RBT EXAM REVIEW

Created By: Shakira Avila (RBT)

Reviewed by: Ednei Estevez (BCBA)
What is an RBT?
• A Registered Behavior Technician (RBT) is a professional who works with
individuals with autism or other developmental disabilities to provide
therapy and support. They work under the supervision of a Board-
Certified Behavior Analyst (BCBA) and implement behavior plans
developed by the BCBA to help individuals learn new skills, reduce
challenging behaviors, and improve their quality of life.
 Requirements to become an RBT

Have a High School

Have at least 18 years of Pass a Criminal Complete 40-hour RBT
Diploma or equivalent
age Background check training course

Create an account with Complete the Submit and pay RBT

Pass RBT Board Exam
the BACB gateway Competency Assessment application with the BACB
What is ABA?
Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) therapy is a scientific
approach to understanding and changing human behavior. It
is widely used in the treatment of autism spectrum disorders
and other developmental disabilities but can also be applied
in many other settings.
ABA therapy can focus on various skills, such as
communication, social skills, self-care, and academic skills. It
is often used to help individuals with autism improve their
language and communication skills, increase their social
interactions, and reduce challenging behaviors.
Topics to study for the RBT Board exam

ETHICS DOCUMENTATION REPORT ASSESSMENT

MEASUREMENT REDUCTION SKILLS

 • One key aspect of ABA is using a
SEVEN comprehensive framework to design

DIMENSIONS
and implement behavior change
interventions. This framework is

TO GUIDE known as the “seven dimensions" of

ABA. Each of these dimensions is
THE FIELD & essential to effectively implementing

PRACT ICE OF
behavior change interventions, and
together they provide a thorough and

ABA
individualized approach to addressing
behavioral challenges. We will be
exploring them in the next slide!
 SEVEN DIMENSIONS TO GUIDE THE FIELD &
PRACTICE OF ABA

4-Technological: fully
2-Behavioral: Focuses on
1-Applied: Focuses on 3-Analytic: describes all procedures
objective measurement
socially significant Demonstrates functional implemented in such
(what the behavior looks
behaviors. relationships. detail that replicate
like).
implementation.

5-Conceptually
6-Effective: 7- Generality: Behavior
Systematic: Utilizes
Demonstrates behavior change that is produced
procedures based upon
change through objective across behaviors, people,
principles of behavior
measurement. and settings.
analysis.
Behavior in ABA
• Behavior is the response of an organism to stimuli. Anything that
can be described in observable and objectively measurable terms.
• An example of behavior in ABA could be a child throwing a
tantrum when they are denied access to a toy. The behavior, in this
case, is the observable action of screaming and throwing, which
could be described in terms of its physical characteristics, such as
how long it lasts, how loud the child is screaming, and how many
items the child throws. By measuring and analyzing this behavior,
an ABA therapist can identify patterns and triggers that lead to the
behavior and develop strategies to modify it, such as teaching the
child to use appropriate communication skills to request the toy.
Basic Principles and
Terms: The Three-term
Contingency
In behavior analysis, we study the three-term contingency, the A-B-
C.
Antecedent: What happens right before the behavior (may evoke
or abate behavior)
Behavior: The behavior itself (screaming, throwing, kicking, etc.)
Consequence: What happens right after the behavior (may
increase or decrease the likelihood that the behavior will happen
again)
We try to determine how the Antecedent and Consequence affect
A
the Behavior. The ways in which the s and the Cs affect the B
are known as the principles of behavior.
REINSFORCEMENT
Unconditioned

Conditioned

Positive

Negative

Schedule
REINFORCEMENT
• Unconditioned is a primary
reinforcement that does not
consist of a learned history
• Example
1-Air/Oxygen
2-Water
3-Sleep
4-Shelter
5-Sex
REINFORCEMENT
• Conditioned is a secondary
reinforcement that has a learned
history
• Example
1-Praise
2-Money
2-Toys
3-Tablet
4-Tokens
OPERANT
CONDIT IONING
• Operant conditioning is a learning process in which behavior
is modified by its consequences. It is based on the idea that if
a pleasant consequence follows a behavior, it is more likely
to be repeated. In contrast, if an unpleasant consequence
follows, the behavior is less likely to be repeated.
• Under this umbrella falls Positive Reinforcement, Negative
Reinforcement, Positive Punishment, and Negative
Punishment.
REINFORCEMENT
• Positive and negative reinforcement are
two types of operant conditioning used
to increase the likelihood of a behavior
being repeated in the future.
Positive(+) reinforcement involves
adding a reward or something desirable
after a behavior is exhibited, while
negative (-) reinforcement involves
removing a aversive or undesirable
stimulus after a behavior is exhibited.
POSIT IVE (+) REINFORCEMENT EXAMPLE

Here are some examples to help illustrate the concepts of positive

reinforcement:
• A student receives praise or a high grade for completing a homework
assignment, which encourages them to continue completing assignments in the
future.
• A child is given a piece of candy for putting away their toys, encouraging them
to continue cleaning up their toys in the future.
• A dog is given a treat for sitting on command, encouraging them to sit on
command in the future.
(+) REINFORCEMENT
• Notice how, in these examples, the “high grade, candy, and treat” function
as the reinforcement. It would be Positive reinforcement because they are
“added,” NOT “removed.” This results in an INCREASE of the DESIRED
BEHAVIOR.
(-) REINFORCEMENT
Here are some examples to help illustrate the concepts of negative
reinforcement:
• A driver fastens their seatbelt to stop a beeping noise, which encourages them to
fasten their seatbelt in the future to avoid the unpleasant sound.
• An employee completes a task to avoid receiving criticism from their boss, which
encourages them to complete tasks in the future to avoid criticism.
• A child finishes eating their vegetables to avoid being scolded by their parents,
which encourages them to eat their vegetables in the future to avoid being
scolded.
(-) REINFORCEMENT
• Notice how these examples of negative reinforcement involve the removal
of undesired/unpleasant stimuli or consequence such as the “beeping
sound,” “the boss’ criticism,” and “being scolded” from the environment,
which as a result, increases the desired behavior of “fastening the seat
belt,” “task completion,” and “eating vegetables.”
• Notice how (-) reinforcement involves removing or avoiding an undesired
consequence which increases the desired behavior!
PUNISHMENT
• The following two principles are very similar to positive and negative reinforcement, but they
result in a decrease in behavior. They are called positive (+) and negative (-) punishment
(unlike how we think of the word punishment in everyday use, here, it simply means the
behavior decreases due to the consequence). Remember, the words positive and negative
tell us if something is added or removed and not if something is good or bad. Thus, in
positive punishment, an aversive (undesired) stimulus is added following the behavior, which
reduces the likelihood of that behavior occurring in the future. In negative punishment, a
reinforcing (or desired) stimulus is removed contingent on behavior, which results in a
decrease in the future probability of that behavior. Note the word “contingent” again, and in
both cases, behavior reduced. Therefore, the word “punishment” in behavior analysis means
when a behavior progressively decreases due to something systematically being added or taken
away following the behavior’s occurrence, not that you are getting retribution for the
misappropriate behavior.
(+) PUNISHMENT
• Positive punishment involves adding an aversive stimulus to decrease the likelihood of
an undesired behavior being repeated in the future.
Examples
• Scolding a child for hitting their sibling is positive punishment, as the child experiences
an aversive stimulus (scolding) to decrease the likelihood of hitting behavior in the
future.
• A teenager comes home past curfew, their parents take away their cell phone for
the rest of the night. By taking away the cell phone, the parents are introducing
a consequence that the teenager finds aversive, in order to decrease the likelihood of
the teenager coming home past curfew in the future.
(-) PUNISHMENT
• Negative punishment involves removing a desired stimulus to decrease the likelihood
of an undesired behavior being repeated in the future.
Examples
• Taking away a child's video game privileges for not finishing their homework is
negative punishment, as the child experiences a loss of a desired stimulus (video game)
to decrease the likelihood of not finishing homework behavior in the future.
• A child hits a peer during a game. The teacher reprimands the child and gives them a
time-out, separating them from the game and their peers for a brief period. This use of
time-out is positive punishment, as it adds an unpleasant consequence to decrease the
likelihood of hitting behavior in the future.
KEEP IN MIND!
It's important to note that while punishment
can be effective in decreasing undesired
behavior, it can also have negative effects on
the individual's emotional well-being and
motivation.
It's also important to use punishment sparingly
and in combination with positive
reinforcement, which involves adding a reward
or desired consequence to increase the
likelihood of a desired behavior being repeated
in the future.
EXT INCT ION • The principle we will discuss next is called
extinction, which is a process that can result in a
decrease or elimination of a particular behavior
when appropriately applied. It is essential to note
that reinforcement must precede extinction to
ensure its effectiveness. Extinction is defined as
the discontinuation of positive or negative
reinforcement that is contingent upon a behavior,
which ultimately leads to a decline in that
behavior. In essence, extinction occurs when a
behavior is consistently reinforced through
positive or negative reinforcement, and the
reinforcement is subsequently withdrawn. This
removal of the reinforcing contingency leads to a
reduction in the occurrence of the behavior.
EXT INCT ION
• The type of extinction that is used depends on the function of the behavior, which refers to the reason
why the behavior is occurring. In ABA, the function of the behavior is determined through a functional
behavior assessment (FBA), which is a process that involves gathering information about the
antecedents (what happens before the behavior occurs), the behavior itself, and the consequences (what
happens after the behavior occurs).
• Once the function of the behavior is determined through the FBA, the ABA professional can select the
appropriate extinction procedure to address the behavior. For example, if the function of the behavior is
to gain attention, attention extinction would be the appropriate procedure. If the function of the
behavior is to escape a task or situation, escape extinction would be the appropriate procedure.
• It's important to note that extinction should be used in conjunction with other behavioral interventions,
such as positive reinforcement, to increase appropriate behavior and teach replacement behaviors. The
use of extinction also requires careful implementation and monitoring by a trained ABA professional to
ensure that the extinction procedure is effective and safe for the individual.
EXT INCT ION
1. Tangible extinction: A child with autism may engage in tantrums or aggressive behavior to gain access to a preferred toy. During
tangible extinction, the therapist would not allow the child to access the toy even if they engage in the problematic behavior. Over
time, the child would learn that their tantrums and aggressive behavior are no longer effective in gaining access to the toy, and the
behavior would decrease.
2. Attention extinction: A child may engage in attention-seeking behaviors, such as whining or interrupting others, to gain attention
from their parents or peers. During attention extinction, the therapist would not give the child attention when they engage in the
problematic behavior. Instead, they would only give attention when the child engages in appropriate behavior. Over time, the child
would learn that their attention-seeking behavior is no longer effective in gaining attention, and the behavior would decrease.
3. Escape extinction: A child with autism may engage in self-injurious behavior or elopement to escape a task or situation that they
find aversive. During escape extinction, the therapist would not allow the child to escape the task or situation even if they engage
in the problematic behavior. Over time, the child would learn that their self-injurious behavior or elopement is no longer effective
in escaping the task or situation, and the behavior would decrease.
4. Sensory extinction: A child with autism may engage in stereotypic or self-stimulatory behavior, such as hand flapping or rocking,
for sensory stimulation. During sensory extinction, the therapist would not provide the sensory stimulation that the child is
seeking. Instead, they would provide alternative sensory activities that are more appropriate. Over time, the child would learn that
their stereotypic or self-stimulatory behavior is no longer effective in gaining sensory stimulation, and the behavior would
decrease.
EXAMPLES OF
EXT INCT ION
1. Extinction of Positive Reinforcement: Withholding the reinforcing
consequence that previously maintained a behavior.
• Example: A child screams for candy at the grocery store checkout line, and
the parent gives in and buys the candy. To decrease the screaming
behavior, the parent could implement extinction by no longer giving the
child candy when they scream.
2. Extinction of Negative Reinforcement: Withholding the removal of an
aversive stimulus that previously maintained a behavior.
• Example: A student refuses to do their homework, and the teacher allows
the student to skip a difficult assignment. To decrease the avoidance
behavior, the teacher could implement extinction by no longer allowing
the student to skip the assignment.
EXAMPLES OF EXT INCT ION
3. Extinction of Automatic Reinforcement: Withholding the sensory or
perceptual consequence that previously maintained a behavior.
• Example: A child engages in hand-flapping behavior for self-stimulation. To
decrease the behavior, a therapist could implement extinction by no longer
providing attention or sensory input when the child engages in hand-
flapping.
4. Extinction of Differential Reinforcement: Withholding reinforcement for
a specific response class while reinforcing an alternative response class.
• Example: A dog barks excessively for attention. To decrease the barking
behavior, the owner could implement extinction by no longer providing
attention when the dog barks and reinforcing quiet behavior with attention.
5. Spontaneous Extinction: The behavior decreases or stops naturally due to
the lack of reinforcement over time.
• Example: A child used to have a tantrum when not getting their way, but as
they mature, the behavior spontaneously goes extinct without any
intentional intervention.
5 PHASES OF EXTINCTION
1- Baseline phase: This is the phase during which the target behavior is
observed and recorded in its natural setting before any intervention is
introduced.
5 PHASES OF EXTINCTION
2- Initial response reduction: Once the intervention is introduced, the
frequency, intensity, or duration of the target behavior may begin to
decrease, but often only to a small extent.
5 PHASES OF EXT INCT ION
3- Extinction burst is a phenomenon that can occur when a behavior that has previously
been reinforced is no longer reinforced. When a behavior is no longer followed by a
reinforcing consequence, the frequency and intensity of the behavior may initially
increase before it decreases.
• This increase in the frequency and intensity of the behavior is known as an extinction
burst. It can be a challenging experience for both the individual exhibiting the behavior
and the person attempting to modify the behavior.
• For example, if a child has learned that they will receive attention from their parent if
they throw a tantrum, but the parent decides to stop giving attention when the child
throws a tantrum, the child may initially increase the frequency and intensity of the
tantrums in an attempt to get the attention they are used to receiving.
5 PHASES OF EXTINCTION
• It's important to note that an extinction burst is a normal part of the behavior
modification process, and it typically means that the behavior is on its way to
being extinguished. It's important to remain consistent in withholding
reinforcement during an extinction burst, as giving in and providing
reinforcement can strengthen the behavior.
• It's also important to note that an extinction burst can be potentially dangerous
in some cases, particularly if the behavior is physically aggressive. In these cases,
it's important to ensure the safety of all involved and seek the assistance of a
trained professional to develop a safe and effective behavior modification plan.
5 PHASES OF EXTINCTION
• 4- Spontaneous recovery: Even after the behavior has been successfully
extinguished, there may be occasional brief occurrences of the behavior in
the future, which is known as spontaneous recovery.
5 PHASES OF EXTINCTION
5- Gradual reduction: The target behavior is gradually reduced to zero over
time as the individual learns that the behavior is no longer effective in
producing the desired outcome.
5 PHASES OF EXTINCTION
• It's important to note that the length of each phase of the extinction
process can vary depending on the individual and the behavior being
modified. The extinction process can be a challenging experience for both
the individual exhibiting the behavior and the person attempting to
modify the behavior, but with patience, consistency, and appropriate
support, it can be an effective technique for changing behavior.
STIMULUS CONTROL AND
MOTIVATIONAL
OPERATIONS
• Stimulus control and motivational operations are two
fundamental concepts in Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) that
help to understand how the environment influences behavior.
• Stimulus control refers to the relationship between a specific
behavior and the Discriminative Stimuli (SDs) or events in
the environment that occasion or trigger that behavior. In
other words, certain stimuli signal or prompt a behavior, and
this relationship is referred to as stimulus control.
• For example, when a person's phone rings, they will likely
answer it. In this scenario, the phone ringing serves as the
antecedent stimulus that controls the behavior of answering
the phone.
 ST IMULUS CONTROL AND
MOT IVAT IONAL OPERAT IONS

• Motivational operations (Mos) refer to temporary changes in the value or

effectiveness of a consequence that affects the behavior's frequency and strength. In
other words, certain events or conditions can alter the value or potency of a
consequence, thereby influencing the behavior.
• For example, if a person is very hungry, food will be a more potent reinforcer than if
they had recently eaten. In this scenario, the person's hunger serves as a motivating
operation that increases the value or effectiveness of food as a reinforcer.
• In ABA, understanding stimulus control and motivational operations is crucial for
developing effective behavior change interventions. By manipulating antecedent stimuli
and motivational operations, ABA practitioners can alter behavior's frequency and
strength to achieve desired outcomes. For instance, an ABA therapist might use
stimulus control by altering the environment to prompt a desired behavior or
motivational operations by manipulating the value of a consequence to increase or
decrease the behavior's frequency.
MOTIVATING OPERATIONS: SATIATION
VS DEPRIVATION
• In Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), satiation and deprivation are two
important concepts that relate to the effects of motivation on behavior.
• Satiation refers to a state in which an individual has consumed or
experienced a particular item or activity to the point where it no longer
holds value as a reinforcer. This means the individual is no longer
motivated to engage in the behavior that previously led to that
reinforcer.
• For example, a child who loves pizza may become satiated with pizza
after eating it every day for a week. As a result, pizza may no longer be
an effective reinforcer for the child, and they may be less motivated to
engage in behaviors that previously led to pizza as a reward.
• Deprivation, on the other hand, refers to a state in which an individual
has been denied access to a particular item or activity for some time,
resulting in an increase in the value of that item or activity as a
reinforcer. This means the individual is more motivated to engage in
behaviors that may lead to that reinforcer.
MOTIVATING OPERATIONS: SATIATION
VS DEPRIVATION
• Deprivation, on the other hand, refers to a state in which
an individual has been denied access to a particular item or
activity for a period of time, resulting in an increase in the
value of that item or activity as a reinforcer. This means
that the individual is more motivated to engage in
behaviors that may lead to that reinforcer.
• For example, a child who is deprived of access to video
games for several days may become more motivated to
engage in behaviors that could result in access to video
games as a reward.
 • In ABA, understanding the concepts of
satiation and deprivation can be
important for creating effective behavior
MOTIVATING intervention plans. For instance, if a child
is satiated with a particular reinforcer, a
OPERATIONS: therapist may need to find alternative

SATIATION VS
reinforcers that the child finds valuable to
use as rewards. Similarly, if a child is
DEPRIVATION deprived of access to a particular
reinforcer, the therapist may use that
reinforcer as a reward for desired
behaviors to help increase motivation and
engagement.
PROMPTS
• In Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA),
prompts are a type of assistance or
cue that helps an individual to
perform a behavior correctly.
Prompts are often used during the
acquisition phase of skill development
when an individual is learning a new
behavior.
TYPES OF PROMPTS
• There are different types of prompts in ABA, including:
1. Gestural prompts: These prompts involve using nonverbal cues,
such as pointing or nodding, to guide an individual through the
desired behavior.
2. Verbal prompts: These prompts involve using spoken words or
phrases to guide an individual through the desired behavior.
Examples of verbal prompts include instructions, hints, or
reminders.
3. Visual prompts: These prompts involve using visual aids or cues to
guide an individual through the desired behavior. Examples of
visual prompts include pictures, diagrams, or written instructions.
4. Modeling: In Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), a modeling prompt
involves demonstrating a behavior for an individual to imitate.
TYPES OF PROMPTS
5. Physical Prompts: Involve physically guiding an individual through the desired behavior. Examples of
physical prompts include hand-over-hand guidance, gentle nudging, and physically moving the individual
through the desired behavior.
• Full Physical: Involves physically guiding the individual through the entire sequence of steps required to
complete the behavior or task. The therapist may physically manipulate the individual's body to perform
the desired behavior or task. Full physical prompts are typically used when an individual has very little
understanding of the task or behavior.
• Partial Physical: Involves physically assisting the individual only as much as needed to help them
complete the behavior or task. The therapist may provide partial physical prompts by guiding the
individual through only part of the sequence of steps required to complete the behavior or task while
allowing the individual to complete the remaining steps independently. Partial physical prompts are
typically used when an individual has some understanding of the task or behavior but may need
assistance with certain aspects of it.
PROMPTS
• Prompting is typically used in conjunction with positive reinforcement to
increase the likelihood of an individual engaging in the desired behavior.
As the individual becomes more proficient in the behavior, prompts are
gradually faded out until they are no longer needed.
• For example, an ABA therapist might use a physical prompt to guide a
child's hand through the steps of tying their shoes. Over time, the
therapist may switch to using a verbal prompt, and eventually, the child
may be able to tie their shoes independently without any prompts.
 PROMPTS: MOST TO
LEAST VS LEAST TO MOST

• There are two main types of prompting techniques: most-to-least

prompting and least-to-most prompting.
• Most-to-least prompting (MTL) involves providing the most intrusive
or intensive prompt initially and then gradually decreasing the level of
assistance provided until the individual can perform the behavior
independently. The goal of MTL prompting is to provide enough
assistance to ensure success while gradually fading the prompts to
promote independence.
• For example, if an individual is learning to tie their shoes, the therapist
may begin by providing a physical prompt, such as hand-over-hand
assistance. As the individual becomes more proficient, the therapist may
switch to a gestural or verbal prompt, such as pointing to the next step or
verbally reminding the individual what to do. The prompts are gradually
faded until the individual can tie their shoes independently.
 PROMPTS:
LEAST TO MOST
• On the other hand, Least-to-most prompting (LTM) involves providing
the least intrusive or intensive prompt initially, and then gradually
increasing the level of assistance provided until the individual can
perform the behavior correctly. The goal of LTM prompting is to
encourage the individual to attempt the behavior independently while
providing assistance as needed.
• For example, if an individual is learning to brush their teeth, the
therapist may begin by providing a verbal prompt, such as reminding the
individual to wet their toothbrush. If the individual does not respond, the
therapist may provide a gestural prompt, such as pointing to the
toothpaste. If the individual still does not respond, the therapist may
provide a physical prompt, such as guiding the individual's hand to the
toothpaste. The prompts are gradually increased until the individual can
complete the task independently.
MOST TO LEAST VS
LEAST TO MOST
• Both prompting techniques can be effective in
helping individuals acquire new skills or
behaviors, and the choice of which technique to
use depends on the individual's needs and
abilities. MTL prompting may be more effective
for individuals who need more guidance or have
difficulty initiating the behavior, while LTM
prompting may be more effective for individuals
who need less guidance and are more capable of
initiating the behavior independently.
PROMPT FADING
• Prompt fading is a technique used in Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) to gradually reduce the level of
assistance an individual provides in performing a behavior or task. The goal of prompt fading is to help
the individual develop independence and perform the behavior or task without assistance.
• The prompt fading process systematically reduces the level of assistance provided to the individual over
time. This can be done by gradually decreasing the intensity, changing the type of prompts, or increasing
the delay between the prompt and the response. As the level of assistance is reduced, the individual is
encouraged to perform the behavior or task more independently.
• For example, in teaching a child with autism to tie their shoes, a therapist may begin by using full
physical prompts to guide the child's hands through tying their shoes. Over time, the therapist would
gradually fade the prompts by using partial physical prompts, verbal prompts, and then eventually no
prompts at all, until the child is able to tie their shoes independently.
PROMPT FADING
• Prompt fading is typically used in
combination with positive reinforcement,
such as praise or a reward, to encourage
the individual to perform the behavior or
task. By gradually reducing the level of
prompts, the individual is able to build
their skills and develop independence,
which can improve their overall quality
of life and ability to function
independently in daily activities.
 PROMPT FADING
EXAMPLES
• Physical assistance: A therapist may use hand-over-hand
assistance to help a child with autism complete a puzzle. The
therapist would start by guiding the child's hand to complete
the puzzle, but over time, the therapist would gradually reduce
the level of assistance until the child is able to complete the
puzzle independently.
• Gestural prompts: A teacher may use a gestural prompt, such
as pointing to a picture or object, to help a student with a
cognitive disability identify the correct answer. The teacher
would start by using a full prompt, pointing directly to the
correct answer, and then gradually reduce the level of
assistance by pointing less and less directly until the student is
able to identify the correct answer independently.
 PROMPT FADING
EXAMPLES
• Verbal prompts: A therapist may use a verbal prompt, such as
saying, "brush your teeth," to help a child with developmental
delays complete their morning routine. The therapist would
start by using a full prompt, saying the entire instruction, and
then gradually reduce the level of assistance by using shorter
phrases, such as "brush," until the child is able to complete the
routine independently.
• Visual prompts: A teacher may use a picture prompt, such as a
visual schedule, to help a student with autism transition
between activities in the classroom. The teacher would start by
using a full prompt, pointing directly to the picture, and then
gradually reduce the level of assistance by pointing less and less
directly until the student is able to transition independently.
MEASURING • Measuring behavior is a critical component of Applied Behavior Analysis
(ABA) as it allows practitioners to identify the target behaviors to work

BEHAVIOR on, track progress, and evaluate the effectiveness of interventions. Let’s
discuss some key concepts related to Measuring Behavior.
 • Before behavior can be measured, it
must be defined in a clear and
objective way. An operational
definition specifies what the
OPERATIONALLY behavior looks like, when it occurs,
DEFINING
and under what conditions. This
BEHAVIOR ensures that everyone involved in
the intervention understands the
targeted behavior.
 OPERAT IONALLY
DEFINING BEHAVIOR
• Good Example: Target Behavior: Hand flapping Definition: Hand
flapping is defined as rapid and repeated movements of both hands with
fingers extended and spread, occurring for more than 3 seconds
continuously, and independent of the presence of external stimuli.
• In this example, the operational definition is clear, objective and describes
the behavior in specific and measurable terms. It provides information on
what the behavior looks like, how long it lasts, and under what conditions it
occurs.

• Bad Example: Target Behavior: Aggressive behavior Definition:

Aggressive behavior is defined as any behavior that is harmful to self or
others.
• In this example, the operational definition is vague and subjective, and does
not provide clear criteria for what behavior is being targeted. The definition
does not specify what kind of aggressive behavior is being observed, what it
looks like, or what the consequences are. As a result, it would be difficult to
measure, track, and evaluate the effectiveness of any intervention designed
to address this behavior.
 • Overall, selecting the appropriate
measurement system is critical for
ensuring the success of an ABA

NOW WE
intervention. When selecting a
measurement system, practitioners

MEASURE!
must consider various factors,
including relevance, objectivity,
reliability, sensitivity, practicality,
and ethical considerations. It’s time
to look at how to utilize different
recording methods!
CONT INUOUS VS DISCONT INOUS
MEASUREMENTS
• Continuous measurement is a method in which every occurrence of the target
behavior is recorded during the observation period. This method is typically used
to measure behaviors that occur at a high frequency and with short duration.
CONTINOUS MEASUREMENT:
1- FREQUENCY
2- RATE
3- LATENCY
4-DURATION
5- IRT (INTER-RESPONSE TIME)
CONTINUOUS VS
DISCONTINOUS MEASUREMENTS
• Discontinuous measurement is a method in which only a sample of
the observation period is recorded, rather than every instance of the
behavior. This method is typically used to measure behaviors that
occur at a low frequency or with long duration.
• 1- Whole Interval
• 2- Partial Interval
• 3- Time sampling
PERMANENT PRODUCT
• Permanent product recording is a type of measurement used in Applied
Behavior Analysis (ABA) that involves measuring the results or outcomes
of behavior rather than the behavior itself. This type of measurement is
useful when it is difficult or impractical to observe the behavior directly.
Permanent product recording is often used when the target behavior
produces a tangible, lasting product that can be measured objectively.
• In permanent product recording, the outcome or result of behavior is
measured. This could be something tangible, such as a clean room or a
completed homework assignment, or something abstract, such as weight
loss or improved academic performance. The idea is to measure the end
product of the behavior rather than observe the behavior itself, which
may not always be possible or practical to observe directly.
 PERMANENT PRODUCT EXAMPLES

• Measuring the number of pages read in a book to assess reading progress, instead of
observing the reading behavior itself.
• Measuring the amount of weight lifted during weightlifting exercises to assess strength gains,
instead of observing the exercise technique itself.
• Measuring the number of correct answers on a test to assess learning, instead of observing
the studying behavior itself.
• Measuring the number of correct notes played during a music performance to assess musical
proficiency, instead of observing the practice sessions.
• Measuring the number of goals scored in a soccer game to assess performance, instead of
observing the individual soccer skills.
 FREQUENCY
• One crucial aspect of behavior measurement in ABA is frequency, which refers to the
number of times a behavior occurs within a specified time period. Frequency data can provide
valuable information about the occurrence of behavior and help track behavior changes over
time. In this discussion, we will explore the concept of frequency in ABA, how it is measured,
and its importance in developing effective behavior change interventions.
• Frequency is a commonly used measurement method in ABA that involves counting the
number of times a behavior occurs within a specific time frame. This can be done using a tally
counter, a stopwatch, or other measurement tools. Frequency data can be collected in real-
time or after the behavior has occurred and can provide valuable information about the
frequency and occurrence of a behavior. This information can then be used to develop
effective behavior change interventions that target specific behaviors and lead to positive
outcomes.
 SOME TOOLS TO MEASURE
FREQUENCY IN ABA

• Tally marks are a common tool used in ABA to track the

frequency of a behavior. They are a simple way to keep track
of the number of times a behavior occurs during an
observation or session. Tally marks are typically made in
sets of five, and after every fifth mark, a diagonal line is
added to represent a total of five marks.
• For example, let's say a therapist is observing a child's
behavior during a 10-minute session and wants to track the
number of times the child engages in hand-flapping
behavior. The therapist can use tally marks to keep track of
each instance of hand flapping by making a vertical line for
each occurrence. After five vertical lines, a diagonal line is
added to represent a total of five instances.
 CLICKER

• Clickers, also known as "counter-conditioning devices," can be

used to measure the frequency of behaviors in ABA. Clickers are
handheld devices that emit a distinct clicking sound when a button
is pressed, which can be used to mark the occurrence of a behavior.
• To use a clicker to measure the frequency of a behavior, the
observer first selects the behavior they want to track. Then, they
hold the clicker in one hand and a tally counter in the other. Every
time the behavior occurs, the observer presses the clicker button to
make a clicking sound and then presses the tally counter to keep
track of the number of occurrences.
FREQUENCY EXAMPLE
• A simple example of frequency in ABA is
counting how many times a child says
"please" during a mealtime over a 5-minute
period. If the child says "please" three times
during that period, the frequency of the
behavior is three times in five minutes.
RATE
• In ABA, rate is a continuous measurement method that involves calculating the
frequency of a target behavior per unit of time. This method is useful for
behaviors that occur at a high frequency and for which the length of the
observation period varies. A rate will always be expressed as an occurrence per
hour. To determine the rate of behavior you divide the frequency by the time
measure. Here are some examples of how rate can be used in ABA:
• A therapist counts how many times a child engages in hitting others during a 1-
hour therapy session and determines the rate to be 10 instances per hour.
• A teacher tracks how often a student blurts out during a 2-hour classroom
period and determines the rate to be 4 instances per hour.
• A parent measures how many times a child engages in tantrums during a 3-hour
family outing and determines the rate to be 2 instances per hour.
LATENCY
• In Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), latency refers to the amount
of time between a specific antecedent event and the initiation of a
behavior. Latency can be used to assess the speed or efficiency
with which a behavior occurs in response to a particular
stimulus.
• EXAMPLES
• An example of latency is how long it takes a driver to press
the gas pedal after the traffic light turns green.
• For instance, if a teacher asks a student a question, the latency
would be the time it takes for the student to begin answering
after the question is asked.
DURAT ION
• Duration refers to the length of
time that a behavior occurs.
This dimension of behavior is
often measured in ABA to assess
how long a behavior lasts, and
to determine if the duration of a
behavior is increasing or
decreasing over time.
STOPWATCH T IMER TO
MEASURE DURAT ION

• In Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), stopwatches can measure the

duration of a behavior or activity being observed. This is typically done
during functional behavior assessments, where the goal is to
determine the function or purpose of behavior.
• Stopwatches can also measure the duration of positive behaviors, such
as when a child is engaged in fair play or social interactions. This
information can be used to reinforce and increase the occurrence of
these desirable behaviors.
• Overall, stopwatches are a valuable tool in ABA for gathering objective
data on the duration of behaviors, which can be used to inform
behavior interventions and monitor progress over time.
 DURATION EXAMPLES
• For example, if a child is learning to sit quietly during circle time, the therapist might measure
the duration of time that the child is able to remain seated without getting up or becoming
disruptive. The therapist might start with a short duration, such as 10 seconds, and gradually
increase the duration over time as the child's ability to sit quietly improves.
• Another example of measuring duration in ABA might be with a child who is learning to brush
their teeth independently. The therapist might measure the length of time that the child is able
to brush their teeth without assistance, and gradually increase the duration over time as the
child's ability to perform the task independently improves.
• Duration can also be used to measure the length of time that a behavior occurs during an
observation period. For example, suppose an observer is measuring the frequency and
duration of a child's tantrums. In that case, they might record the length of time that each
tantrum lasts in addition to the number of tantrums that occur during the observation period.
 INTER-RESPONSE T IME (IRT)
• In ABA, IRT stands for Inter-response Time, which is a measure of the time between two consecutive
instances of a behavior. IRT is a continuous measurement method that can provide valuable information
about the timing and frequency of behaviors. By analyzing the IRTs, ABA professionals can gain insight into
the potential function of the behavior and identify patterns in the behavior's occurrence.
• Here are some examples of how IRT can be used in ABA:
• A therapist is working with a child who engages in head-banging behavior. The therapist uses IRT recording
to measure the time between each instance of head-banging during a 20-minute play session. The therapist
calculates that the IRT for the behavior is 10 seconds.
• A teacher is working with a student who engages in hand flapping behavior. The teacher uses IRT recording
to measure the time between each instance of hand flapping during a 15-minute classroom activity. The
teacher calculates that the IRT for the behavior is 5 seconds.
• A parent is working with a child who engages in screaming behavior. The parent uses IRT recording to
measure the time between each instance of screaming during a 30-minute car ride. The parent calculates
that the IRT for the behavior is 20 seconds.
INTERVAL MEASUREMENTS
• In ABA, there are two primary types of interval measurements: whole-interval
recording and partial-interval recording.
Whole-Interval Recording: Whole-interval recording involves observing the
individual during the entire interval and recording whether or not the behavior
occurred throughout the entire duration of the interval. This method is typically
used to measure behaviors that are continuous or ongoing. For example, a
therapist might use whole-interval recording to measure the amount of time a
child engages in self-injurious behavior during a 10-minute interval. If the child
engages in self-injurious behavior for the entire 10 minutes, the behavior is
recorded as occurring during the entire interval.
INTERVAL MEASUREMENTS
• Partial-Interval Recording: Partial-interval recording involves dividing the
observation period into shorter intervals and recording whether or not the behavior
occurred at any point during each interval. This method is typically used to measure
behaviors that are intermittent or discrete. For example, a therapist might use partial-
interval recording to measure the number of times a child raises their hand during a 1-
minute interval. If the child raises their hand at any point during the interval, the
behavior is recorded as occurring for that interval. Partial-interval recording may
provide a more conservative estimate of the occurrence of the behavior, as it does not
require the behavior to occur throughout the entire interval.
 MOMENTARY T IME SAMPLING (MTS)
In ABA, momentary time sampling is a discontinuous measurement method used to estimate the frequency of a
behavior over a period of time. Rather than recording every instance of a behavior, time sampling involves recording
the behavior during specific intervals of time.
Here is an example of how time sampling can be used in ABA:
• A therapist is working with a child who engages in off-task behavior during a 30-minute academic task. The
therapist decides to use time sampling to measure the frequency of off-task behavior. The therapist divides the 30-
minute task into six 5-minute intervals and observes the child during each interval. During each 5-minute
interval, the therapist records whether the child is on-task or off-task at the end of the interval.
• By using time sampling, the therapist can estimate the frequency of off-task behavior during the entire 30-minute
task by multiplying the proportion of intervals in which the child was off-task by the total number of intervals.
For example, if the child was off-task during 2 out of 6 intervals, the therapist could estimate that the child was
off-task for 10 minutes (2 intervals x 5 minutes per interval) during the entire 30-minute task.
Time sampling can be a useful measurement method when observing behaviors that occur infrequently or for long
durations. It can also be a more efficient measurement method compared to continuous measurement methods,
which may be impractical or time-consuming to use in certain situations.
GRAPHING DATA
• Before we dig deeper into graphing data, there are a few key concepts that
must be understood.
• Baseline
• X-AXIS
• Y-AXIS
• Upward and downward TREND
BASELINE: BEFORE AFTER
INTERVENTION/THERAPY INTERVENTION/THERAPY

BASELINE
Baseline: In ABA (Applied Behavior
Analysis), baseline refers to the initial
phase of data collection where NO
intervention is being implemented. It
represents the natural or typical behavior
of the individual before any intervention is
introduced. This baseline data is used as a
comparison point to measure the
THIS IS THE effectiveness of any subsequent
BASE LINE
interventions.
 Y-AXIS

X AND Y AXIS
• X-axis: In ABA, the x-axis is used to
represent time. The duration of the
observation period is divided into
equal time intervals, and each
interval is represented on the x-axis.
• Y-axis: The y-axis in ABA represents
the behavior being observed or
measured. The behavior is defined
clearly and operationally, and the y-
axis shows the frequency, duration,
or intensity of the behavior.
X-AXIS
UPWARD AND
DOWNWARD TREND

• Upward Trend: Refers to an increase in the

frequency, duration, or intensity of the behavior
being observed over time. This may indicate that
the intervention being implemented is having a
positive effect on the behavior.
• Downward Trend: Refers to a decrease in the
behavior over time and may indicate that the
intervention is not having the desired effect. These
trends can be visually represented on a graph by
plotting the data points and drawing a line of best
fit.
 CONSTANT/
NO TREND
• Constant/No trend refers to a
pattern where the data points on the graph
remain relatively flat and do not show any
significant changes or fluctuations
over time.
• In a line graph, a constant trend is
represented by a straight, horizontal line
that does not slope up or down. In a
bar graph or a pie chart, a constant trend is
represented by bars or slices that are of the
same height or size, respectively.
FURTHER
IMAGES
• Notice the Labeling and try to
review it for a better
understanding of each part of a
graph. Also, note how the X-Axis
can be referred to as
"abscissa" and the Y-axis as
"ordinate." Keep this in mind for
the RBT EXAM!
 • Graphing behavioral data is an essential component of Applied
Behavior Analysis (ABA) because it provides a visual
representation of the behavior over time. Here are some key
points and concepts to keep in mind when graphing behavioral
data:
1. Graphs should have a clear and concise title, labels for the x and

GRAPHING y-axis, and a legend if necessary.

BEHAVIORAL
2. Graphs can be used to display various types of data, such as
frequency, duration, latency, and percentage of occurrences.

DATA
3. Graphs can be used to assess behavior change over time,
evaluate the effectiveness of interventions, and identify trends or
patterns in the behavior.
4. Graphs can help identify trends such as stable baselines, upward
or downward trends, and variability in the data.
5. Graphs should include data points that are accurately and
consistently recorded using reliable measurement procedures.
6. Graphs should be easy to read and interpret to facilitate decision-
making by the behavior analyst, treatment team, and caregivers.
 PREFERENCE ASSESSMENTS
• In Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), preference assessments are used to identify preferred items, activities,
or foods that can be used to increase a person's motivation and engagement in therapeutic or educational
activities. Here are some common types of preference assessments used in ABA:
1- Free Operant Preference Assessment: In this assessment, the individual is allowed to interact freely with a
set of items, and the frequency and duration of interaction with each item is recorded to determine the
individual's preference.
2- Single Item Preference Assessment: This assessment presents one item at a time, and the individual is
asked to indicate how much they like or want that item. The items can be toys, snacks, or activities, and the
assessment can be done using verbal or non-verbal methods, depending on the individual's communication
skills.
3-Paired Stimulus Preference Assessment (Brief and Full): This assessment involves presenting pairs of items
and recording which item is chosen by the individual. In a brief paired-stimulus preference assessment, a
limited number of items are presented, while a full paired-stimulus preference assessment includes a larger
set of items.
PREFERENCE ASSESSMENTS
3- Multiple Stimulus With Replacement (MSW) Preference Assessment: In this
assessment, a set of items is presented at the same time, and the individual is allowed to
play with or consume any item for a set amount of time, such as 30 seconds. After the
time period, the items are removed and presented again, with the order of presentation
randomized. This method helps identify the most frequently chosen item among a set of
options.
4- Multiple Stimulus Without Replacement (MSWO) Preference Assessment: This
assessment presents a set of items at the same time, and the individual is asked to choose
one item to play with or consume. After each choice, the chosen item is removed from
the set, and the remaining items are presented again until all items have been selected.
This method helps identify the most preferred item among a set of options.
SKILL ACQUISITION: DISCRIMINATION
TRAINING (DTT)
• Discrete Trial Training (DTT) is a teaching technique used in Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA)
to teach new skills or behaviors. DTT involves breaking down a skill or behavior into small,
discrete steps and teaching each step systematically through repeated trials, prompting, and
positive reinforcement. Here are some examples of DTT:
1- Teaching Communication Skills: Suppose a child with autism has difficulty communicating
and needs to learn to ask for a preferred item. The skill can be broken down into smaller steps,
such as making eye contact, reaching for the item, and vocalizing a request. The teacher or
therapist would present the item and ask the child to make eye contact, then prompt the child to
reach for the item, and finally prompt the child to vocalize the request. Positive reinforcement is
provided after each successful trial, such as praise or access to the preferred item.
SKILL ACQUISITION:
DISCRIMINATION TRAINING (DTT)
2- Teaching Daily Living Skills: Suppose a child with developmental disabilities needs to learn to
brush their teeth independently. The skill can be broken down into smaller steps, such as holding
the toothbrush, applying toothpaste, and brushing each tooth. The teacher or therapist would
prompt the child to hold the toothbrush, then prompt the child to apply toothpaste, and finally
prompt the child to brush each tooth. Positive reinforcement is provided after each successful
trial, such as praise or access to a preferred activity.
3- Teaching Academic Skills: Suppose a child with learning disabilities needs to learn to identify
letters of the alphabet. The skill can be broken down into smaller steps, such as presenting a
letter and asking the child to identify it, providing a prompt if necessary, and providing positive
reinforcement after a correct response. The prompts can be gradually faded over time as the
child becomes more proficient.
SKILL ACQUISITION: INCIDENTAL TEACHING
• Incidental Teaching is a teaching technique used in Applied
Behavior Analysis (ABA) that involves taking advantage of
naturally occurring opportunities to teach new skills or
behaviors. This technique is also known as naturalistic
teaching or teaching in the natural environment.
• In Incidental Teaching, the teacher or therapist sets up the
environment to create opportunities for the individual to
initiate communication or behavior that can be shaped or
reinforced. The teacher or therapist follows the individual's
lead and provides prompts, cues, or reinforcement to
encourage the desired behavior.
 SKILL ACQUISITION:
INCIDENTAL TEACHING EXAMPLES
• Communication Skills: Suppose a child with autism is playing with toys, and the therapist
wants to encourage the child to use a verbal request to ask for a toy. The therapist might
withhold a desired toy until the child indicates some level of interest in it, such as looking at
it or reaching for it. The therapist can then prompt the child to use a verbal request, such as
"I want the truck, please." If the child uses the request, the therapist immediately provides
access to the toy and reinforces the behavior with praise or other positive reinforcement.
• Social Skills: Suppose a child with social deficits is playing with other children on the
playground, and the therapist wants to encourage the child to initiate social interactions.
The therapist might observe the child's play and wait for the child to show some interest in
another child's play. The therapist can then prompt the child to initiate social contact, such
as asking the other child to play or commenting on the other child's play. If the child
initiates the social interaction, the therapist provides positive reinforcement, such as praise
or access to a preferred activity.
• Daily Living Skills: Suppose a child with developmental delays needs to learn to dress
themselves independently. The therapist might set up the environment by placing the child's
clothes out of reach, prompting the child to request each piece of clothing, and reinforcing
successful requests with access to the clothing and praise or other positive reinforcement.
 • Discrimination training is a type of behavior
modification technique used in Applied
Behavior Analysis (ABA) that involves
teaching an individual to distinguish
SKILL ACQUISTION: between two or more stimuli and respond
appropriately to each one.
DISCRIMINATION • In discrimination training, the individual is
TRAINING taught to respond differently to two or more
stimuli that have different functions or
meanings. This is done through a process of
reinforcement, where correct responses are
rewarded, and incorrect responses are
ignored or corrected.
 SKILL ACQUISIT ION: DISCRIMINAT ION
TRAINING EXAMPLES
• Color Discrimination: Suppose a child needs to learn to identify different colors. The therapist might present the
child with two color cards, such as red and blue, and teach the child to correctly identify each color. The therapist
would reinforce correct responses, such as "That's red!" and ignore incorrect responses or provide corrective feedback.
• Letter Discrimination: Suppose a child needs to learn to identify letters of the alphabet. The therapist might present
the child with two letters, such as "A" and "B," and teach the child to correctly identify each letter. The therapist
would reinforce correct responses, such as "That's A!" and ignore incorrect responses or provide corrective feedback.
• Object Discrimination: Suppose a child needs to learn to discriminate between different objects. The therapist
might present the child with two objects, such as a ball and a book, and teach the child to correctly identify each object.
The therapist would reinforce correct responses, such as "That's the ball!" and ignore incorrect responses or provide
corrective feedback.
• Sound Discrimination: Suppose a child needs to learn to discriminate between different sounds. The therapist
might present the child with two sounds, such as a dog barking and a phone ringing, and teach the child to correctly
identify each sound. The therapist would reinforce correct responses, such as "That's the phone!" and ignore incorrect
responses or provide corrective feedback.
 SHAPING
Shaping is a behavior modification technique used in Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) that involves
reinforcing successive approximations towards a desired behavior or skill. In other words, shaping involves
breaking down a complex behavior or skill into smaller, achievable steps, and reinforcing each step until the
desired behavior or skill is achieved.
Here is an example of shaping:
Suppose a child needs to learn to write their name but does not yet have the fine motor skills to do so. The
therapist might begin by providing reinforcement after any mark-making the child makes on a piece of
paper. Once the child is consistently making marks, the therapist might then begin providing reinforcement
after marks that resemble letters or parts of letters. As the child gets better at making letter-like marks, the
therapist would gradually provide reinforcement after marks that more closely resemble the letters of the
child's name, until the child is able to write their name independently.
In this example, shaping involves reinforcing small steps towards the larger goal of writing the child's name.
By breaking down the behavior into smaller, achievable steps and reinforcing each step along the way,
shaping can be a highly effective way of teaching complex skills and behaviors.
CHAINING
• Chaining is a behavior modification technique used in Applied Behavior
Analysis (ABA) that involves breaking down a complex behavior or skill
into smaller, more manageable steps, and teaching each step in a sequence
until the entire behavior or skill is learned. There are three main types of
chaining: forward chaining, backward chaining, and total task chaining.
 FORWARD CHAINING
• Forward Chaining: Forward chaining involves teaching the first step of a
behavior or skill, then gradually teaching the subsequent steps in sequence until
the entire behavior or skill is learned. Each step is taught using prompting and
reinforcement until it is mastered before moving on to the next step.
• For example, suppose a child needs to learn to brush their teeth independently.
The therapist might begin by teaching the child to wet their toothbrush, then
move on to putting toothpaste on the brush, then to brushing their front teeth,
and so on until the child is able to independently complete the entire task of
brushing their teeth.
BACKWARD CHAINING
• Backward Chaining: Backward chaining involves teaching the last step of a
behavior or skill first, then gradually teaching the preceding steps in reverse
sequence until the entire behavior or skill is learned. The learner is prompted
and reinforced for each step until they have mastered the step before it, and
eventually, the entire behavior or skill is learned.
• For example, suppose a child needs to learn to put on their shoes independently.
The therapist might begin by teaching the child to tie their shoes, which is often
the most difficult step, then move on to putting the shoes on the correct feet,
and so on until the child is able to independently complete the entire task of
putting on their shoes.
TOTAL TASK CHAINING
• In Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), total task chaining is a technique
used to teach a complex skill or behavior by breaking it down into smaller,
more manageable steps. It is commonly used to teach skills such as
personal hygiene, daily living skills, and social skills to individuals with
developmental disabilities or other behavior-related challenges.
TOTAL TASK CHAINING: STEPS
• Task analysis: The behavior or skill to be taught is broken down into smaller, sequential steps. This is
often done through observation, consultation with caregivers or experts in the field, or through
consultation with the individual who will be learning the behavior.
• Initial prompting: The individual is given a prompt to help them begin the task or behavior, such as a
verbal instruction, visual cue, or physical prompt.
• Reinforcement: The individual receives positive reinforcement, such as praise or a reward, for each
step of the task completed correctly.
• Gradual fading of prompts: Over time, prompts are faded or reduced as the individual becomes more
proficient in completing the task or behavior independently.
• Maintenance: The individual continues to practice and reinforce the behavior or skill over time to
maintain progress and prevent regression.
DIFFERENTIAL REINFORCEMENTS
• Differential reinforcement is a common technique used in Applied
Behavior Analysis (ABA) to modify behavior. It involves reinforcing or
punishing specific instances of a target behavior in order to increase or
decrease its frequency or intensity. Here are some examples of how
differential reinforcement can be used in ABA:
DRA
• Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA): Involves
reinforcing a desirable alternative behavior while withholding
reinforcement for problem behavior.
• EXAMPLES
• Differential reinforcement of alternative behavior (DRA): A child who
engages in tantrums to get attention may be taught to ask for attention in
an appropriate way, and the appropriate request will be reinforced while
the tantrum is ignored.
DRI
• Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI): This
involves reinforcing a behavior that is incompatible with the problem
behavior while withholding reinforcement for the problem behavior.
• EXAMPLES
• Differential reinforcement of incompatible behavior (DRI): A child who
engages in self-injurious behavior may be taught to engage in a behavior
that is incompatible with self-injury, such as holding a soft toy, and the
appropriate behavior will be reinforced while the self-injury is put on
extinction.
DRO
• Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO): This involves
reinforcing any behavior other than the problem behavior.
• EXAMPLES
• Differential reinforcement of other behavior (DRO): A child who engages
in interrupting will receive reinforcement for engaging in any other
behavior that is not interrupting, such as playing with a toy, and the
interrupting behavior will be put on extiction.
VERBAL BEHAVIOR
• Verbal behavior is a term used in Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) to describe how language and
communication develop through social interactions with others. The concept of verbal behavior was
developed by B.F. Skinner, a famous behaviorist who developed the principles of operant conditioning.
• There are four types of verbal behavior identified by Skinner:
• Mand: A mand is a request or demand for something that the individual wants or needs. For example, a
child saying "water" to request a drink.
• Tact: A tact is a label or description of something in the environment. For example, a child saying "tree"
when looking at a tree.
• Intraverbal: An intraverbal is a response to a verbal stimulus. It is a type of conversational language
that requires no specific context or visual cues. For example, a child saying "cookie" when asked "What's
your favorite snack?"
• Echoic: An echoic is a repetition of what another person has said. For example, a child repeating the
word "apple" after a parent says it.
 GENERALIZATION
• Generalization is the application of a behavior change across different settings, people, or stimuli that were not
specifically taught during the intervention. It is an important goal in Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) to ensure
that the skills learned during therapy sessions can be used in real-world situations. Here are some examples of
generalization in ABA:
• Language skills: A child who learns to use new words during therapy sessions can be encouraged to use those
words in different settings, such as at home or in the classroom.
• Social skills: A child who learns to initiate a conversation with a therapist can be taught to use those skills with
peers, siblings, and adults outside of therapy.
• Self-help skills: A child who learns to brush their teeth in a therapy session can be encouraged to use those skills
at home during their morning and bedtime routines.
• Academic skills: A child who learns to read in a therapy session can be taught to use those skills to read signs,
books, and other written materials in the classroom or at home.
• Play skills: A child who learns to play with toys in a structured therapy session can be encouraged to use those
skills to play with toys in an unstructured environment, such as during free play time at school.
 MAINTANANCE
• Maintenance is a term used in Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) to describe the ability of an individual to
maintain a learned behavior over time. The goal of ABA therapy is not just to teach new skills and
behaviors, but also to ensure that these skills and behaviors are maintained in the long-term.
• Maintenance is important because it allows individuals to continue using the skills, they have learned long
after the ABA therapy has ended. Here are some examples of maintenance in ABA:
• Language skills: A child who learns new vocabulary words during therapy sessions should be able to
continue using those words in conversations long after therapy has ended.
• Social skills: A child who learns to initiate a conversation with a therapist should be able to use those skills
with peers, siblings, and adults even after therapy has ended.
• Self-help skills: A child who learns to brush their teeth in a therapy session should be able to continue using
those skills in their morning and bedtime routines even after therapy has ended.
• Academic skills: A child who learns to read in a therapy session should be able to continue using those skills
to read signs, books, and other written materials long after therapy has ended.
MAINTENANCE
• To promote maintenance, ABA therapists may use strategies such as
scheduled reinforcement, which involves gradually reducing the frequency
of reinforcement over time, or incorporating generalization training,
which involves teaching the individual to apply the learned behavior in a
variety of settings and situations.
• By promoting maintenance, ABA therapy can help individuals with autism
and other developmental disabilities to continue using the skills and
behaviors they have learned, leading to greater independence and
improved quality of life.
CRISIS MANAGEMENT
• Crisis management is a set of techniques and strategies used to prevent or
manage challenging behaviors in individuals with autism and other
developmental disabilities. These behaviors may include aggression, self-
injury, property destruction, and other types of disruptive or dangerous
behavior.
• In Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA), crisis management is an important
part of ensuring the safety of the individual and those around them. Here
are some strategies used in crisis management:
 CRISIS MANAGEMENT
• Functional behavior assessment: A functional behavior assessment (FBA) is a process used to identify the cause
of the challenging behavior. By understanding the function of the behavior, ABA therapists can develop strategies
to prevent the behavior from occurring or intervene effectively when it does occur.
• Antecedent manipulation: Antecedent manipulation involves modifying the environment or situation that
triggers the challenging behavior. For example, if a child becomes aggressive when asked to complete a difficult
task, the therapist may modify the task to make it easier or break it down into smaller steps.
• Behavioral intervention plan: A behavioral intervention plan (BIP) is a plan developed by the ABA therapist
to address the challenging behavior. The plan may include strategies such as positive reinforcement, prompting
and fading, and response interruption and redirection.
• Crisis response plan: A crisis response plan is a plan developed by the ABA therapist and other members of
the individual's support team to manage a crisis situation. The plan may include strategies for de-escalation,
physical restraint, and contacting emergency services if necessary.
• Staff training: It is important for all staff members who work with the individual to be trained in
crisis management strategies. This ensures that everyone is prepared to respond effectively in a crisis situation.
CRISIS MANAGEMENT
• Crisis management is an important part of ABA therapy, as it allows
individuals with autism and other developmental disabilities to learn and
grow in a safe and supportive environment. By using these strategies, ABA
therapists can help individuals to reduce challenging behaviors and
improve their quality of life.
 DOCUMENTATION AND REPORTS
• Keeping accurate and detailed records is critical in Applied Behavior Analysis (ABA) therapy,
as it provides a comprehensive record of the individual's progress and helps to guide the
therapy's direction. Furthermore, documentation is required to meet ethical and legal
obligations, including the Health Insurance Portability and Accountability Act (HIPAA).
• HIPAA regulations are in place to protect the privacy and security of individuals' personal
health information. It is crucial for ABA providers to ensure that they comply with HIPAA
regulations to avoid potential legal and ethical consequences.
• ABA providers must keep accurate and confidential records of the individual's therapy
sessions, including any behavioral interventions, data collection, and treatment plans. This
information must be kept secure and only accessible to authorized personnel to prevent
unauthorized access, theft, or loss of sensitive information.
ETHICS
• As an RBT, it is essential to maintain the highest ethical standards in all professional
interactions. The following statement outlines the core ethical principles that should
guide the behavior of an RBT:
"As an RBT, I am committed to upholding ethical principles that promote the well-being
and dignity of my clients. I pledge to act with integrity, professionalism, and respect in
all of my interactions with clients, their families, and colleagues. I will maintain
confidentiality and privacy, follow evidence-based practices, and seek to empower my
clients by promoting their self-determination and independence. I will seek ongoing
training and education to enhance my skills and knowledge, and always act within the
scope of my competence. I am committed to using my expertise to promote positive
behavior change and improve the quality of life for my clients."
ETHICS
• By adhering to these ethical principles, RBTs can build trust and maintain positive
relationships with clients, families, and colleagues. It is crucial to emphasize these
principles in any teaching or training material for RBTs to ensure they understand the
importance of ethical behavior and how it aligns with their role in promoting positive
behavior change.
• For further information please refer to the RBT's Code of Ethics (2.0).
 CLIENT'S DIGNITY
• RBTs must strive to provide equitable treatment to clients, regardless of any personal
characteristics, and maintain their privacy and confidentiality at all times.
• RBT's must actively promote their clients' self-determination, especially when working with
vulnerable populations. This means recognizing their clients' preferences, choices, and
independence and making efforts to incorporate them into service delivery. Providing clients and
stakeholders with the necessary information to make informed decisions about their services is
critical in honoring their autonomy.
• Overall, aspiring RBT's must keep in mind that their interactions with clients should always be
based on mutual respect and dignity. They must recognize that every client is unique, and their
preferences and needs should guide their approach to service delivery. By doing so, they can
contribute to creating a positive and supportive environment for their clients to achieve their goals.
 ADDIT IONAL RESOURCES
• Registered Behavior Technician Handbook: The Registered Behavior
Technician Handbook by the Behavior Analyst Certification Board (BACB)
is a great resource for anyone studying to become an RBT. It provides an
overview of the RBT role, the task list, and the ethical guidelines for RBTs.
• RBT Exam Prep: There are many RBT Exam Prep courses and study
guides available online that can help you prepare for the RBT exam. Some
popular options include the RBT Exam Prep by ABA Wizards and the RBT
Exam Prep by Behavior University.
ADDIT IONAL RESOURCES
• Task List: The RBT Task List is a comprehensive list of the skills
and knowledge that RBTs must have to be successful in their role.
Studying the Task List can help you identify areas where you need to
focus your learning.
• Applied Behavior Analysis textbooks: Textbooks can help you gain a
deeper understanding of the principles and concepts that underpin the
RBT role. Some popular textbooks include "Applied Behavior Analysis"
by John O. Cooper and "Behavior Modification" by Garry Martin.