Network Theory (Ece181314) Lab Manual For B.E. E&T, Iii-Semester

NETWORK THEORY (ECE181314)
LAB MANUAL
FOR B.E. E&T, III-SEMESTER
Prepared by: Niranjan Jyoti Borah Nishant Bharti

Asst. Prof., E&TE Dept. Asst. Prof., E&TE Dept.
DEPT. OF ELECTRONICS AND TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING
ASSAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE
JALUKBARI-781013
NETWORK THEORY (ECE181314)
LAB MANUAL
FOR B.E. E&T, III-SEMESTER
LIST OF EXPERIMENTS
INTRODUCTION TO MULTISIM
EXP. EXPERIMENT TITLE
No.
1 Verification of principle of superposition with dc and ac sources.
2 Verification of Thevenin, Norton and Maximum power transfer theorems in ac circuits
3 Verification of Tellegen’s theorem for two networks of the same topology.
4 Determination of transient response of current in RL and RC circuits with step voltage input.
5 Determination of transient response of current in RLC circuit with step voltage input for
under damp, critically damp and over damp cases
6 Determination of frequency response of current in RLC circuit with sinusoidal ac input
7 Determination of z and h parameters (dc only) for a network and computation of Y and
ABCD parameters.
8 Determination of driving point and transfer functions of a two-port ladder network and verify
with theoretical values.
9 To study frequency response of Passive Filter circuit
INTRODUCTION TO MULTISIM
Multisim is a simulation tool that can be used to expedite the analysis and design of various
circuits, including ones containing digital devices, transistors, diodes, op amps, and even motors.
This tool has the capabilities in simulating Direct Current (DC) circuits, Alternating Current
(AC), transient, and frequency response.
To start Multisim, select from the program list:
Start Click on Start All Programs National Instruments Circuit Design
Suite Multisim
1. Open/Create Schematic
A blank schematic Circuit 1 is automatically created. To create a new schematic, click on File –
New – Schematic Capture. To save the schematic click on File / Save As. To open an existing
file, click on File/ Open in the toolbar.
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Network Theory Lab Manual
2. Place Components
To Place Components, click on Place/Components. On the Select Component Window click on

Group to select the components needed for the circuit. Click OK to place the component on the
schematic.
Figure 1: Select Resistor Figure 2: Select DC voltage
For example, to select resistors and the DC source shown in Figure 3 click on
Place/Components. In Group select Basic scroll down to Resistors and select the value of the
resistor needed to construct the circuit, for this example select 1k. To place DC source, click on
Sources in Group and select DC Source. As shown in Figure 1and Figure 2 respectively.
Figure 3: DC Source & Resistors
3. Virtual Components
Components can also be place on the circuit using Virtual Components as shown in figure 4.
Click onView – Toolbars and select the toolbar needed for the circuit.
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Figure 5: Rotate Components
Figure 4: Virtual Components
4. Rotate Components
To rotate the components right click on the Resistor to flip the component on 90 Clockwise (Ctrl
+R) and 90 Counter Clockwise (Ctrl+Shift+R) as shown in the figure 5.
5. Place Wire/Connect Components
To connect resistors, click on Place/Wire drag

and place the wire. Components can also be
connected by clicking the mouse over the
terminal edge of one component and dragging to
the edge of another component. Reference
Figure 6.
Figure 6: Place/ Wire
6. Change Component Values
To change component values double click on the component this brings up a window that
display the properties of the component. Reference Figure 7. ChangeR1 from 1k Ohm to 10
3
Ohms, R2 to 20 Ohms, R3 to 30 Ohms, and R4 to 40 Ohms. Also change the DV source from 0
V to 20 V. Figure 8 shows the completed circuit.
Figure 7: Change Component Values
Figure 8: Completed Circuits
7. Grounding:
All circuits must be grounded before the circuit can be simulated. Click on Ground in the toolbar
to ground the circuit. If the circuit is not grounded Multisim will not run the simulation.
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Figure 9: Grounding
8. Simulation:
To simulate the completed circuit, Click on Simulate/Run or F5. This feature can also be
accessed from the toolbar as shown in the Figure 10 below.
Figure 10: Simulation
Analyzing Components
Multisim offers multiple ways to analyze the circuit using virtual instruments. Some of the basic
instruments needed for this lab are described below.
1) Multimeter
Use the Multimeter to measure AC or DC voltage or current, and resistance or decibel loss
between two nodes in a circuit. To use the Multimeter, click onthe Multimeter button in the
Instruments toolbar and click to place its icon on the workspace. Double-click on the icon to
open the instrument face, which isused to enter settings and view measurements.
Figure 11: Multimeter
To measure Voltage place multimeter in Parallel with the component (Resistor, Voltage etc). To
measure Current place the multimeter in series with thecomponent. Reference the Figure 12 and
13.
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Figure 12: Measure Voltage Figure 13: Measure Current
2) Wattmeter
The wattmeter measures power. It is used to measure the magnitude of the active power, that is,
the product of the voltage difference and the current flowing through the current terminals in a
circuit.
Figure 14: Wattmeter Figure 15: Wattmeter Connection
To use the instrument, click on the Wattmeter button in the Instruments toolbar and click to place
its icon on the workspace. The icon is used to wire the Wattmeter to the circuit. Double-click on
the icon to open the instrument face,which is used to enter settings and view measurements.
Reference Figure 15 for more details.
3) Agilent Multimeter
The Agilent Multimeter Instrument can also be used to measure and simulate circuits with more
accuracy. To use the multimeter, click on the Agilent Multimeter tool button, place its icon on
the workspace and double-click on the icon to open the instrument. Click on the Power button to
switch on the instrument.
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Figure16: Agilent Multimeter
4) Ammeter:
The ammeter offers advantages over the multimeter for measuring current in a circuit. It takes up
less space in a circuit and you can rotate its terminals to suit your layout. Always connect the
ammeter in series with the load. To place Ammeter, click on View--- Toolbar --- Select
Measurement Components. See Figure 17 on how to use the Ammeter.
Ammeter Voltmeter
Figure 17: Ammeter
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EXPERIMENT NO. 1
AIM: Verification of principle of superposition with dc and ac sources.
SOFTWARE REQUIRED: NI Multisim
THEORY:
The superposition theorem states that in a linear circuit with several sources, the current and
voltage for any element in the circuit is the sum of the currents and voltages produced by each
source acting independently.
To calculate the contribution of each source independently, all the other sources must be
removed and replaced without affecting the final result. When removing a voltage source, its
voltage must be set to zero, which is equivalent to replacing the voltage source with a short
circuit. When removing a current source, its current must be set to zero, which is equivalent to
replacing the current source with an open circuit.
When you sum the contributions from the sources, you should be careful to take their signs into
account. It is best to assign a reference direction to each unknown quantity, if it is not already
given.
The total voltage or current is calculated as the algebraic sum of the contributions from the
sources. If a contribution from a source has the same direction as the reference direction, it has a
positive sign in the sum; if it has the opposite direction, then a negative sign.
In order to use the superposition theorem with circuit currents and voltages, all of the
components must be linear; that is, for all resistive components, the current must be proportional
to the applied voltage (satisfying Ohm’s law).
Note that the superposition theorem is not applicable to power, since power is not a linear
quantity. The total power delivered to a resistive component must be determined using the total
current through or the total voltage across the component and cannot be determined by a simple
sum of the powers produced by the sources independently.
Figure 1.1: Superposition in ac circuit Figure 1.2: Superposition in dc circuit
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OBSERVATION TABLE:
Table 1.1: For dc circuit
Sources Present Theoretical Value of current/voltage Practical Value of current/voltage
Table 1.2: For ac circuit
Sources Present Theoretical Value of current/voltage Practical Value of current/voltage
RESULT: Principle of Superposition theorem verified for both ac and dc sources
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EXPERIMENT NO. 2
AIM: Verification of Thevenin, Norton and Maximum power transfer theorems in ac circuits
THEORY:
Thevenin’s Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several voltages and resistances
can be replaced by just one single voltage in series with a single resistance connected across the
load”. In other words, it is possible to simplify any electrical circuit, no matter how complex, to
an equivalent two-terminal circuit with just a single constant voltage source in series with a
resistance (or impedance) connected to a load as shown below.
Thevenin’s Theorem is especially useful in the circuit analysis of power or battery systems and
other interconnected resistive circuits where it will have an effect on the adjoining part of the
circuit.
Figure 2.1: Circuit to find Thevenin’s equivalent across AB

Nortons Theorem states that “Any linear circuit containing several energy sources and
resistances can be replaced by a single Constant Current generator in parallel with a Single
Resistor”.
As far as the load resistance, RL is concerned this single resistance, RS is the value of the
resistance looking back into the network with all the current sources open circuited and IS is the
short circuit current at the output terminals.
Figure 2.2: Circuit to find Norton’s equivalent across AB
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The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem is another useful circuit analysis method to ensure
that the maximum amount of power will be dissipated in the load resistance when the value of
the load resistance is exactly equal to the resistance of the power source. The relationship
between the load impedance and the internal impedance of the energy source will give the power
in the load.
Figure 2.3: Circuit to find ZL for MPT and find max. power transferred
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Table 2.1: For Thevenin’s Theorem
Quantity Theoretical Value Practical Value
Table 2.2: For Norton’s Theorem
Table 2.3: For Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
RESULT: Thevenin, Norton and Maximum power transfer theorems has been verified for ac
circuits
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EXPERIMENT NO. 3
AIM: Verification of Tellegen’s theorem for two networks of the same topology.
THEORY:
Tellegen’s Theorem states that the summation of power delivered is zero for each branch of any
electrical network at any instant of time. It is mainly applicable for designing the filters in signal
processing’s. It is also used in complex operation systems for regulating the stability. It is mostly
used in the chemical and biological system and for finding the dynamic behaviour of the physical
network.
Tellegen’s theorem is independent of the network elements. Thus, it is applicable for any lump
system that has linear, active, passive and time-variant elements. Also, the theorem is convenient
for the network which follows Kirchhoff’s current law and Kirchhoff’s voltage law.
Tellegen’s Theorem can also be stated in another word as, in any linear, nonlinear, passive,
active, time variant or time invariant network the summation of power (instantaneous or complex
power of sources) is zero.
Thus, for the Kth branch, this theorem states that
∑ vK iK = 0
𝑘=1
where,
n is the number of branches
vK is the voltage in the branch
iK is the current flowing through the branch
Figure 3: Circuits to prove tellegen’s theorem
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OBSERVATION TABLE:
Table 3.1: For the first circuit
Table 3.2: For the second circuit
RESULT: Tellegen’s theorem for two networks of the same topology has been verified.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 4
AIM: Determination of transient response of current in RL and RC circuits with step voltage
input.
THEORY:
Resistor–capacitor (RC) and resistor–inductor (RL) circuits are the two types of first-
order circuits: circuits either one capacitor or one inductor. In many applications, these
circuits respond to a sudden change in an input: for example, a switch opening or closing,
or a digital input switching from low to high. Just after the change, the capacitor or
inductor takes some time to charge or discharge, and eventually settles on its new
steady state. The response of a circuit immediately after a sudden change is called the
transient response, in contrast to the steady state.
Let us consider the following circuit, whose voltage source provides V1(t)= 0 for t < 0 and
V1(t)= 10 V for t ≥ 0.
Figure 4.1: RC circuit Figure 4.2: RL circuit
Just before the step in V1 from 0V to 10V at t = 0, VC1(0−) = 0V. Since VC1 is across a
capacitor, VC1 just after the step must be the same: Vout(0+) = 0V. Long after the step, if we wait
long enough the circuit will reach steady state, then VC1(∞) = 10 V.
Using Kirchhoff’s current law applied at the top-right node, we could write
10V−VC1 dVC1
=C
R dt
Solving this differential equation, then applying the initial conditions we found above, would
yield (in volts).
t
VC1(t) = 10 – 10𝑒 −RC
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Immediately after the step the current flowing through the resistor and hence the capacitor (by
10V dV
KCL) is i(0+) = R . Since i = C dtC1 , this current causes VC1 to start rising. This, in turn,
10V−VC1
reduces the current through the resistor (and capacitor), . Thus, the rate of change of
R
VC1 decreases as VC1 increases. The voltage VC1(t) technically never reaches steady state, but
after about 3 RC, it’s very close.
Figure 4.3: Vc1 curve of RC circuit
Transient response equation
It turns out that all first-order circuits respond to a sudden change in input with some sort of
exponential decay, similar to the above. Therefore, we don’t solve differential equations every
time we see a capacitor or an inductor, and we won’t ask you to solve any.
Instead, we use the following shortcut: In any first-order circuit, if there is a sudden change
at t = 0, the transient response for a voltage is given by
v(t) = v(∞) + [v(0+) − v(∞)]e−t/τ ,
where v(∞) is the (new) steady-state voltage; v(0+) is the voltage just after time t = 0; τ is
the time constant, given by τ = RC for a capacitor or τ = L/R for an inductor, and in both
cases R is the resistance seen by the capacitor or inductor.
The transient response for a current is the same, with i(·) instead of v(·):
i(t) = i(∞) + [i(0+) − i(∞)]e−t/τ .
What do we mean by the “resistance seen by the capacitor/inductor”? Informally, it means the
resistance you would think the rest of the circuit had, if you were the capacitor/inductor.
More precisely, you find it using these steps:
1. Zero out all sources (i.e. short all voltage sources, open all current sources)
2. Remove the capacitor or inductor
3. Find the resistance of the resistor network whose terminals are where the capacitor/inductor
was
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Time constant
The time constant τ (the Greek letter tau) has units of seconds (verify, for both RC and
R/L), and it governs the “speed” of the transient response. Circuits with higher τ take longer
to get close to the new steady state. Circuits with short τ settle on their new steady state very
quickly.
More precisely, every time constant τ , the circuit gets 1 − e −1 ≈ 63% of its way closer to
its new steady state. Memorizing this fact can help you draw graphs involving exponential
decays quickly.
After 3τ , the circuit will have gotten 1 − e−3 ≈ 95% of the way, and after 5τ , more than
99%. So, after a few time constants, for practical purposes, the circuit has reached steady state.
Thus, the time constant is itself a good rough guide to “how long” the transient response will
take.
Of course, mathematically, the steady state is actually an asymptote: it never truly reaches
steady state. But, unlike mathematicians, engineers don’t sweat over such inconsequential
details.
Figure 4.4: Figure showing time constant of a RL Circuit
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Table 4: Transient response in RL and RC circuits
Type of Circuit Quantity Expression

RL I(t)
V(t)
RC I(t)
V(t)
OUTPUT WAVEFORM:
RESULT: Transient response of current in RL circuit is found to be increasing and that in RC

circuit is found to be decreasing with step voltage input.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 5
AIM: Determination of transient response of current in RLC circuit with step voltage input for
under damp, critically damp and over damp cases
THEORY:
Figure 5: RLC circuit with step voltage input
For t>0, using the transformed network of the fig. shown above,
Applying KVL to the mesh,
V 1
− 𝑅𝐼 (𝑠) − 𝐿𝑠𝐼(𝑠) − 𝐼 (𝑠 ) = 0
s 𝐶𝑠
1 V
(𝑅 + 𝐿𝑠 + ) 𝐼 (𝑠 ) =
𝐶𝑠 s
𝐿𝐶𝑠 2 + 𝑅𝐶𝑠 + 1 V
( ) 𝐼 (𝑠 ) =
𝐶𝑠 s
V V V
𝐼 (𝑠 ) = s
𝐿𝐶𝑠2 +𝑅𝐶𝑠+1
= 𝑅
L
1 = L
𝑠 2+ 𝑠+ (𝑠−𝑠1 )(𝑠−𝑠2 )
𝐶𝑠 𝐿 𝐿𝐶
𝑅 1
where 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 are the roots of the equation 𝑠 2 + ( 𝐿 ) 𝑠 + (𝐿𝐶 ) = 0
𝑅 𝑅 1
𝑠1 = − 2𝐿 + √(2𝐿 )2 − 𝐿𝐶 = -α+ √𝛼 2 − ⍵2𝑜 = -α + 𝛽
𝑅 𝑅 1
𝑠2 = − 2𝐿 − √(2𝐿 )2 − 𝐿𝐶 = -α - √𝛼 2 − ⍵2𝑜 = -α – 𝛽
𝑅
where α = 2𝐿
1
⍵𝑜 =
√𝐿𝐶
17
and 𝛽= √𝛼 2 − ⍵2𝑜
By partial-fraction expansion, of 𝐼(𝑠)
𝐴 𝐵
𝐼 (𝑠 ) = +
(𝑠 − 𝑠1 ) (𝑠 − 𝑠2 )
V
L
𝐴 = (𝑠 − 𝑠1 )𝐼(𝑠)|𝑠−𝑠1 =
𝑠1 − 𝑠2
V V
L L
𝐵 = (𝑠 − 𝑠2 )𝐼(𝑠)|𝑠−𝑠2 = = −
𝑠2 − 𝑠1 𝑠1 − 𝑠2
𝑉 1 1
𝐼 (𝑠 ) = [ − ]
𝐿(𝑠 − 𝑠1 ) 𝑠 − 𝑠1 𝑠 − 𝑠2
Taking the inverse Laplace transform,
𝑉
𝑖 (𝑡 ) = [𝑒 𝑠1𝑡 − 𝑒 𝑠2𝑡 ] = 𝑘1 𝑒 𝑠1𝑡 + 𝑘2 𝑒 𝑠2 𝑡
𝐿(𝑠 − 𝑠1 )
where 𝑘1 and 𝑘2 are constants to be determined and 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 are the roots of the equation.
Now, depending upon the values of 𝑠1 and 𝑠2 , we have three cases of the response.
Case I When the roots are real and unequal, it gives an overdamped response.
𝑅 1
>
2𝐿 √𝐿𝐶
𝛼 > ⍵𝑜
In this case, the solution is given by
𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 (𝑘1 𝑒 𝛽𝑡 + 𝑘2 𝑒 −𝛽𝑡 )
or 𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑘1 𝑒 𝑠1 𝑡 + 𝑘2 𝑒 𝑠2𝑡 for t > 0
Case II When the roots are real and equal, it gives a critically damped response.
𝑅 1
=
2𝐿 √𝐿𝐶
𝛼 = ⍵𝑜
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𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 𝑡) for t > 0
Case III When the roots are complex conjugate, it gives a critically underdamped response.
𝑅 1
<
2𝐿 √𝐿𝐶
𝛼 < ⍵𝑜
𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑘1 𝑒 𝑠1𝑡 + 𝑘2 𝑒 𝑠2 𝑡
where 𝑠1,2 = −𝛼 ∓ √𝛼 2 − ⍵2𝑜
Let √𝛼 2 − ⍵2𝑜 = √−1√⍵2𝑜 − 𝛼 2 = 𝑗⍵𝑑
where 𝑗 = √−1
and ⍵𝑑 = √⍵2𝑜 − 𝛼 2
Hence,
𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 (𝑘1 𝑒 𝑗⍵𝑑 𝑡 + 𝑘2 𝑒 −𝑗⍵𝑑 𝑡 )
𝑒 𝑗⍵𝑑 𝑡 +𝑒 −𝑗⍵𝑑 𝑡 𝑒 𝑗⍵𝑑 𝑡 −𝑒 −𝑗⍵𝑑 𝑡

= 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 [(𝑘1 + 𝑘2 ) { } + 𝑗(𝑘1 − 𝑘2 ) { }]
2 2𝑗
= 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 [(𝑘1 + 𝑘2 )𝑐𝑜𝑠⍵𝑑 𝑡 + 𝑗(𝑘1 − 𝑘2 )𝑠𝑖𝑛⍵𝑑 𝑡] for t > 0
OUTPUT WAVEFORM:
RESULT: The transient response of current in RLC circuit with step voltage input for under
damp, critically damp and over damp cases is studied.
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EXPERIMENT NO. 6
AIM: Determination of frequency response of current in RLC circuit with sinusoidal ac input
THEORY:
Figure 6: RLC circuit with sinusoidal ac input
RLC circuits are classical examples of second-order systems. Together with their mass spring
dashpot mechanical analog, they are used to illustrate fundamental systems-theory concepts and
techniques, such as Laplace-transform techniques and resonance.
The current response of the series RLC circuit of Fig. 6 is found via Laplace-transform
techniques as I(s) = Y(s)V(s), where I(s) and V(s) are the Laplace transforms of i(t) and v(t), s is
the complex frequency, and Y(s) is the complex admittance, that is, the reciprocal of the complex
impedance Z(s),
1 1 𝑠𝐶
𝑌 (𝑠 ) = = 1 =
𝑍(𝑠) 𝑅 + 𝑠𝐿 + 𝑠 2 𝐿𝐶 + 𝑠𝑅𝐶 + 1
𝑠𝐶
This function is usually expressed in the standardized form

1 2𝜁(𝑠/⍵𝑜 )
𝑌 (𝑠 ) = 𝑥
𝑅 (𝑠/⍵𝑜 )2 + 2𝜁(𝑠/⍵𝑜 ) + 1
where
1 𝑅 𝐶
⍵𝑜 = 𝜁= √
√𝐿𝐶 2 𝐿
Here, ⍵𝑜 is the undamped natural frequency, in rad/s, and 𝜁 is the damping ratio, dimensionless.
The values of these parameters are set by those of the components making up the circuit.
The values of s for which the denominator of Y(s) becomes zero are called the poles of Y(s), and
therefore, the zeros of Z(s). They are easily found to be
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𝑠1,2 = ⍵𝑜 (−𝜁 ± √𝜁 2 − 1)
We have the following significant cases:
• For 𝜁 > 1, the poles are real and distinct, and the system is said to be overdamped.
• For 𝜁 = 1, the poles are real and coincident, and the system is said to be critically damped.
• For 0 < 𝜁 < 1, the poles are complex conjugate, or𝑠1,2 = ⍵𝑜 (−𝜁 ± 𝑗√1 − 𝜁 2 ) , where 𝑗 2 = −1.
The system is now said to be underdamped.
In each of the above cases the poles lie in the left-half of the complex plane s. For 𝜁 = 0, the
poles lie right on the imaginary axis, and the system is said to be undamped. It is apparent that
varying R while keeping L and C constant will move the poles around in the complex plane.
Systems theory indicates that the response 𝑖(𝑡) to a given excitation 𝑣(𝑡)can be found as 𝑖(𝑡) =
𝐿−1 {𝐼 (𝑠)} = 𝐿−1 {𝑌(𝑠)𝑉(𝑠)}, where 𝐿−1 indicates inverse Laplace transformation. The responses
of greatest practical interest in engineering are the impulse, the step, and the ac or frequency
responses.
Frequency Response:
Systems theory indicates that the frequency response of a circuit is found by letting 𝑠 → 𝑗⍵ in its
transfer function. In this case it is also more common to work with the parameter 𝑄 = 1/(2𝜁),
after which our expression above becomes
1
𝑌 (𝑗⍵) = 𝑥𝐻 (𝑗⍵)
𝑅 𝐵𝑃
where
𝑗(⍵/⍵𝑜 )
𝐻𝐵𝑃 (𝑗⍵) =
1 − (⍵/⍵𝑜 )2 + 𝑗(⍵/⍵𝑜 )/𝑄
and
1 1 𝐿
⍵𝑜 = 𝑄= √
√𝐿𝐶 𝑅 𝐶
The function 𝐻𝐵𝑃 (𝑗⍵) is called the standard second-order band-pass function.
To investigate the frequency response of our circuit, we apply an ac voltage of the type
𝑉𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑖𝑚 cos ⍵𝑡
and we observe the response 𝑉0 (𝑡) = 𝑅𝑖(𝑡) across the resistor, which is an ac voltage of the type
𝑉0 (𝑡) = 𝑉𝑜𝑚 cos (⍵𝑡 + 𝜙)
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Here, 𝑉𝑖𝑚 and 𝑉𝑜𝑚 are the peak amplitudes (in V), ω is the angular frequency (in rad/s), and ϕ is
the phase angle (in degrees). The parameters of the response are related to those of the applied
voltage as
𝑉𝑜𝑚 = |𝐻𝐵𝑃 |𝑥𝑉𝑖𝑚 𝜙 = ∠𝐻𝐵𝑃
where |𝐻𝐵𝑃 |and nd ∠𝐻𝐵𝑃 are, respectively, the magnitude and phase of 𝐻𝐵𝑃 .
OUTPUT WAVEFORM:
RESULT: The frequency response of current in RLC circuit with sinusoidal ac input is
studied.
22
EXPERIMENT NO. 7
AIM: Determination of z and h parameters (dc only) for a network and computation of Y and
ABCD parameters.
THEORY:
Z Parameters
Z parameters are also known as impedance parameters. When we use Z parameter for analyzing
two port network, the voltages are represented as the function of currents. So,
V1 = f1(I1,I2) and V2 = f2(I1,I2)
The Z parameters are,
Z11 = Input impedance keeping output open =
Z22 = Output impedance keeping input open =
Z12 = Reverse transfer impedance keeping input open =
Z21 = Forward transfer impedance keeping output open =
The voltages are represented as
V1 = Z11I1 + Z12I2
V2 = Z21I1 + Z22I2
Figure 7: A two port N/W

V Z Z12 I1
[ 1 ] = [ 11 ][ ]
V2 Z21 Z22 I2
Y Parameters
Y parameter is dual of Z parameter.
Y11 = Input admittance keeping output short circuited =
23
Y22 =Output admittance keeping input short circuited =
Y12 =Reverse transfer admittance keeping output short circuited =
Y21 =Forward transfer admittance keeping input short circuited =
In the two part network represented by admittance, the current and voltage related by the
following equations,
I1 = Y11V1 + Y12V2
I2 = Y21V1 + Y22V2
I Y Y12 V1
[ 1 ] = [ 11 ][ ]
I2 Y21 Y22 V2
h Parameter
h parameters also known as hybrid parameters.
V1 = f1 (I1, V2) =>V1 = h11I1 + h12V2
I2 = f2 (I1, V2) =>I2 = h21I1 + h22V2
V h h12 I1
[ 1 ] = [ 11 ][ ]
I2 h21 h22 V2
In hybrid parameter circuit, voltage gain, current gain, impedance and admittance are used to
determine the relation between current and voltage of two port network.
Hence,
h11 = input impedance keeping the output terminals short circuited =
h21 = forward current gain keeping output terminals short circuited =
h12 = Reverse voltage gain keeping input open =
h22 = Output admittance keeping input open =
24
ABCD Parameter
These are also called transmission parameters. Here, voltage and current and of input part are
expressed in terms of output part.
Here,
V1 = AV2 – BI2 and I1 = CV2 – DI2
In matrix form it can be written as,
V A B V2
[ 1] = [ ][ ]
I1 C D −I2
A = Reverse voltage gain keeping output open circuited =
B = Reverse transfer impedance keeping output short circuited =
C = Reverse transfer admittance keeping output open circuited =
D = Reverse current gain keeping output short circuited =
Figure 7: T-network
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Table 7: Various two port parameters
Parameters Theoretical Values Practical Values

Z parameter
Y parameter
h parameter
ABCD parameter
RESULT: Z, Y, h, ABCD are successfully computed.
25
EXPERIMENT NO. 8
AIM: Determination of driving point and transfer functions of a two-port ladder network and
verify with theoretical values.
THEORY: Another application of two-port parameters is the synthesis of ladder networks

which are found frequently in practice and have particular use in designing passive lowpass
filters. The order of the filter is the order of the characteristic equation describing the filter and is
determined by the number of reactive elements that cannot be combined into single elements
(e.g., through series or parallel combination). Fig 8.1 shows an LC ladder network with an odd
number of elements (to realize an odd-order filer). When either network is terminated by the load
impedance ZL and the source impedance ZS, we obtain the structure in fig 8.2. To make the
design less complicated we will assume that ZS = 0.
Figure 8.2: LC ladder network with terminating impedances
Figure 8.1: LC ladder network for low pass filters of

(a) Odd order (b) even order
To synthesize the transfer function of the LC ladder network, we begin by characterizing the
ladder network by its admittance parameters, namely,
I1 = y11V1 + y12V2
I2 = y21V1 + y22V2
At the input port, V1 =VS and ZS = 0. At the output port, V2 = V0 and I2 = -V2/ZL = V0YL. Thus
the above equation becomes
-V0YL = y21Vs + y22V0

V −Y21
or H(s) = V0 = Y
s L + Y22
26
−Y21 /YL
We can write this as H(s) = 1+ Y22/YL
We may ignore the negative sign in the above equation because filter requirements are often
stated in terms of the magnitude of the transfer function. The main objective in filter design is to
select capacitors and inductors so that the parameters y21 and y22 are synthesized, thereby
realizing the desired transfer function. To achieve this, we take advantage of an important
property of the LC ladder network: all Z and Y parameters are ratios of polynomials that contain
only even powers of s or odd powers of s - that is, they are ratios of either Od(s)/Ev(s) or
Ev(s)/Od(s), where Od and Ev are odd and even functions, respectively. Let
N(s) N +N
H(s) = D(𝑠) = D0 + D𝑒
0 e
where N(s) and D(s) are the numerator and denominator of the transfer function H(s); N0 and Ne
are the odd and even parts of N; D0 and De are the odd and even parts of D. Since N(s) must be
either odd or even, we can write the last equation as
N0
, (N𝑒 = 0)
D +D
H(s) = {D 0 + D e
0 e
, (N0 = 0)
D 0 + De
N0 /De
, (N𝑒 = 0)
1+ D0/De
and can rewrite this as H(s) = { N /D
𝑒 0
, (N0 = 0)
1+D𝑒 /D0
OBSERVATION TABLE:
RESULT: Driving point and transfer functions of a two-port ladder network is determined.
27
EXPERIMENT NO. 9
AIM:To study frequency response of Passive Filter circuit
THEORY:
Passive filters are made up of passive components such as resistors, capacitors and inductors and
have no amplifying elements (transistors, op-amps, etc) so have no signal gain, therefore their
output level is always less than the input.
Filters are so named according to the frequency range of signals that they allow to pass through
them, while blocking or “attenuating” the rest. The most commonly used filter designs are the:
▪ The Low Pass Filter – the low pass filter only allows low frequency signals from 0Hz to its
cut-off frequency, ƒc point to pass while blocking those any higher.
▪ The High Pass Filter – the high pass filter only allows high frequency signals from its cut-
off frequency, ƒc point and higher to infinity to pass through while blocking those any
lower.
▪ The Band Pass Filter – the band pass filter allows signals falling within a certain frequency
band setup between two points to pass through while blocking both the lower and higher
frequencies either side of this frequency band.
Ideal Filter Response Curves
Figure 9.1: Ideal Filter Response Curves
The Low Pass Filter

A simple passive RC Low Pass Filter or LPF, can be easily made by connecting together in
series a single Resistor with a single Capacitor as shown below. In this type of filter
arrangement, the input signal (VIN) is applied to the series combination (both the Resistor and
Capacitor together) but the output signal (VOUT) is taken across the capacitor only.
28
This type of filter is known generally as a “first-order filter” or “one-pole filter”, because it has
only “one” reactive component, the capacitor, in the circuit.
RC Low Pass Filter Circuit
Figure 9.2:RC Low Pass Filter Circuit

The Bode Plot shows the Frequency Response of the filter to be nearly flat for low frequencies
and all of the input signal is passed directly to the output, resulting in a gain of nearly 1, called
unity, until it reaches its Cut-off Frequency point (ƒc). This is because the reactance of the
capacitor is high at low frequencies and blocks any current flow through the capacitor.
Figure 9.5: Frequency Response Curve for Low Pass Filter
29
After this cut-off frequency point the response of the circuit decreases to zero at a slope of -
20dB/ Decade or (-6dB/Octave) “roll-off”. Note that the angle of the slope, this -20dB/
Decade roll-off will always be the same for any RC combination.
Any high frequency signals applied to the low pass filter circuit above this cut-off frequency
point will become greatly attenuated, that is they rapidly decrease. This happens because at very
high frequencies the reactance of the capacitor becomes so low that it gives the effect of a short
circuit condition on the output terminals resulting in zero output.
Then by carefully selecting the correct resistor-capacitor combination, we can create a RC circuit
that allows a range of frequencies below a certain value to pass through the circuit unaffected
while any frequencies applied to the circuit above this cut-off point to be attenuated, creating
what is commonly called a Low Pass Filter.
This “Cut-off”, “Corner” or “Breakpoint” frequency is defined as being the frequency point
where the capacitive reactance and resistance are equal. When this occurs, the output signal is
attenuated to 70.7% of the input signal value or -3dB (20 log (Vout/Vin)) of the input. Although R
= Xc, the output is not half of the input signal. This is because it is equal to the vector sum of the
two and is therefore 0.707 of the input.
As the filter contains a capacitor, the Phase Angle (Φ) of the output signal LAGS behind that of
the input and at the -3dB cut-off frequency (ƒc) is -45o out of phase. This is due to the time taken
to charge the plates of the capacitor as the input voltage changes, resulting in the output voltage
(the voltage across the capacitor) “lagging” behind that of the input signal. The higher the input
frequency applied to the filter the more the capacitor lags and the circuit becomes more and more
“out of phase”.
The cut-off frequency point and phase shift angle can be found by using the following equation:
Cut-off Frequency and Phase Shift
𝟏
fc =
𝟐𝛑𝐑𝐂
Phase Shift Φ = − 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 (𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐑𝐂)
Passive High Pass Filter
A High Pass Filter is the exact opposite to the low pass filter circuit as the two components have
been interchanged with the filters output signal now being taken from across the resistor.
The High Pass Filter Circuit

In this circuit arrangement, the reactance of the capacitor is very high at low frequencies so the
capacitor acts like an open circuit and blocks any input signals at VIN until the cut-off frequency
point (ƒC) is reached. Above this cut-off frequency point the reactance of the capacitor has
30
reduced sufficiently as to now act more like a short circuit allowing all of the input signal to pass
directly to the output as shown below in the filter’s response curve.
Figure 9.4: RC High Pass Filter Circuit
Frequency Response of a 1st Order High Pass Filter
The Bode Plot or Frequency Response Curve below for a passive high pass filter is the exact
opposite to that of a low pass filter. Here the signal is attenuated or damped at low frequencies
with the output increasing at +20dB/Decade (6dB/Octave) until the frequency reaches the cut-off
point (ƒc) where again R = Xc. It has a response curve that extends down from infinity to the cut-
off frequency, where the output voltage amplitude is 1/√2 = 70.7% of the input signal value or -
3dB (20 log (Vout/Vin)) of the input value.
Figure 9.5:Frequency Response Curve for High Pass Filter
31
Also, we can see that the phase angle (Φ) of the output signal LEADS that of the input and is
equal to +45o at frequency ƒc. The frequency response curve for this filter implies that the filter
can pass all signals out to infinity. However, in practice, the filter response does not extend to
infinity but is limited by the electrical characteristics of the components used.
The cut-off frequency point for a first order high pass filter can be found using the same equation
as that of the low pass filter, but the equation for the phase shift is modified slightly to account
for the positive phase angle as shown below.
Cut-off Frequency and Phase Shift
𝟏
fc =
𝟐𝛑𝐑𝐂
𝟏
Phase Shift Φ = 𝐭𝐚𝐧−𝟏 ( )
𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐑𝐂
Passive Band Pass Filter
Passive Band Pass Filters can be made by connecting together a low pass filter with a high pass
filter.
Band Pass Filter Circuit
Unlike the low pass filter which only pass signals of a low frequency range or the high pass filter
which pass signals of a higher frequency range, a Band Pass Filters passes signals within a
certain “band” or “spread” of frequencies without distorting the input signal or introducing extra
noise. This band of frequencies can be any width and is commonly known as the
filters Bandwidth.
Figure 9.4: Band Pass Filter Circuit

Bandwidth is commonly defined as the frequency range that exists between two specified
frequency cut-off points (ƒc), that are 3dB below the maximum center or resonant peak while
attenuating or weakening the others outside of these two points.
Then for widely spread frequencies, we can simply define the term “bandwidth”, BW as being
32
the difference between the lower cut-off frequency (ƒcLOWER) and the higher cut-off frequency
(ƒcHIGHER) points. In other words, BW = ƒH – ƒL. Clearly for a pass band filter to function
correctly, the cut-off frequency of the low pass filter must be higher than the cut-off frequency
for the high pass filter.
The “ideal” Band Pass Filter can also be used to isolate or filter out certain frequencies that lie
within a particular band of frequencies, for example, noise cancellation. Band pass filters are
known generally as second-order filters, (two-pole) because they have “two” reactive
components, the capacitors, within their circuit design. One capacitor in the low pass circuit and
another capacitor in the high pass circuit.
Frequency Response of a 2nd Order Band Pass Filter
The Bode Plot or frequency response curve below shows the characteristics of the band pass
filter. Here the signal is attenuated at low frequencies with the output increasing at a slope of
+20dB/Decade (6dB/Octave) until the frequency reaches the “lower cut-off” point ƒL. At this
frequency the output voltage is again 1/√2= 70.7% of the input signal value or -3dB
(20*log(VOUT/VIN)) of the input.
Figure 9.5: Frequency Response Curve for BandPass Filter
33
The output continues at maximum gain until it reaches the “upper cut-off” point ƒH where the
output decreases at a rate of -20dB/Decade (6dB/Octave) attenuating any high frequency signals.
The point of maximum output gain is generally the geometric mean of the two -3dB value
between the lower and upper cut-off points and is called the “Centre Frequency” or “Resonant
Peak” value ƒr. This geometric mean value is calculated as being ƒr 2 = ƒ(UPPER) x ƒ(LOWER).
A band pass filter is regarded as a second-order (two-pole) type filter because it has “two”
reactive components within its circuit structure, then the phase angle will be twice that of the
previously seen first-order filters, ie, 180o. The phase angle of the output signal LEADS that of
the input by +90o up to the center or resonant frequency, ƒr point where it becomes “zero”
degrees (0o) or “in-phase” and then changes to LAG the input by -90o as the output frequency
increases.
The upper and lower cut-off frequency points for a band pass filter can be found using the same
formula as that for both the low and high pass filters, For example.
𝟏
fc =
𝟐𝛑𝐑𝐂
Then clearly, the width of the pass band of the filter can be controlled by the positioning of the
two cut-off frequency points of the two filters.
OBSERVATION TABLE:
Table 9: Cutoff frequency for various filters
Type of filter Theoretical Value Practical Value

LPF
HPF
BPF
OUTPUT WAVEFORM:
RESULT: Frequency response of Passive Filter circuit has been studied.
34

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NETWORK THEORY (ECE181314)

Prepared by: Niranjan Jyoti Borah Nishant Bharti

DEPT. OF ELECTRONICS AND TELECOMMUNICATION ENGINEERING

ASSAM ENGINEERING COLLEGE

To start Multisim, select from the program list:

Start Click on Start All Programs National Instruments Circuit Design

To Place Components, click on Place/Components. On the Select Component Window click on

Figure 1: Select Resistor Figure 2: Select DC voltage

Figure 3: DC Source & Resistors

Figure 4: Virtual Components

5. Place Wire/Connect Components

To connect resistors, click on Place/Wire drag

Figure 6: Place/ Wire

6. Change Component Values

Figure 7: Change Component Values

Figure 8: Completed Circuits

Figure 10: Simulation

Figure 11: Multimeter

Figure 14: Wattmeter Figure 15: Wattmeter Connection

Figure 17: Ammeter

SOFTWARE REQUIRED: NI Multisim

Figure 1.1: Superposition in ac circuit Figure 1.2: Superposition in dc circuit

Sources Present Theoretical Value of current/voltage Practical Value of current/voltage

Table 1.2: For ac circuit

Sources Present Theoretical Value of current/voltage Practical Value of current/voltage

RESULT: Principle of Superposition theorem verified for both ac and dc sources

SOFTWARE REQUIRED: NI Multisim

Figure 2.1: Circuit to find Thevenin’s equivalent across AB

Figure 2.2: Circuit to find Norton’s equivalent across AB

Quantity Theoretical Value Practical Value

Table 2.2: For Norton’s Theorem

Quantity Theoretical Value Practical Value

Table 2.3: For Maximum Power Transfer Theorem

Quantity Theoretical Value Practical Value

SOFTWARE REQUIRED: NI Multisim

Thus, for the Kth branch, this theorem states that

Figure 3: Circuits to prove tellegen’s theorem

Quantity Theoretical Value Practical Value

Table 3.2: For the second circuit

Quantity Theoretical Value Practical Value

SOFTWARE REQUIRED: NI Multisim

Figure 4.1: RC circuit Figure 4.2: RL circuit

Figure 4.3: Vc1 curve of RC circuit

Transient response equation

v(t) = v(∞) + [v(0+) − v(∞)]e−t/τ ,

i(t) = i(∞) + [i(0+) − i(∞)]e−t/τ .

Figure 4.4: Figure showing time constant of a RL Circuit

Type of Circuit Quantity Expression

RESULT: Transient response of current in RL circuit is found to be increasing and that in RC

SOFTWARE REQUIRED: NI Multisim

Figure 5: RLC circuit with step voltage input

Applying KVL to the mesh,

By partial-fraction expansion, of 𝐼(𝑠)

Taking the inverse Laplace transform,

In this case, the solution is given by

𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 (𝑘1 𝑒 𝛽𝑡 + 𝑘2 𝑒 −𝛽𝑡 )

or 𝑖 (𝑡) = 𝑘1 𝑒 𝑠1 𝑡 + 𝑘2 𝑒 𝑠2𝑡 for t > 0

𝑖(𝑡) = 𝑒 −𝛼𝑡 (𝑘1 + 𝑘2 𝑡) for t > 0

In this case, the solution is given by