slot multiplexing

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Example 6.11
Two channels, one with a bit rate of 100 kbps and another with a bit rate of 200 kbps, are to be multiplexed. How this can be achieved? What is the frame rate? What is the bit rate of the link? Solution We can allocate one slot to the first channel and two slots to the second channel. Each frame carries 3 bits. The frame rate is 100,000 frames per second because it carries 1 bit from the first channel. The bit rate is 100,000 frames/s 3 bits per frame, or 300 kbps.
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PULSE STUFFING
Sometimes

the bit rates of sources are not multiple integers of each other. One solution is to make the highest input data rate the dominant data rate and then add dummy bits to the input lines with lower rates. This will increase their rates. aka BIT PADDING, OR BIT STUFFING.
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Figure 6.21 Pulse stuffing

FRAME SYNCHRONIZING
In TDM, Synchronization

between the multiplexer and demultiplexer is a major issue. one or more synchronization bits are usually added to the beginning of each frame. These bits, called framing bits, follow a pattern, frame to frame, that allows the demultiplexer to synchronize with the incoming stream so that it can separate the time slots accurately.
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Example 6.10
Figure 6.22 Framing bits

We have four sources, each creating 250 characters per second. If the interleaved unit is a character and 1 synchronizing bit is added to each frame, find (a) the data rate of each source, (b) the duration of each character in each source, (c) the frame rate, (d) the duration of each frame, (e) the number of bits in each frame, and (f) the data rate of the link. Solution We can answer the questions as follows: a. The data rate of each source is 250 8 = 2000 bps = 2 kbps.
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Example 6.10 (continued)

Figure 6.23 Digital hierarchy

b. Each source sends 250 characters per second; therefore, the duration of a character is 1/250 s, or 4 ms. c. Each frame has one character from each source, which means the link needs to send 250 frames per second to keep the transmission rate of each source. d. The duration of each frame is 1/250 s, or 4 ms. Note that the duration of each frame is the same as the duration of each character coming from each source. e. Each frame carries 4 characters and 1 extra synchronizing bit. This means that each frame is 4 8 + 1 = 33 bits.
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Figure 6.24 T-1 line for multiplexing telephone lines

Table 6.1 DS and T line rates

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Figure 6.25 T-1 frame structure Table 6.2 E line rates

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Statistical Time Division Multiplexing A statistical multiplexor transmits only the data from active workstations.
If

Statistical Time Division Multiplexing

a workstation is not active, no space is wasted on the multiplexed stream. statistical multiplexor accepts the incoming data streams and creates a frame containing only the data to be transmitted.
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Statistical Time Division Multiplexing

To

Statistical Time Division Multiplexing

If

identify each piece of data, an address is included.

the data is of variable size, a length is also included.

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Statistical Time Division Multiplexing

A

Figure 6.26 TDM slot comparison

statistical multiplexor does not require a line over as high a speed line as synchronous time division multiplexing since STDM does not assume all sources will transmit all of the time!

Good Much

for low bandwidth lines (used for LANs)

more efficient use of bandwidth!
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MULTIPLE ACCESSING
More than one user has accesss to one or more radio channels(transponders) within a satcom channel. The method by which a sat transponder is utilized or accessed depends on multiple accessing method utilized.

MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES

McGraw-Hill The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000

Satellite Transponder A communications satellite's transponder, is the series of interconnected units which form a communications channel between the receiving and the transmitting antennas. SCPC Single Channel per Carrier Is a satellite transmission system with a separate carrier for each channel, as opposed to frequency or time division multiplexing - including DVB which combines many channels on a single carrier. MCPC Multiple Channel per Carrier With multiple channels per carrier (MCPC), several subcarriers are combined into a single bitstream before being modulated onto a carrier transmitted from a single location to one or more remote sites.

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MULTIPLE ACCESS

RANDOM ACCESS PROTOCOL

A node transmit at random time. The random access protocol specifies how to detect collisions and how to recover from them.

Describes the fact that multiples stations send and receive on the medium. Transmissions by one node are generally received by all other stations using the medium.

ALOHA PROTOCOLS
In 1970s, Norman Abramson and his colleagues at the University of Hawaii devised a new and elegant method to solve the channel allocation problem and this method known as ALOHA SYSTEM. The basic idea is applicable to any system in which uncoordinated users are competing for the use of single shared channel. There are two versions of Aloha system which differ with respect to whether or not time is divided up into discrete slots into which all frames must fit.

PURE ALOHA
The basic idea on which pure aloha is based upon is: it let users transmit whenever they have data to be sent. So there will be collisions, of course and the colliding frames will be damaged.

SLOTTED ALOHA
In 1987, Roberts publish a method called slotted aloha which doubled the capacity of pure aloha. Divide time up into discrete intervals, each corresponding to one packet. The stations can only transmit data in one of the time slots only.

CARRIER SENSE MULTIPLE ACCESS

A probabilistic media access control (MAC) protocol in which a node verifies the absence of other traffic before transmitting on a shared transmission medium.

PERSISTENCE METHODS
I-persistent method is simple and straightforward. In this method, after the station finds the line idle, it sends its frame immediately (with probability I). This method has the highest chance of collision because two or more stations may find the line idle and send their frames immediately.

The non-persistent method, a station that has a frame to send senses the line. If the line is idle, it sends immediately. If the line is not idle, it waits a random amount of time and then senses the line again. The p-persistent method is used if the channel has time slots with a slot duration equal to or greater than the maximum propagation time. The p-persistent approach combines the advantages of the other two strategies. It reduces the chance of collision and improves efficiency.

CARRIER SENSE MULTIPLE ACCESS/ COLLISION DETECTION The CSMA/CD protocol is designed to provide fair access to the shared channel so that all stations get a chance to use the network. It is the protocol used in Ethernet networks to ensure that only one network node is transmitting on the network wire at any one time.

CARRIER SENSE MULTIPLE ACCESS/ COLLISION AVOIDANCE In CSMA/CA, as soon as a node receives a packet that is to be sent, it checks to be sure that the channel is clear. If the channel is clear, then the packet is sent. A network contention protocol that listens to a network in order to avoid collisions.

CONTROLLED ACCESS
In controlled access, the stations consult one another to find which station has the right to send. A station cannot send unless it has been authorized by other stations.We discuss three popular controlled-access methods.

Three Methods
Reservation Polling Token passing

Objective: ensure that only one station has the right to send at any time.
McGraw-Hill The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc., 2000

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Reservation
Reservation: a station must reserve a time slot before sending.

Polling
Polling; a primary station asks each secondary station in turn if it wishes to transmit a data frame or not.

Token passing
Token passing: a special frame called a token is passed from host to host. Only the host with the token is permitted to send a data frame. If a host has no data to send, it must pass the token immediately to another host. Alternative approach: a host can hold the token for a small maximum time interval before passing the token.

CHANNELIZATION
Channelization is a multiple-access method in which the available bandwidth of a link is shared in time, frequency, or through code, between different stations. In this section, we discuss three channelization protocols.
1. Frequency-Division Multiple Access (FDMA) 2. Time-Division Multiple Access (TDMA) 3. Code-Division Multiple Access (CDMA)

MULTIPLE ACCESSING ARRANGEMENTS

FDM/FDMA
FDM->analog mod techniques. Frequencydivision multiplexing (FDM) is a form of signal multiplexing which involves assigning nonoverlapping frequency ranges to different signals or to each "user" of a medium. Whereas frequency-division multiplexing is used to allow multiple users to share a physical communications channel, it is called frequencydivision multiple access (FDMA )

FDMA TDMA CDMA SDMA

common technique

special technique in multiple access

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Frequency-division multiple access (FDMA)

In FDMA, the available bandwidth of the common channel is divided into bands that are separated by guard bands.

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(FAMA)

FDMA can be performed in two ways:

Fixed-assignment multiple access (FAMA): The sub-channel assignments are of a fixed allotment. Ideal for broadcast satellite communication. Demand-assignment multiple access (DAMA): The sub-channel allotment changes based on demand. Ideal for point to point communication.(centralized control and distributed control)

Fixed-assignment multiple access (FAMA)

The assignment of capacity is distributed in a fixed manner among multiple stations Demand may fluctuate Results in the significant underuse of capacity
FAMA logical links between stations are preassigned. FAMA multiple stations access the satellite by using different frequency bands. Uses considerable bandwidth.

DAMA-FDMA

Single channel per carrier (SCPC) bandwidth divided into individual VB channels

The number of sub-channels is limited by three factors:

Thermal noise (too weak a signal will be effected by background noise). Intermodulation noise (too strong a signal will cause noise). Crosstalk (cause by excessive frequency reusing).

Attractive for remote areas with few user stations near each site Suffers from inefficiency of fixed assignment For full-duplex between two earth stations, a pair of subchannels is dynamically assigned on demand Demand assignment performed in a distributed fashion by earth station using CSC

DAMA set of sub channels in a channel is treated as a pool of available links

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SPADE DAMA sat system

SPADE(single channel per carrier PCM multiple access demand assignment equipment).SPADE is an example for DAMA.(uses distributed control) With SPADE, 800 PCM encoded voice band channels separately QPSK modulate an IF carrier signal.(hence the name single carrier per channel).

TDMA(Time Division Multiple Access)

In time-division multiple access (TDMA), the stations share the bandwidth of the channel in time. Each station is allocated a time slot during which it can send data. Each station transmits its data in its assigned time slot.

Time-division multiple access (TDMA)

In TDMA, the bandwidth is just one channel that is timeshared between different stations.

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TDMA

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CDMA(Code Division Multiple Access)

In code-division multiple access (CDMA), the stations use different codes to achieve multiple access. CDMA is based on coding theory and uses sequences of numbers called chips. The

CODE DIVISION MULTIPLE ACCESS

sequences are generated using orthogonal codes such the Walsh tables.

CDMA, also called spread spectrum communication, differs from FDMA and TDMA because it allows users to literally transmit on top of each other. This feature has allowed CDMA to gain attention in commercial satellite communication. It was originally developed for use in military satellite communication where its inherent anti-jam and security features are highly desirable. CDMA was adopted in cellular mobile telephone as an interference-tolerant communication technology that increases capacity above analog systems.

Simple idea of communication with code

In CDMA, one channel carries all transmissions simultaneously.

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Digital signal created by four stations in CDMA

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MULTIPLEXING AND MULTIPLE ACCESS TECHNIQUES

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COMPARISON

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