Chapter Five

Stoichiometry of Chemical Reactions and the Mole Concept

Writing and Balancing Chemical Equations
Writing Chemical Equations
A chemical equation describes a chemical reaction by
using symbols for the elements involved. It is a symbolic
representation of a chemical reaction.
Example: The reaction b/n iron and sulfur to form iron
sulfide, can be represented either in words or
using chemical symbols:
iron + sulfur → iron sulfide, or
Fe + S → FeS
 Species on the left of the arrow are called the reactants;
and those on the right are called the products.

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 Shorthand way of describing a reaction provides
information about the reaction.
1. Formulas of reactants and products.
2. States of reactants and products.
3. Relative numbers of reactant and product molecules that are required
4. Used to determine amounts of the reactants and products.
Examples:

Balancing Chemical Equations

 A balanced chemical equation must always have the same
number of each kind of atom on both sides of the
equation.
 It is the process of making the mass of the reactants
equal
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to the mass of the products, in a chemical equation.
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 In balanced chemical equations, the number of atoms of
each element in the reactants must be equal to the number
of atoms of those same elements in the products.
Examples: 1. Fe + S → FeS (balanced) -- because the number
of atoms of each element is the same on both
side of the equation.
2. H2 + O2 → H2O (unbalanced) – different no. of
atoms.
 To balance this equation, we can change the coefficients
of the molecules until the atoms on each side of the
arrow are balanced.
 So we can write 2H2 to mean that there are 2
molecules of hydrogen; and 2H2O, to mean that
there are 2 molecules of water.
In other words, there are 4 hydrogen atoms and 2 oxygen
atoms. This is done by inspection method. Hence,
3 Chem1012
2H2 + O2 → 2H2O (balanced). 1/11/2023
 3. Balance the equation for the reaction b/n methane and
oxygen to yield carbon dioxide and water.
CH4 + O2 ⟶ CO2 + H2O (unbalanced)
Solution: To balance this equation, put 2 as coefficients for
both O2 and H2O molecules.
CH4 + 2O2 ⟶ CO2 + 2H2O (balanced). --- because there
are equal no. of atoms of each type on
either side of the equation.
4. Balance the following reaction equation.
C2H6 + O2 ⟶ H2O + CO2 (unbalanced)
2C2H6 + 7O2 ⟶ 6H2O + 4CO2 (balanced)
 According to the law of conservation of mass, matter can
neither be created nor destroyed. Thus, mass of each element
present in the products of a chemical reaction must be equal
to
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mass present in the reactants. 1/11/2023
 Molecular, Complete Ionic, and Net Ionic Equations
Molecular equation is a chemical equation showing the complete, neutral
formulas for every compound in a reaction.
Complete ionic equation is a chemical equation showing all of the species
as they are actually present in solution.
Net ionic equation is an equation showing only the species that actually
participate in the reaction.
In the complete ionic equation, some of the ions in solution appear
unchanged on both sides of the equation. These ions are called spectator
ions, because they do not participate in the reaction.

Molecular equation

Complete ionic equation

5 Chem1012 Ag+(aq) + Cl− (aq)  AgCl(s) Net ionic equation

 Classification of Chemical Reactions
The most common types of chemical reactions: acid-base, precipitation,
and oxidation-reduction.
1. Acid-base reactions
It is a reaction where, hydrogen ion, (H+), is transferred from one
chemical species to another.
 These are reactions that occurs in chemical transformations that take
place: within cells, the lakes and oceans, in industrial-scale production
of fertilizers, pharmaceuticals, & other substances essential to society.
Acid: is a substance that will dissolve in water to yield H 3O+.
Strong acids: Completely react with H2O to give high amount H3O+.
HCl(aq) + H2O(aq) ⟶ Cl−(aq) + H3O+(aq)
Weak acids: Partially react with water and generating a relatively small
amount of H3O+.
CH3COOH(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ CH3COO−(aq) + H3O+(aq)

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Base: is a substance that will dissolve in water to yield hydroxide ions, OH−
Strong bases: dissociate completely to produce cations, & OH−.
Example: NaOH, KOH and Ba(OH)2
NaOH(s) ⟶ Na+(aq) + OH−(aq)
Weak bases: are substances that react only partially to liberate OH- ion
NH3(aq) + H2O(l) ⇌ NH4+(aq) + OH−(aq)
Neutralization rxn: It is a rxn. b/n an acid and a base to form salt & H2O.
Acid + Base ⟶ Salt + Water
Examples: The following are typical acid-base reactions.
NaOH + HCl ⟶ NaCl + H2O
Mg(OH)2(s) + 2HCl(aq) ⟶ MgCl2(aq) + 2H2O(l)
2. Precipitation reactions
 It is a rxn. in which substances react to form one (or more) solid
products(precipitates). Here, most double displacement or metathesis
reactions are common.
Examples: When solution potassium iodide and lead nitrate are mixed,
a solid lead iodide is formed.
2KI(aq) + Pb(NO3)2(aq) ⟶ PbI2(s) + 2KNO3(aq)
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 The net ionic equation
Pb2+(aq) + 2I−(aq) ⟶ PbI2(s), yellow ppt
Examples: A balanced net ionic equation for the following precipitation
reactions are
1. Potassium sulfate and barium nitrate
2. Lithium chloride and silver acetate
3. Lead nitrate and ammonium carbonate

1. Ba2+(aq) + SO42−(aq) ⟶ BaSO4(s)

2. Ag+(aq) + Cl−(aq) ⟶ AgCl(s)
3. Pb2+ (aq) + CO32−(aq) ⟶ PbCO3(s)

3. Oxidation-Reduction Reactions
The term oxidation was originally used to describe chemical reactions
involving O2, but its meaning has developed to refer to a broad and
important classes of reaction known as oxidation-reduction or redox rxns
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Oxidation–reduction is a reaction in which electrons are transferred b/n
the reacting species or in which reacting atoms
change oxidation number.
Example: reaction b/n sodium and chlorine to yield sodium chloride
2Na(s) + Cl2(g) ⟶ 2NaCl(s)
 The following represent the two half-reactions:
2Na(s) ⟶ 2Na+(s) + 2e−
Cl2(g) + 2e− ⟶ 2Cl−(s)
Summary: In the reaction, Na atoms lose electron, while Cl atoms gain
electron, meaning sodium is oxidized and chlorine is reduced.
Oxidation: loss of electrons, identified by increase in oxidation number.
Reduction: gain of electrons, identified by decrease in oxidation number.
Oxidizing agent: a species that oxidizes another species; it itself is reduced.
Reducing agent: species that reduces another species; it itself is oxidized.

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 Some examples on oxidation- reduction reactions:

Oxidation number (or oxidation state)

 The oxidation number (or oxidation state) of an element in compound
is the charge its atoms would possess if the compound was ionic.
 Guidelines used to assign oxidation numbers to each element in a
10 molecule
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 1. The oxidation number of an atom in an elemental form is zero.
2. The oxidation number of a monatomic ion is equal to the ion’s charge.
3. Oxidation no.s for common nonmetals are usually assigned as follows:
 Hydrogen: +1 when combined with nonmetals, −1 when combined
with metals.
 Oxygen: −2 in most compounds, sometimes −1 (so-called peroxides,
O22−), very rarely −1/2 (in superoxides, O2−), positive values
when combined with F (values vary).
 Halogens: −1 for F always, −1 for other halogens except when combined
with oxygen or other halogens (positive oxidation numbers in
these cases, varying values).
4. The sum of oxidation numbers for all atoms in a molecule or
polyatomic ion equals the charge on the molecule or ion.
 Charge versus oxidation number:  Often confusing!
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  The proper convention for reporting charge is to write the number
first, followed by the sign (e.g., 2+); BUT
 Oxidation number is written with the reversed sequence, sign
followed by number (e.g., +2).
Examples: Assign the oxidation numbers to sulfur in the following species:
a. H2S b. SO32− c. Na2SO4
Solution:
a. The oxidation number for H is +1. let’s put x for S, then sum up
this values to zero.
H2S = 0 = (2 × +1) + (1 × x)
x = 0 − (2 × +1) = −2
b. The oxidation number for oxygen is −2. let x is ox.no of sulfur
Hence, charge on SO32− = −2= (3 × −2) + (1 × x)
x = −2−(3 ×−2) = +4
c. According to guideline 2, the oxidation number for Na is +1 and
the usual ox. no. of oxygen is -2 (guideline 3), so
charge on SO42−= −2 = (4 × −2) + (1 × x)
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x = −2−(4 × −2) = +6
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Exercise: Find the ox. no. of chlorine in each of the following:
a. HClO4 b. ClO3-- Answer: a. +7. b. -1
Reaction stoichiometry
1. Mass-Mass relationship
Mass of one substance is given & the mass of the unknown is calculated.
Example1: What mass of NaOH is required to produce 16 g of Mg(OH)2
according to the reaction given below?
MgCl2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) ⟶ Mg(OH)2(s) + 2NaCl(aq)
Solution: Let X be the mass of NaOH, then
X = 16g__ , X = 22 g of NaOH
80g/mol 58g/mol
Example 2: What mass of oxygen gas, O2, from the air is consumed in the
combustion of 702 g of octane, C8H18, according to the rxn:
2C8H18 + 25O2 ⟶ 16CO2 + 18H2O Answer: 2460 g of O2
2. Mole-Mole relationship: The mole of one reactant or product is
given and the mole of the other is required.
Example 1: How many moles of iodine are required to react with 0.429 mol
is aluminum according to the following equation ?
13 Chem1012 2Al + 3I2 ⟶ 2AlI3 1/11/2023
Solution: First balance the rxn. equation, and put the given no. of moles of
reactant and product on the top, and ‘X’ for the unknown. Finally,
solve for the unknown.

0.429 mol Al = _X__, Where, X = mole of I2.

2 3
X = 0.429mol Al × 3 mol I2 = 0.644 mol of I2
2
Exercise:1. In the combustion of methane, how many moles of O2 is needed
to produce 1.74 moles of H2O? Answer: 1.74 mol
2. How many moles of Ca(OH)2 are required to react with 1.36
mol of H3PO4. 3Ca(OH)2 + 2H3PO4⟶ Ca3(PO4)2 + 6H2O
Answer: 2.04 mol

3. Mass-Mole relationship
The relationship between the mass of a substance and the corresponding
number of moles.
Example: What is the volume of 1.4 M H2SO4 solution needed to react
exactly with 100 g of Al?
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Solution: The balanced equation for the reaction is
2Al + 2H2SO4 → Al2(SO4)2 + 2H2
Moles of Al = 100 g = 3.7mol
27g/mol
From the balanced equation: 2 moles of Al needs 2 moles of H2SO4, then
3.7 moles Al needs X moles of H2SO4. Solving for X, X = 3.7 mol of H2SO4.
Hence, Molarity = No. of moles of H2SO4
Volume of H2SO4 in litter
From the above relation, solving for volume of H2SO4, we find volume of
H2SO4 to be: 2.64 L
Limiting and Excess Reactant
 The reactant that is completely used up in a chemical reaction is
called the limiting reactant. It controls the amount of product formed.
 It is the reactant that determines the amount of the product formed.
 The reactant that is completely consumed in the reaction.
 A reactant that remains after a reaction is over is called the excess
reactant.
 Once the limiting reactant is used, no more product can be made,
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regardless of how much of the excess reactants may be present.
Example1: Lithium nitride reacts with water to form ammonia and lithium
hydroxide, according to the following balanced chemical equation
Li3N(s) + 3H2O(l) → NH3(g) + 3LiOH(aq)
If 4.87 g of lithium nitride reacts with 5.80 g of water, find the limiting
reactant. (Hint: Use the mole ratios of reactants and products to
determine how much ammonia is produced by each amount of reactant).

and

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 Since the moles of NH3 that would be produced based on the amount
of water is less than that of lithium nitride. Therefore, the limiting
reactant is water.
Example 2. Determine the limiting reagent and excess reagent for the
synthesis of urea, given 7.481 g NH3 and 7.992 g CO2.
2NH3 + CO2 → (NH2)2CO + H2O
Solution.
First find the number of moles of NH3 and CO2.
Moles of NH3 = 7.481 g NH3 = 0.4393 mol
17.03 g/mol
Moles of CO2 = 7.992 g CO2 = 0.1816 mol
44.01 g/mol
Calculated mole ratio = 0.4393 mol NH3 = 2.419
0.1816 mol CO2
Theoretical mole ratio = 2 mol NH3 = 2
1 mol CO2
Therefore,
17 Chem1012the limiting reagent is CO2, and NH3 is the excess reagent.
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 Actual Yield , Theoretical Yield and Percentage yield
Yield is a way of saying how much product is produced in a chemical rxn
Theoretical yield: The amount of product that is produced by a reaction
under specified conditions, as calculated per the
stoichiometry of a balanced chemical equation.
Actual yield: The amount of product that is obtained from an experiment.
 The actual yield (experimentally determined yield) of a product is
usually less than the theoretical yield (calculated yield). This may
be caused by a variety of factors such as
 Some reactions are inherently inefficient to take place;
 Some reactions may accompanied by side reactions that generate
other products;
 Some other reactions may be incomplete in nature.
Percentage yield: It is the ratio of the actual yield to the theoretical
yield, multiplied by100.

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 Percentage yield of a chemical reaction compares the mass of product
obtained by experiment (the actual yield) with the mass of product
determined by stoichiometric calculations (the theoretical yield).
Example1 If 25 g of methane gas burns in oxygen according to the
following balanced equation:
CH4 + 2O2 → CO2 + 2H2O
What is the percentage yield, if 60.3 g of carbon dioxide is produced?
Solution:
 Solving
for X

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 Example 2: Upon reaction of 1.274 g of copper sulfate with excess zinc
metal, 0.392 g copper metal was obtained according to the
equation: CuSO4 (aq) + Zn(s) ⟶ Cu(s) + ZnSO4(aq)
What is the percent yield? Answer: 77.3%
Quantitative Analysis
Analysis of materials is divided into qualitative and quantitative analysis.
Qualitative analysis: involves the identification of substances or
species present in a material.
Quantitative analysis: involves the determination of the amount of a
substance or species present in a material.
 The materials that might be analyzed includes: air, water, food, hair,
body fluids, pharmaceutical preparations, etc.
Acid-base Titration
An acid-base titration can be used to determine the concentration of
an acid or a base solution.
Titration: a technique for determining the concentration of an unknown
solution using a standard solution.
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Standard
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 A typical titration analysis involves incremental additions of a solution
containing a known concentration of some substance (called the titrant)
to a sample of solution containing the substance whose concentration
is to be measured (called the analyte).
 In this technique a known
concentration of base (or acid)
is slowly added to a solution of
acid (or base).

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  The titrant and analyte undergo a chemical reaction of known
stoichiometry, and so measuring the volume of titrant solution is
required for complete reaction with the analyte allows calculation
of the analyte concentration.
Equivalence point: The point in the titration where stoichiometrically
equivalent amounts of base have been added to the
acid (or vice versa).
 At the equivalence point, moles acid = moles base
 The equivalence point in a titration can be determined using either
a pH meter or indicators (ex. Phenolphthalein, Methyl orange, etc).
Observe three things:
1. From the start of the titration to near the equivalence point, the pH
goes up slowly.
2. Just before (and after) the equivalence point, the pH increases rapidly.
3. As more base is added, the increase in pH again levels off.
Gravimetric Analysis
 It is a type of quantitative analysis, in which the amount of a species
in a material is determined by converting the species to a product
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That is, It is a technique in which a sample is subjected to some treatment
that causes a change in the physical state of the analyte that
permits its separation from the other components of the sample.
 Precipitation reactions are frequently used in gravimetric analyses.
 In these reactions, you determine the amount of precipitate
formed, then filtered from the solution, dried, and weighed.
Advantages: Its analysis process is very simple.
Disadvantage: It requires careful and time-consuming work
Principle: Sample is dissolved in a solvent, & then the precipitating agent
is added. The resulting precipitate is filtered, dried and weighed.
 Steps for gravimetric analysis:

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