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Architecture
For the profession, see Architect. For other uses, see Architecture (disambiguation).

Brunelleschi, in the building of the dome of Florence Cathedral (Italy) in the early 15th
century, not only transformed the building and the city, but also the role and status of the
architect.

Example of an East Asian hip-and-gable roof at the Longxing Buddhist Temple, China.

Plan of the second floor (attic storey) of the Hôtel de Brionne in Paris – 1734.
Architecture is both the process and the product of planning, designing,
and constructing buildings or any other structures. Architectural works, in the material form
of buildings, are often perceived as cultural symbols and as works of art. Historical
civilizations are often identified with their surviving architectural achievements.
Definitions and etymology
Architecture (Latin architectura , from the Greek ἀρχιτέκτων arkhitekton "architect", from
ἀρχι-"chief" and τέκτων"creator") is both the process and the product
of planning, designing, and constructing buildings and other physical structures.
Architecture can mean:

 A general term to describe buildings and other physical structures.

 The art and science of designing buildings and (some) nonbuilding structures.
 The style of design and method of construction of buildings and other physical
structures.
 A unifying or coherent form or structure.
 Knowledge of art, science, technology, and humanity.
 The design activity of the architect, from the macro-level (urban design, landscape
architecture) to the micro-level (construction details and furniture). The practice of
the architect, where architecture means offering or rendering professional services in
connection with the design and construction of buildings, or built environments.
Theory of architecture
Main article: Architectural theory

Historic treatises

The Parthenon, Athens, Greece, "the supreme example among architectural

sites." (Fletcher).

The earliest surviving written work on the subject of architecture is De architectura, by the
Roman architect Vitruvius in the early 1st century AD. According to Vitruvius, a good
building should satisfy the three principles of firmitas, utilitas, venustas, commonly known
by the original translation – firmness, commodity and delight. An equivalent in modern
English would be:
 Durability – a building should stand up robustly and remain in good condition.
 Utility – it should be suitable for the purposes for which it is used.
 Beauty – it should be aesthetically pleasing.
According to Vitruvius, the architect should strive to fulfill each of these three attributes as
well as possible. Leon Battista Alberti, who elaborates on the ideas of Vitruvius in his
treatise, De Re Aedificatoria, saw beauty primarily as a matter of proportion, although
ornament also played a part. For Alberti, the rules of proportion were those that governed
the idealised human figure, the Golden mean.
The most important aspect of beauty was, therefore, an inherent part of an object, rather
than something applied superficially, and was based on universal, recognisable truths. The
notion of style in the arts was not developed until the 16th century, with the writing
of Vasari: by the 18th century, his Lives of the Most Excellent Painters, Sculptors, and
Architects had been translated into Italian, French, Spanish, and English.

Ancient Roman architect Vitruvius described in his theory of proper architecture,

the proportions of a man.

In the early 19th century, Augustus Welby Northmore Pugin wrote Contrasts (1836) that, as
the titled suggested, contrasted the modern, industrial world, which he disparaged, with an
idealized image of neo-medieval world. Gothic architecture, Pugin believed, was the only
"true Christian form of architecture."
The 19th-century English art critic, John Ruskin, in his Seven Lamps of Architecture ,
published 1849, was much narrower in his view of what constituted architecture.
Architecture was the "art which so disposes and adorns the edifices raised by men ... that
the sight of them" contributes "to his mental health, power, and pleasure".
For Ruskin, the aesthetic was of overriding significance. His work goes on to state that a
building is not truly a work of architecture unless it is in some way "adorned". For Ruskin, a
well-constructed, well-proportioned, functional building needed string courses or rustication,
at the very least.
On the difference between the ideals of architecture and mere construction, the renowned
20th-century architect Le Corbusier wrote: "You employ stone, wood, and concrete, and with
these materials you build houses and palaces: that is construction. Ingenuity is at work. But
suddenly you touch my heart, you do me good. I am happy and I say: This is beautiful. That
is Architecture".
Le Corbusier's contemporary Ludwig Mies van der Rohe said "Architecture starts when you
carefully put two bricks together. There it begins."

The National Congress of Brazil, designed by Oscar Niemeyer

Modern concepts
The notable 19th-century architect of skyscrapers, Louis Sullivan, promoted an overriding
precept to architectural design: "Form follows function".
While the notion that structural and aesthetic considerations should be entirely subject to
functionality was met with both popularity and skepticism, it had the effect of introducing
the concept of "function" in place of Vitruvius' "utility". "Function" came to be seen as
encompassing all criteria of the use, perception and enjoyment of a building, not only
practical but also aesthetic, psychological and cultural.

Sydney Opera House, Australia designed by Jørn Utzon

Nunzia Rondanini stated, "Through its aesthetic dimension architecture goes beyond the
functional aspects that it has in common with other human sciences. Through its own
particular way of expressing values, architecture can stimulate and influence social life
without presuming that, in and of itself, it will promote social development.'
To restrict the meaning of (architectural) formalism to art for art's sake is not only
reactionary; it can also be a purposeless quest for perfection or originality which degrades
form into a mere instrumentality".

Among the philosophies that have influenced modern architects and their approach to
building design are rationalism, empiricism, structuralism, poststructuralism,
and phenomenology.
In the late 20th century a new concept was added to those included in the compass of both
structure and function, the consideration of sustainability, hence sustainable architecture.
To satisfy the contemporary ethos a building should be constructed in a manner which is
environmentally friendly in terms of the production of its materials, its impact upon the
natural and built environment of its surrounding area and the demands that it makes upon
non-sustainable power sources for heating, cooling, water and waste management
and lighting.
Philosophy of architecture
Main article: Philosophy of architecture

Wittgenstein House

Philosophy of Architecture is a branch of philosophy of art, dealing with aesthetic value

of architecture, its semantics and relations with development of culture.
Plato to Michel Foucault, Gilles Deleuze, Robert Venturi as well as many other philosophers
and theoreticians, distinguish architecture ('technion') from building ('demiorgos'),
attributing the former to mental traits, and the latter to the divine or natural.
The Wittgenstein House is considered one of the most important examples of interactions
between philosophy and architecture. Built by renowned Austrian philosopher Ludwig
Wittgenstein, the house has been the subject of extensive research about the relationship
between its stylistic features, Wittgenstein's personality, and his philosophy.
History
Main article: History of architecture

Origins and vernacular architecture

Pre-historic model of a planned pre-historic temple, at the National Museum of

Archaeology in Valletta

Main article: Vernacular architecture

Building first evolved out of the dynamics between needs (shelter, security, worship, etc.)
and means (available building materials and attendant skills). As human cultures developed
and knowledge began to be formalized through oral traditions and practices, building
became a craft, and "architecture" is the name given to the most highly formalized and
respected versions of that craft. It is widely assumed that architectural success was the
product of a process of trial and error, with progressively less trial and more replication as
the results of the process proved increasingly satisfactory. What is termed vernacular
architecture continues to be produced in many parts of the world. Indeed, vernacular
buildings make up most of the built world that people experience every day. Early human
settlements were mostly rural. Due to a surplus in production the economy began to expand
resulting in urbanization thus creating urban areas which grew and evolved very rapidly in
some cases, such as that of Çatal Höyük in Anatolia and Mohenjo Daro of the Indus Valley
Civilization in modern-day Pakistan.

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Vernacular architecture in Norway: wood and elevated-level

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In Lesotho: rondavel stones.
 
Yola hut -Tagoat Co. Wexford Ireland
Ancient architecture
In many ancient civilizations, such as those of Egypt and Mesopotamia, architecture and
urbanism reflected the constant engagement with the divine and the supernatural, and
many ancient cultures resorted to monumentality in architecture to represent symbolically
the political power of the ruler, the ruling elite, or the state itself.
The architecture and urbanism of the Classical civilizations such as the Greek and
the Roman evolved from civic ideals rather than religious or empirical ones and new building
types emerged. Architectural "style" developed in the form of the Classical orders. Roman
architecture was influenced by Greek architecture as they incorporated many Greek
elements into their building practices.
Texts on architecture have been written since ancient time. These texts provided both
general advice and specific formal prescriptions or canons. Some examples of canons are
found in the writings of the 1st-century BCE Roman Architect Vitruvius. Some of the most
important early examples of canonic architecture are religious.


The Pyramids at Giza in Egypt

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The Parthenon in Athens, Greece.

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Roman aqueduct in Segovia, Spain.
Asian architecture
Early Asian writings on architecture include the Kao Gong Ji of China from the 7th–5th
centuries BCE; the Shilpa Shastras of ancient India; Manjusri Vasthu Vidya Sastra of Sri
Lanka and Araniko of Nepal .
The architecture of different parts of Asia developed along different lines from that of
Europe; Buddhist, Hindu and Sikh architecture each having different characteristics.
Buddhist architecture, in particular, showed great regional diversity. Hindu temple
architecture, which developed around the 3rd century BCE, is governed by concepts laid
down in the Shastras, and is concerned with expressing the macrocosm and the microcosm.
In many Asian countries, pantheistic religion led to architectural forms that were designed
specifically to enhance the natural landscape.

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Gyeongbokgung Palace in Seoul, South Korea.

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Kinkaku-ji (Golden Pavilion), Kyoto, Japan.

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The Great Red Gate at the Ming Tombs near Beijing, China.

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Bahay na Bato houses in Philippines

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The ceiling of Dilwara Jain Temples, India.
 
the view of Janaki mandir, Nepal.
Islamic architecture
Islamic architecture began in the 7th century CE, incorporating architectural forms from the
ancient Middle East and Byzantium, but also developing features to suit the religious and
social needs of the society. Examples can be found throughout the Middle East, North Africa,
Spain and the Indian Sub-continent.
Main article: Islamic architecture

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Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem.


Taj Mahal in Agra, India.

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Alhambra, Granada, Spain.

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Shah Mosque in Isfahan, Iran
Middle Ages
In Europe during the Medieval period, guilds were formed by craftsmen to organise their
trades and written contracts have survived, particularly in relation to ecclesiastical buildings.
The role of architect was usually one with that of master mason, or Magister lathomorum as
they are sometimes described in contemporary documents.
The major architectural undertakings were the buildings of abbeys and cathedrals. From
about 900 CE onwards, the movements of both clerics and tradesmen carried architectural
knowledge across Europe, resulting in the pan-European styles Romanesque and Gothic.

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Notre Dame de Paris, France.

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The Tower of London, England.

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Doge's Palace, Venice, Italy.
Renaissance and the architect
Main article: Renaissance architecture

In Renaissance Europe, from about 1400 onwards, there was a revival of Classical learning
accompanied by the development of Renaissance Humanism which placed greater emphasis
on the role of the individual in society than had been the case during the Medieval period.
Buildings were ascribed to specific architects – Brunelleschi, Alberti, Michelangelo, Palladio –
and the cult of the individual had begun. There was still no dividing line
between artist, architect and engineer, or any of the related vocations, and the appellation
was often one of regional preference.
A revival of the Classical style in architecture was accompanied by a burgeoning of science
and engineering which affected the proportions and structure of buildings. At this stage, it
was still possible for an artist to design a bridge as the level of structural calculations
involved was within the scope of the generalist.

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 St. Peter's Basilica, Rome, Italy.

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Palazzo Farnese, Rome, Italy.

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Santa Maria Novella, Florence, Italy.
Early modern and the industrial age
With the emerging knowledge in scientific fields and the rise of new materials and
technology, architecture and engineering began to separate, and the architect began to
concentrate on aesthetics and the humanist aspects, often at the expense of technical
aspects of building design. There was also the rise of the "gentleman architect" who usually
dealt with wealthy clients and concentrated predominantly on visual qualities derived
usually from historical prototypes, typified by the many country houses of Great Britain that
were created in the Neo Gothic or Scottish Baronial styles. Formal architectural training in
the 19th century, for example at École des Beaux-Arts in France, gave much emphasis to
the production of beautiful drawings and little to context and feasibility.
Meanwhile, the Industrial Revolution laid open the door for mass production and
consumption. Aesthetics became a criterion for the middle class as ornamented products,
once within the province of expensive craftsmanship, became cheaper under machine
production.
Vernacular architecture became increasingly ornamental. House builders could use current
architectural design in their work by combining features found in pattern books and
architectural journals.

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Palais Garnier, Paris, France.

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Pont Alexandre III Paris, France.
 
Congeso Nacional Palace, Buenos Aires, Argentina.
Modernism
Main article: Modern architecture

Around the beginning of the 20th century, a general dissatisfaction with the emphasis on
revivalist architecture and elaborate decoration gave rise to many new lines of thought that
served as precursors to Modern Architecture. Notable among these is the Deutscher
Werkbund, formed in 1907 to produce better quality machine made objects. The rise of the
profession of industrial design is usually placed here. Following this lead,
the Bauhaus school, founded in Weimar, Germany in 1919, redefined the architectural
bounds prior set throughout history, viewing the creation of a building as the ultimate
synthesis—the apex—of art, craft, and technology.
When modern architecture was first practiced, it was an avant-garde movement with moral,
philosophical, and aesthetic underpinnings. Immediately after World War I, pioneering
modernist architects sought to develop a completely new style appropriate for a new post-
war social and economic order, focused on meeting the needs of the middle and working
classes. They rejected the architectural practice of the academic refinement of historical
styles which served the rapidly declining aristocratic order. The approach of the Modernist
architects was to reduce buildings to pure forms, removing historical references and
ornament in favor of functionalist details. Buildings displayed their functional and structural
elements, exposing steel beams and concrete surfaces instead of hiding them behind
decorative forms. Architects such as Frank Lloyd Wright developed organic architecture, in
which the form was defined by its environment and purpose, with an aim to promote
harmony between human habitation and the natural world with prime examples being Robie
House and Fallingwater.
Architects such as Mies van der Rohe, Philip Johnson and Marcel Breuer worked to create
beauty based on the inherent qualities of building materials and modern construction
techniques, trading traditional historic forms for simplified geometric forms, celebrating the
new means and methods made possible by the Industrial Revolution, including steel-frame
construction, which gave birth to high-rise superstructures. Fazlur Rahman Khan's
development of the tube structure was a technological break-through in building ever
higher. By mid-century, Modernism had morphed into the International Style, an aesthetic
epitomized in many ways by the Twin Towers of New York's World Trade Center designed
by Minoru Yamasaki.

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The Bauhaus school building in Dessau, Germany.
 
Guggenheim Museum, New York City, United States.


Cathedral of Brasília, Brazil.

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Willis Tower, Chicago, United States
Postmodernism
Main article: Postmodern architecture

Many architects resisted modernism, finding it devoid of the decorative richness of historical
styles. As the first generation of modernists began to die after World War II, a second
generation of architects including Paul Rudolph, Marcel Breuer, and Eero Saarinen tried to
expand the aesthetics of modernism with Brutalism, buildings with expressive sculptural
façades made of unfinished concrete. But an even new younger postwar generation
critiqued modernism and Brutalism for being too austere, standardized, monotone, and not
taking into account the richness of human experience offered in historical buildings across
time and in different places and cultures.
One such reaction to the cold aesthetic of modernism and Brutalism is the school
of metaphoric architecture, which includes such things as biomorphism and zoomorphic
architecture, both using nature as the primary source of inspiration and design. While it is
considered by some to be merely an aspect of postmodernism, others consider it to be a
school in its own right and a later development of expressionist architecture.
Beginning in the late 1950s and 1960s, architectural phenomenology emerged as an
important movement in the early reaction against modernism, with architects like Charles
Moore in the United States, Christian Norberg-Schulz in Norway, and Ernesto Nathan
Rogers and Vittorio Gregotti, Michele Valori, Bruno Zevi in Italy, who collectively popularized
an interest in a new contemporary architecture aimed at expanding human experience using
historical buildings as models and precedents. Postmodernism produced a style that
combined contemporary building technology and cheap materials, with the aesthetics of
older pre-modern and non-modern styles, from high classical architecture to popular or
vernacular regional building styles. Robert Venturi famously defined postmodern
architecture as a "decorated shed" (an ordinary building which is functionally designed
inside and embellished on the outside), and upheld it against modernist and brutalist
"ducks" (buildings with unnecessarily expressive tectonic forms).
 
The Dancing House, Prague, Czech Republic.


Sydney Opera House, Australia.


The Petronas Tower in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
Architecture today
Main article: Contemporary architecture

Since the 1980s, as the complexity of buildings began to increase (in terms of structural
systems, services, energy and technologies), the field of architecture became multi-
disciplinary with specializations for each project type, technological expertise or project
delivery methods. In addition, there has been an increased separation of the 'design'
architect from the 'project' architect who ensures that the project meets the required
standards and deals with matters of liability. The preparatory processes for the design of
any large building have become increasingly complicated, and require preliminary studies of
such matters as durability, sustainability, quality, money, and compliance with local laws. A
large structure can no longer be the design of one person but must be the work of
many. Modernism and Postmodernism have been criticised by some members of the
architectural profession who feel that successful architecture is not a personal,
philosophical, or aesthetic pursuit by individualists; rather it has to consider everyday needs
of people and use technology to create liveable environments, with the design process being
informed by studies of behavioral, environmental, and social sciences.
Environmental sustainability has become a mainstream issue, with profound effect on the
architectural profession. Many developers, those who support the financing of buildings,
have become educated to encourage the facilitation of environmentally sustainable design,
rather than solutions based primarily on immediate cost. Major examples of this can be
found in passive solar building design, greener roof designs, biodegradable materials, and
more attention to a structure's energy usage. This major shift in architecture has also
changed architecture schools to focus more on the environment. There has been an
acceleration in the number of buildings which seek to meet green building sustainable
design principles. Sustainable practices that were at the core of vernacular architecture
increasingly provide inspiration for environmentally and socially sustainable contemporary
techniques. The U.S. Green Building Council's LEED (Leadership in Energy and
Environmental Design) rating system has been instrumental in this.[ quantify ]

Concurrently, the recent movements of New Urbanism, metaphoric architecture and New
Classical Architecture promote a sustainable approach towards construction that appreciates
and develops smart growth, architectural tradition and classical design. This in contrast
to modernist and globally uniform architecture, as well as leaning against solitary housing
estates and suburban sprawl. Glass curtain walls, which were the hallmark of the ultra
modern urban life in many countries surfaced even in developing countries like Nigeria
where international styles had been represented since the mid 20th Century mostly because
of the leanings of foreign-trained architects.

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Bird's Nest stadium, Beijing, China.

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London City Hall, England.

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Auditorio de Tenerife, Canary Islands, Spain..
Other types of architecture
Business architecture
Main article: Business architecture

Aspects of the Business Represented by Business Architecture

Business architecture is defined as "a blueprint of the enterprise that provides a common
understanding of the organization and is used to align strategic objectives and tactical
demands." People who develop and maintain business architecture are known as business
architects.
Business architecture is the bridge between the enterprise business
model and enterprise strategy on one side, and the business functionality of
the enterprise on the other side.
Cognitive architecture
Main article: Cognitive architecture

Cognitive architecture can refer to a theory about the structure of the human mind. One of
the main goals of a cognitive architecture is to summarize the various results of cognitive
psychology in a comprehensive computer model. However, the results need to be in a
formalized form so far that they can be the basis of a computer program. The formalized
models can be used to further refine a comprehensive theory of cognition, and more
immediately, as a commercially usable model. Successful cognitive architectures
include ACT-R (Adaptive Control of Thought, ACT) and SOAR.
The Institute of Creative Technologies defines cognitive architecture as: "hypothesis about
the fixed structures that provide a mind, whether in natural or artificial systems, and how
they work together – in conjunction with knowledge and skills embodied within the
architecture – to yield intelligent behavior in a diversity of complex environments."

Computer architecture
Main article: Computer architecture

Pipelined implementation of MIPS architecture.

In computer engineering, "computer architecture" is a set of rules and methods that

describe the functionality, organization, and implementation of computer systems. Some
definitions of architecture define it as describing the capabilities and programming model of
a computer but not a particular implementation. In other definitions computer architecture
involves instruction set architecture design, microarchitecture design, logic design,
and implementation.
Enterprise architecture
Main article: Enterprise architecture

Enterprise architecture (EA) is "a well-defined practice for conducting enterprise analysis,
design, planning, and implementation, using a holistic approach at all times, for the
successful development and execution of strategy. Enterprise architecture applies
architecture principles and practices to guide organizations through the business,
information, process, and technology changes necessary to execute their strategies. These
practices utilize the various aspects of an enterprise to identify, motivate, and achieve these
changes."
Practitioners of enterprise architecture, enterprise architects, are responsible for performing
the analysis of business structure and processes and are often called upon to draw
conclusions from the information collected to address the goals of enterprise
architecture: effectiveness, efficiency, agility, and durability.
Interior architecture
Main article: Interior architecture

Charles Rennie Mackintosh – Music Room 1901

Interior architecture is the design of a space which has been created by structural
boundaries and the human interaction within these boundaries. It can also be the initial
design and plan for use, then later redesign to accommodate a changed purpose, or a
significantly revised design for adaptive reuse of the building shell. The latter is often part
of sustainable architecture practices, conserving resources through "recycling" a structure
by adaptive redesign. Generally referred to as the spatial art of environmental design, form
and practice, interior architecture is the process through which the interiors of buildings are
designed, concerned with all aspects of the human uses of structural spaces. Put simply,
Interior Architecture is the design of an interior in architectural terms.
Landscape architecture
Main article: Landscape architecture

Orangery at the Palace of Versailles, outside Paris

Landscape architecture is the design of outdoor public areas, landmarks, and structures to
achieve environmental, social-behavioral, or aesthetic outcomes. It involves the systematic
investigation of existing social, ecological, and soil conditions and processes in the
landscape, and the design of interventions that will produce the desired outcome. The scope
of the profession includes landscape design; site planning; stormwater
management; environmental restoration; parks and recreation planning; visual resource
management; green infrastructure planning and provision; and
private estate and residence landscape master planning and design; all at varying scales of
design, planning and management. A practitioner in the profession of landscape architecture
is called a landscape architect.
Naval architecture
Main article: Naval architecture
Body plan of a ship showing the hull form

Naval architecture, also known as naval engineering, is an engineering discipline dealing

with the engineering design process, shipbuilding, maintenance, and operation of marine
vessels and structures. Naval architecture involves basic and applied research, design,
development, design evaluation and calculations during all stages of the life of a marine
vehicle. Preliminary design of the vessel, its detailed design, construction, trials, operation
and maintenance, launching and dry-docking are the main activities involved. Ship design
calculations are also required for ships being modified (by means of conversion, rebuilding,
modernization, or repair). Naval architecture also involves formulation of safety regulations
and damage control rules and the approval and certification of ship designs to meet
statutory and non-statutory requirements.
Network architecture
Main article: Network architecture

Network architecture is the design of a communication network. It is a framework for the

specification of a network's physical components and their functional organization and
configuration, its operational principles and procedures, as well as data formats use.
In telecommunication, the specification of a network architecture may also include a
detailed description of products and services delivered via a communications network, as
well as detailed rate and billing structures under which services are compensated.
Software architecture
Main article: Software architecture

Software architecture refers to the fundamental structures of a software system, the

discipline of creating such structures, and the documentation of these structures. These
structures are needed to reason about the software system. Each structure comprises
software elements, relations among them, and properties of both elements and relations,
along with rationale for the introduction and configuration of each element.
The architecture of a software system is a metaphor, analogous to the architecture of a
building.
Software architecture is about making fundamental structural choices which are costly to
change once implemented. Software architecture choices, also called architectural
decisions, include specific structural options from possibilities in the design of software. For
example, the systems that controlled the space shuttle launch vehicle had the requirement
of being very fast and very reliable. Therefore, an appropriate real-time computing language
would need to be chosen. Additionally, to satisfy the need for reliability the choice could be
made to have multiple redundant and independently produced copies of the program, and
to run these copies on independent hardware while cross-checking results.
Documenting software architecture facilitates communication between stakeholders,
captures decisions about the architecture design, and allows reuse of design components
between projects.
Distributed computing architecture
In distributed computing, computations are distributed over different networked computers,
which communicate and coordinate their actions by passing messages to one another.
Examples of architectures for distributed computing include high-level architecture (HLA)
and Distributed Interactive Simulation (DIS).
System architecture
Main article: System architecture

System architecture is a conceptual model that defines the structure, behavior, and
more views of a system. An architecture description is a formal description and
representation of a system, organized in a way that supports reasoning about
the structures and behaviors of the system.
A system architecture can comprise system components that will work together to
implement the overall system. There have been efforts to formalize languages to describe
system architecture, collectively these are called architecture description languages (ADLs).
Urban design
Main article: Urban design

Urban design is the process of designing and shaping the physical features of cities, towns
and villages. In contrast to architecture, which focuses on the design of individual buildings,
urban design deals with the larger scale of groups of buildings, streets and public spaces,
whole neighborhoods and districts, and entire cities, with the goal of making urban areas
functional, attractive, and sustainable.

Urban design is an inter-disciplinary field that utilizes elements of many built environment
professions, including landscape architecture, urban planning, architecture, civil
engineering and municipal engineering. It is common for professionals in all these disciplines
to practice urban design. In more recent times different sub-subfields of urban design have
emerged such as strategic urban design, landscape urbanism, water-sensitive urban design,
and sustainable urbanism.

This article uses material from the Wikipedia article Architecture, which is released under
the Creative Commons Attribution-Share-Alike License 3.0.