ELECTRONIC DEVICES AND CIRCUITS

OPEN ENDED LAB

Department of BSc Electrical Engineering

MNS UET University of Engineering & Technology,
(I YEAR – II SEM) (2023-24)

Prepared by:
Mr. Zulqurnan Anjum
Mr. Zubair Arshad
Mr. Mozam
Electronic devices and circuits Lab Manual

VISION

MISSION

QUALITY POLICY
 Electronic devices and circuits Lab Manual

PROGRAMME EDUCATIONAL OBJECTIVES

PEO1: PROFESSIONALISM & CITIZENSHIP
To create and sustain a community of learning in which students
acquire knowledge and learn to apply it professionally with due
consideration for ethical, ecological and economic issues.

PEO2: TECHNICAL ACCOMPLISHMENTS

To provide knowledge-based services to satisfy the needs of society and
the industry by providing hands on experience in various technologies
in core field.

PEO3: INVENTION, INNOVATION AND CREATIVITY

To make the students to design, experiment, analyze, interpret in the
core field with the help of other multi-disciplinary concepts wherever
applicable.

PEO4: PROFESSIONAL DEVELOPMENT

To educate the students to disseminate research findings with good
soft skills and become a successful entrepreneur.

PEO5: HUMAN RESOURCE DEVELOPMENT

To graduate the students in building national capabilities in technology,
education and research.
 CODE OF CONDUCT FOR THE LABORATORIES

All students must observe the Dress Code while in the laboratory.

Sandals or open-toed shoes are NOT allowed.

Foods, drinks and smoking are NOT allowed.

All bags must be left at the indicated place.

The lab timetable must be strictly followed.

Be PUNCTUAL for your laboratory session.

Program must be executed within the given time.

Noise must be kept to a minimum.

The workspace must be kept clean and tidy at all times.

Handle the systems and interfacing kits with care.

All students are liable for any damage to the accessories due to their own
negligence.

All interfacing kits connecting cables must be RETURNED if you take from the
lab supervisor.

Students are strictly PROHIBITED from taking out any items from the
laboratory.

Students are NOT allowed to work alone in the laboratory without the Lab
Supervisor

USB Ports have been disabled if you want to use USB drive consult lab
supervisor.

Report immediately to the Lab Supervisor if any malfunction of the accessories
is there.

Before leaving the lab


Place the chairs properly.

Turn off the system properly.

Turn off the monitor.

Please check the laboratory notice board regularly for updates.
 BASIC REQUIREMENT FOR EDC LAB

1. BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS

1.1 COLOUR CODING OF RESISTORS 4

1.2. COLOUR CODING OF CAPACITORS 5

1.3. COLOUR CODING OF INDUCTORS 9

2. CIRCUIT SYMBOLS 10

3. STUDY OF CRO 18

4. STUDY OF FUNCTION GENERATOR 24

5. STUDY OF REGULATED POWER SUPPLY 27

6. TYPES OF CIRCUIT BOARD 28

1
 LIST OF EXPERIMENTS

1. P-N JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS 30

2. ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS AND ZENER AS VOLTAGE 34

REGULATOR

3. HALF -WAVE RECTIFIER WITH AND WITHOUT FILTER 39

4. FULL - WAVE RECTIFIER WITH AND WITHOUT FILTER 44

5. INPUT AND OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSISTOR CB 49

CONFIGURATION

6. INPUT AND OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF TRANSISTOR 53

CE CONFIGURATION

7. FET CHARACTERISTICS 57

8. h-PARAMETERS OF CB CONFIGURATION 61

9. h-PARAMETERS OF CE CONFIGURATION 65

10. FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF CE AMPLIFIER 69

11. FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF CC AMPLIFIER 73

12. FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF COMMON SOURCE FET AMPLIFIER 77

2
 1. BASIC ELECTRONIC COMPONENTS
COLOUR CODING OF RESISTOR:

Color Codes are used to identify the value of a resistor. The numbers to the Color are
identified in the following sequence which is remembered as BBROY GREAT
BRITAN VERY GOOD WIFE (BBROYGBVGW) and their assignment is listed in
following table.

Black Brown Red Orange Yellow Green Blue Violet Grey White
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

Table1: Color codes of resistor

First find the tolerance band, it will typically be gold ( 5%)

and sometimes silver (10%).
Starting from the other end, identify the first band - write down the
number associated with that color
Now read the next color, so write down a its value next to the first value.
Now read the third or 'multiplier exponent' band and write down that as
the number of zeros.
If the 'multiplier exponent' band is Gold move the decimal point one to
the left. If the 'multiplier exponent' band is Silver move the decimal point
two places to the left. If the resistor has one more band past the tolerance
band it is a quality band.
Read the number as the '% Failure rate per 1000 hour' This is rated
assuming full wattage being applied to the resistors. (To get better
failure rates, resistors are typically specified to have twice the needed
wattage dissipation that the circuit produces). Some resistors use this
band for temco information. 1% resistors have three bands to read digits
to the left of the multiplier. They have a different temperature coefficient
in order to provide the 1% tolerance. At 1% the temperature coefficient
starts to become an important factor. at +/-200 ppm a change in
temperature of 25 Deg C causes a value change of up to 1%

Table2: Procedure to find the value of resistor using color codes

3
COLOUR CODING OF CAPACITORS

An electrical device capable of storing electrical energy. In general, a capacitor consists

of two metal plates insulated from each other by a dielectric. The capacitance of a
capacitor depends primarily upon its shape and size and upon the relative permittivity εr
of the medium between the plates. In vacuum, in air, and in most gases, εr ranges from
one to several hundred.

One classification of capacitors comes from the physical state of their dielectrics, which
may be gas (or vacuum), liquid, solid, or a combination of these. Each of these
classifications may be subdivided according to the specific dielectric used. Capacitors
may be further classified by their ability to be used in alternating-current (ac) or direct-
current (dc) circuits with various current levels.

 Capacitor Identification Codes: There are no international agreements in place to

standardize capacitor identification. Most plastic film types (Figure1) have printed
values and are normally in microfarads or if the symbol is n, Nano farads. Working
voltage is easily identified. Tolerances are upper case letters: M = 20%, K = 10%, J
= 5%, H = 2.5% and F = ± 1pF.

Figure 1: Plastic Film Types

A more difficult scheme is shown in Figure 2 where K is used for indicating Picofarads.
The unit is picofarads and the third number is a multiplier. A capacitor coded 474K63
means 47 × 10000 pF which is equivalent to 470000 pF or 0.47 microfarads. K indicates
10% tolerance. 50, 63 and 100 are working volts.

4
 Figure 2: Picofarads Representation

Ceramic disk capacitors have many marking schemes. Capacitance, tolerance, working voltage and tempera
Capacitance values are given as number without any identification as to units. (uF, nF, pF) Whole numbers

Figure3: Ceramic Disk Capacitor

5
Figure 4 shows some other miscellaneous schemes.

Figure 4: Miscellaneous Schemes.

 Electrolytic capacitor properties

There are a few parameters of importance beyond the basic capacitance and capacitive
reactance when using electrolytic capacitors. When designing circuits using electrolytic
capacitors it is necessary to take these additional parameters into consideration for some
designs, and to be aware of them when using electrolytic capacitors.

 ESR Equivalent series resistance: Electrolytic capacitors are often used in circuits
where current levels are relatively high. Also, under some circumstances and current
sourced from them needs to have low source impedance, for example when the
capacitor is being used in a power supply circuit as a reservoir capacitor. Under these
conditions it is necessary to consult the manufacturers’ datasheets to discover whether
the electrolytic capacitor chosen will meet the requirements for the circuit. If the ESR
is high, then it will not be able to deliver the required amount of current in the circuit,
without a voltage drop resulting from the ESR which will be seen as a source
resistance.
 Frequency response: One of the problems with electrolytic capacitors is that they
have a limited frequency response. It is found that their ESR rises with frequency, and
this generally limits their use to frequencies below about 100 kHz. This is particularly
true for large capacitors, and even the smaller electrolytic capacitors should not be
relied upon at high frequencies. To gain exact details it is necessary to consult the
manufacturer’s data for a given part.

6
 Leakage: Although electrolytic capacitors have much higher levels of capacitance
for a given volume than most other capacitor technologies, they can also have a
higher level of leakage. This is not a problem for most applications, such as when
they are used in power supplies. However under some circumstances they are not
suitable. For example they should not be used around the input circuitry of an
operational amplifier. Here even a small amount of leakage can cause problems
because of the high input impedance levels of the op-amp. It is also worth noting that
the levels of leakage are considerably higher in the reverse direction.
 Ripple current: When using electrolytic capacitors in high current applications
such as the reservoir capacitor of a power supply, it is necessary to consider the ripple
current it is likely to experience. Capacitors have a maximum ripple current they can
supply. Above this they can become too hot which will reduce their life. In extreme
cases it can cause the capacitor to fail. Accordingly it is necessary to calculate the
expected ripple current and check that it is within the manufacturer’s maximum
ratings.
 Tolerance: Electrolytic capacitors have a very wide tolerance. Typically this may be
-50% + 100%. This is not normally a problem in applications such as decoupling or
power supply smoothing, etc. However they should not be used in circuits where the
exact value is of importance.
 Polarization: Unlike many other types of capacitor, electrolytic capacitors are
polarized and must be connected within a circuit so that they only see a voltage across
them in a particular way.

The physical appearance of electrolytic capacitor is as shown in Figure 5.The capacitors

themselves are marked so that polarity can easily be seen. In addition to this it is common
for the can of the capacitor to be connected to the negative terminal.

Figure 5: Electrolytic Capacitor

It is absolutely necessary to ensure that any electrolytic capacitors are connected

within a circuit with the correct polarity. A reverse bias voltage will cause the centre
oxide layer forming the dielectric to be destroyed as a result of electrochemical reduction.
If this occurs a short circuit will appear and excessive current can cause the capacitor to
become very hot. If this occurs the component may leak the electrolyte, but under some
circumstances they can explode. As this is not uncommon, it is very wise to take
precautions and ensure the capacitor is fitted correctly, especially in applications where
high current capability exists.

7
 COLOUR CODING OF INDUCTORS

Inductor is just coil wound which provides more reactance for high frequencies and
low reactance for low frequencies.
Molded inductors follow the same scheme except the units are usually micro
henries. A brown-black-red inductor is most likely a 1000 uH. Sometimes a silver or gold
band is used as a decimal point. So a red-gold-violet inductor would be a 2.7 uH. Also
expect to see a wide silver or gold band before the first value band and a thin tolerance
band at the end. The typical Colour codes and their values are shown in Figure 6.

1000uH (1millihenry), 2%

6.8 uH, 5%

Figure 6: Typical inductors colour coding and their values.

8
 2. CIRCUIT SYMBOLS

WIRES AND CONNECTIONS

S.NO COMPONENT CIRCUIT SYMBOL FUNCTION

NAME
To pass current very easily
1 WIRE from one part of a circuit to
another.

A 'blob' should be drawn

where wires are connected
(joined), but it is sometimes
2 WIRES JOINED omitted. Wires connected at
'crossroads' should be
staggered slightly to form
two T-junctions, as shown on
the right.
In complex diagrams it is
often necessary to draw
wires crossing even though
3 WIRES NOT they are not connected. I
JOINED prefer the 'bridge' symbol
shown on the right because
the simple crossing on the
left may be misread as a join
where you have forgotten to
add a 'blob'.
POWER SUPPLIES

S.NO COMPONENT CIRCUIT SYMBOL FUNCTION

NAME
Supplies electrical energy.
The larger terminal (on the
1 CELL left) is positive (+).
A single cell is often called a
battery, but strictly a battery
is two or more cells joined
together
Supplies electrical energy. A
battery is more than one cell.
2 BATTERY The larger terminal (on the
left) is positive (+).

9
 Supplies electrical energy.
3 DC SUPPLY DC = Direct Current,
always flowing in one
direction.
Supplies electrical energy.
4 AC SUPPLY AC = Alternating Current,
continually changing
direction.
A safety device which will
'blow' (melt) if the current
5 FUSE
flowing through it exceeds a
specified value.
Two coils of wire linked by
an iron core. Transformers
are used to step up (increase)
and step down (decrease) AC
6 TRANSFORMER voltages. Energy is
transferred between the coils
by the magnetic field in the
core. There is no electrical
connection between the coils.
A connection to earth. For
many electronic circuits this
is the 0V (zero volts) of the
7 EARTH(GROUND) power supply, but for mains
electricity and some radio
circuits it really means the
earth. It is also known
as ground.
Output Devices: Lamps, Heater, Motor, etc.

S.NO COMPONENT CIRCUIT SYMBOL FUNCTION

NAME
A transducer which converts
electrical energy to light.
1 LAMP(LIGHTING) This symbol is used for a
lamp providing illumination,
for example a car headlamp
or torch bulb
A transducer which converts
electrical energy to light.
2 LAMP(INDICATOR) This symbol is used for a
lamp which is an indicator,
for example a warning light
on a car dashboard.
3 HEATER A transducer which converts
electrical energy to heat.
10
 A transducer which converts
4 MOTOR electrical energy to kinetic
energy (motion).

5 BELL A transducer which converts

electrical energy to sound.

6 BUZZER A transducer which converts

electrical energy to sound.

A coil of wire which creates

a magnetic field when
current passes through it. It
7 INDUCTOR(SOLIN may have an iron core inside
OID,COIL) the coil. It can be used as a
transducer converting
electrical energy to
mechanical energy by
pulling on something.
Switches

S.NO COMPONENT CIRCUIT SYMBOL FUNCTION

NAME
1 PUSH A push switch allows current
SWITCH(PUSH TO to flow only when the button
MAKE) is pressed. This is the
switch used to operate a
doorbell.
This type of push switch is
2 PUSH TO BREAK
normally closed (on), it is
SWITCH
open (off) only when the
button is pressed.
SPST = Single Pole, Single
3 ON/OFF Throw.
SWITCH(SPST) An on-off switch allows
current to flow only when it
is in the closed (on) position.
SPDT = Single Pole, Double
Throw. A 2-way changeover
4 2 WAY switch directs the flow of
SWITCH(SPDT) current to one of two routes
according to its position.
Some SPDT switches have a
central off position and are
described as 'on-off-on'.
11
 DPST = Double Pole, Single
Throw.
5 DUAL ON-OFF A dual on-off switch which
SWITCH(DPST) is often used to switch mains
electricity because it can
isolate both the live and
neutral connections.

DPDT = Double
Pole, Double Throw.
6 REVERSING This switch can be wired up
SWITCH(DPDT) as a reversing switch for a
motor. Some DPDT switches
have a central off position.

An electrically operated
switch, for example a 9V
battery circuit connected to
7 RELAY the coil can switch a 230V
AC mains circuit.
NO = Normally
Open, COM =
Common,
NC = Normally Closed.
RESISTORS

S.NO COMPONENT CIRCUIT SYMBOL FUNCTION

NAME
A resistor restricts the flow
of current, for example to
limit the current passing
1 RESISTOR
Or through an LED. A resistor
is
used with a capacitor in
a timing circuit.
This type of variable resistor
with 2 contacts (a rheostat) is
usually used to control
2 current. Examples include:
VARIABLE
RESISTOR(RHEOST adjusting lamp brightness,
AT) adjusting motor speed, and
adjusting the rate of flow of
charge into a capacitor in a
timing circuit.

12
3 VARIABLE This type of variable resistor
RESISTOR(POTENT with 3 contacts (a
IOMETER) potentiometer) is usually

13
 used to control voltage. It
can be used like this as a
transducer converting
position (angle of the control
spindle) to an electrical
signal
This type of variable resistor
(a preset) is operated with a
small screwdriver or similar
tool. It is designed to be set
4 VARIABLE when the circuit is made and
RESISTER(PRESET) then left without further
adjustment. Presets are
cheaper than normal variable
resistors so they are often
used in projects to reduce the
cost
CAPACITORS
S.NO NAME OF THE FUNCTION OF THE
COMPONENT CIRCUIT SYMBOL COMPONENT
A capacitor stores electric
charge. A capacitor is used
with a resistor in a timing
1 CAPACITOR circuit. It can also be used
as a filter, to block DC
signals but pass AC
signals.
A capacitor stores electric
charge.This type must be
connected the correct way
round. A capacitor is used
CAPACITOR
2 with a resistor in a timing
POLARISED
circuit. It can also be used
as a filter, to block DC
Signals but pass AC
signals.
A variable capacitor is
VARIABLE
3 used in a radio tuner.
CAPACITOR

14
 This type of variable
capacitor (a trimmer) is
operated with a small
4 TRIMMER screwdriver or similar tool.
CAPACITOR It is designed to be set
when the circuit is made
and then left without
further adjustment
DIODES

S.NO NAME OF THE FUNCTION OF THE

CIRCUIT SYMBOL
COMPONENT COMPONENT
A device which only
1 DIODE allows current to flow
in one direction
A transducer which
LED(LIGHT
2 converts electrical energy
EMITTING DIODE)
to light.
A special diode which is
3 ZENER DIODE used to maintain a fixed
voltage across its terminals

4 PHOTO DIODE A light-sensitive diode.

TRANSISTORS

S.NO NAME OF THE FUNCTION OF THE

CIRCUIT SYMBOL
COMPONENT COMPONENT
A transistor amplifies
current. It can be used with
other components to make
1 TRANSISTOR NPN
an amplifier or switching
circuit.

A transistor amplifies
current. It can be used
2 with other components to
TRANSISTOR PNP
make an amplifier or
switching circuit.

15
 A light-sensitive transistor.

PHOTO
3
TRANSISTOR

AUDIO AND RADIO DEVICES

S.NO NAME OF THE FUNCTION OF THE

CIRCUIT SYMBOL
COMPONENT COMPONENT
A transducer which
1 MICROPHONE converts sound to electrical
energy.
A transducer which
2
EARPHONE converts electrical energy
to sound.

A transducer which
3 LOUD SPEAKER converts electrical energy
to sound.

A transducer which
4 PIEZO
converts electrical energy
TRANSDUCER
to sound.
An amplifier circuit with
one input. Really it is a
5 AMPLIFIER(GENER block diagram symbol
AL SYMBOL) because it represents a
circuit rather than just one
component.
A device which is
designed to receive or
6 ARIEL (ANTENNA) transmit radio signals. It is
also known as an antenna

S.NO NAME OF THE FUNCTION OF THE

COMPONENT CIRCUIT SYMBOL COMPONENT
A voltmeter is used to
measure voltage. The
1 Proper name for voltage is
VOLTMETER
'potential difference', but
most people prefer to say
voltage.

16
 An ammeter is used to
2 AMMETTER
measure current
A galvanometer is a very
sensitive meter which is
3 GALVANOMETER used to measure tiny
currents, usually 1mA or
less
An ohmmeter is used to
measure resistance. Most
OHMMETER
4 multimeters have an
ohmmeter setting.
An oscilloscope is used to
display the shape of
5 OSCILLOSCOPE electrical signals and it can
be used to measure their
voltage and time period.
Sensors (input devices)

S.NO NAME OF THE FUNCTION OF THE

CIRCUIT SYMBOL
COMPONENT COMPONENT
A transducer which
converts brightness (light)
1 LDR to resistance (an electrical
property). LDR = Light
Dependent Resistor
A transducer which
converts temperature (heat)
2 THERMISTOR to resistance (an electrical
property).

17
 3. STUDY OF CRO
An oscilloscope is a test instrument which allows us to look at the 'shape' of electrical
signals by displaying a graph of voltage against time on its screen. It is like a voltmeter
with the valuable extra function of showing how the voltage varies with time. A graticule
with a 1cm grid enables us to take measurements of voltage and time from the screen.

The graph, usually called the trace, is drawn by a beam of electrons striking the phosphor
coating of the screen making it emit light, usually green or blue. This is similar to the
way a television picture is produced.

Oscilloscopes contain a vacuum tube with a cathode (negative electrode) at one end to
emit electrons and an anode (positive electrode) to accelerate them so they move rapidly
down the tube to the screen. This arrangement is called an electron gun. The tube also
contains electrodes to deflect the electron beam up/down and left/right.

The electrons are called cathode rays because they are emitted by the cathode and this
gives the oscilloscope its full name of cathode ray oscilloscope or CRO.

A dual trace oscilloscope can display two traces on the screen, allowing us to easily
compare the input and output of an amplifier for example. It is well worth paying the
modest extra cost to have this facility.

Figure1: Front Panel of CRO

18
 BASIC OPERATION:

Y plates
Electron gun

Cathod
e Fluorescent screen

Electron beam
Anode

X plates

Figure2: Internal Blocks of CRO

 Setting up an oscilloscope:

Oscilloscopes are complex instruments with many controls and they require some care to
set up and use successfully. It is quite easy to 'lose' the trace off the screen if controls are
set wrongly.

There is some variation in the arrangement and labeling of the many controls so the
following instructions may need to be adapted for this instrument.

1. Switch on the oscilloscope to warm up (it takes a minute or two).

2. Do not connect the input lead at this stage.
3. Set the AC/GND/DC switch (by the Y INPUT) to DC.
4. Set the SWP/X-Y switch to SWP (sweep).
5. Set Trigger Level to AUTO.
6. Set Trigger Source to INT (internal, the y input).
7. Set the Y AMPLIFIER to 5V/cm (a moderate value).
8. Set the TIMEBASE to 10ms/cm (a moderate speed).
9. Turn the time base VARIABLE control to 1 or CAL.
10. Adjust Y SHIFT (up/down) and X SHIFT (left/right) to give a trace across
the middle of the screen, like the picture.
11. Adjust INTENSITY (brightness) and FOCUS to give a bright, sharp trace.

19
 The following type of trace is observed on CRO after setting up, when there is no
input signal connected.

Figure 3: Absence of input signal

 Connecting an oscilloscope:

The Y INPUT lead to an oscilloscope should be a co-axial lead and the figure 4 shows its
construction. The central wire carries the signal and the screen is connected to earth (0V)
to shield the signal from electrical interference (usually called noise).

Figure 4: Construction of a co-axial lead

Most oscilloscopes have a BNC socket for the y input and the lead is connected with a
push and twist action, to disconnect we need to twist and pull. Professionals use a
specially designed lead and probes kit for best results with high frequency signals and
when testing high resistance circuits, but this is not essential for simpler work at audio
frequencies (up to 20 kHz).

20
 Figure 5: Oscilloscope lead and probes kit

 Obtaining a clear and stable trace:

Once if we connect the oscilloscope to the circuit, it is necessary to adjust the controls to
obtain a clear and stable trace on the screen in order to test it.

 The Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control determines the height of the trace.

Choose a setting so the trace occupies at least half the screen height, but does
not disappear off the screen.
 The TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control determines the rate at which the dot
sweeps across the screen. Choose a setting so the trace shows at least one cycle
of the signal across the screen. Note that a steady DC input signal gives a
horizontal line trace for which the time base setting is not critical.
 The TRIGGER control is usually best left set to AUTO.

21
The trace of an AC signal with the oscilloscope controls correctly set is as shown in
Figure 6.

Figure 6 : Stable waveform

Measuring voltage and time period

The trace on an oscilloscope screen is a graph of voltage against time. The shape of this graph is determined

Figure7: Properties of trace

22
  Amplitude is the maximum voltage reached by the signal. It is measured in volts.
 Peak voltage is another name for amplitude.
 Peak-peak voltage is twice the peak voltage (amplitude). When reading
an oscilloscope trace it is usual to measure peak-peak voltage.
 Time period is the time taken for the signal to complete one cycle.
It is measured in seconds (s), but time periods tend to be short so milliseconds (ms)
and microseconds (µs) are often used. 1ms = 0.001s and 1µs = 0.000001s.
 Frequency is the number of cycles per second. It is measured in hertz (Hz), but
frequencies tend to be high so kilohertz (kHz) and megahertz (MHz) are often
used. 1kHz = 1000Hz and 1MHz = 1000000Hz.

Frequency = 1 Time
period
Time period = 1
Frequency

A) Voltage: Voltage is shown on the vertical y-axis and the scale is determined by the
Y AMPLIFIER (VOLTS/CM) control. Usually peak-peak voltage is measured because it
can be read correctly even if the position of 0V is not known. The amplitude is half the
peak-peak voltage.

Voltage = distance in cm × volts/cm

B) Time period: Time is shown on the horizontal x-axis and the scale is determined
by the TIMEBASE (TIME/CM) control. The time period (often just called period) is the
time for one cycle of the signal. The frequency is the number of cycles per second,
frequency = 1/time period.

Time = distance in cm × time/cm

23
 4. STUDY OF FUNCTION GENERATOR
A function generator is a device that can produce various patterns of voltage at a variety
of frequencies and amplitudes. It is used to test the response of circuits to common
input signals. The electrical leads from the device are attached to the ground and signal
input terminals of the device under test.

Figure 1: A typical low-cost function generator.

Features and controls :

Most function generators allow the user to choose the shape of the output from a small number of options.

Square wave - The signal goes directly from high to low voltage.

Figure 2: Square wave

24
The duty cycle of a signal refers to the ratio of high voltage to low voltage time in a
square wave signal.

 Sine wave - The signal curves like a sinusoid from high to low voltage.

Figure3: Sine Wave

Triangle wave - The signal goes from high to low voltage at a fixed rate.

Figure 4: Triangular Wave

The amplitude control on a function generator varies the voltage difference between the
high and low voltage of the output signal. The direct current (DC) offset control on a
function generator varies the average voltage of a signal relative to the ground.

25
The frequency control of a function generator controls the rate at which output signal
oscillates. On some function generators, the frequency control is a combination of
different controls. One set of controls chooses the broad frequency range (order of
magnitude) and the other selects the precise frequency. This allows the function generator
to handle the enormous variation in frequency scale needed for signals.


How to use a function generator

After powering on the function generator, the output signal needs to be configured to the
desired shape. Typically, this means connecting the signal and ground leads to an
oscilloscope to check the controls. Adjust the function generator until the output signal is
correct, then attach the signal and ground leads from the function generator to the input
and ground of the device under test. For some applications, the negative lead of the
function generator should attach to a negative input of the device, but usually attaching to
ground is sufficient.

26
 5. STUDY OF REGULATED POWER SUPPLY
There are many types of power supply. Most are designed to convert high voltage AC
mains electricity to a suitable low voltage supply for electronic circuits and other devices.
A power supply can by broken down into a series of blocks, each of which performs a
particular function. For example a 5V regulated supply:

Figure1: Block Diagram Of Regulated Power Supply

Each of the blocks is described in more detail below:

 Transformer: Steps down high voltage AC mains to low voltage AC.

 Rectifier: Converts AC to DC, but the DC output is varying.
 Smoothing: Smooths the DC from varying greatly to a small ripple.
 Regulator: Eliminates ripple by setting DC output to a fixed voltage.

 Dual Supplies: Some electronic circuits require a power supply with positive and
negative outputs as well as zero volts (0V). This is called a 'dual supply' because it is
like two ordinary supplies connected together as shown in the diagram. Dual supplies
have three outputs, for example a ±9V supply has +9V, 0V and -9V outputs.

Figure 2: Dual Supply

27
 6. TYPES OF CIRCUIT BOARD
 Breadboard: This is a way of making a temporary circuit, for testing purposes or
to try out an idea. No soldering is required and all the components can be re-used
afterwards. It is easy to change connections and replace components. Almost all
the Electronics Club projects started life on a breadboard to check that the circuit
worked as intended. The following figure depicts the appearance of Bread board
in which the holes in top and bottom stribes are connected horizontally that are
used for power supply and ground connection conventionally and holes on middle
stribes connected vertically. And that are used for circuit connections
conventionally.

Figure 1: Bread board

 Strip board:

Figure 2: Strip Board

28
Stripboard has parallel strips of copper track on one side. The strips are 0.1" (2.54mm)
apart and there are holes every 0.1" (2.54mm). Stripboard requires no special preparation
other than cutting to size. It can be cut with a junior hacksaw, or simply snap it along the
lines of holes by putting it over the edge of a bench or table and pushing hard.

Printed Circuit Board: A printed circuit board, or PCB, is used to mechanically support
and electrically connect electronic components using conductive pathways, tracks or
traces etched from copper sheets laminated onto a non-conductive substrate. It is also
referred to as printed wiring board (PWB) or etched wiring board. A PCB populated with
electronic components is a printed circuit assembly (PCA), also known as a printed
circuit board assembly (PCBA).

Printed circuit boards have copper tracks connecting the holes where the
components are placed. They are designed especially for each circuit and make
construction very easy. However, producing the PCB requires special equipment so this
method is not recommended if you are a beginner unless the PCB is provided for you.

Figure 3: Printed circuit board

PCBs are inexpensive, and can be highly reliable. They require much more layout effort
and higher initial cost than either wire-wrapped or point-to-point constructed circuits, but
are much cheaper and faster for high-volume production. Much of the electronics
industry's PCB design, assembly, and quality control needs are set by standards that are
published by the IPC organization.

29
 1. P-N JUNCTION DIODE CHARACTERISTICS

AIM: 1. To observe and draw the Forward and Reverse bias V-I Characteristics of a P-N
Junction diode.
2. To calculate static and dynamic resistance in both forward and Reverse
Bias Condition.

APPARATUS:

1. P-N Diode IN4007 - 1No.

2. Regulated Power supply (0-30V) - 1No.
3. Resistor 1KΩ - 1No.
4. Ammeter (0-20 mA) - 1No
5. Ammeter (0-200µA) - 1No.
6. Voltmeter (0-20V) - 2No.
7. Bread board
8. Connecting wires

THEORY:
A P-N junction diode conducts only in one direction. The V-I characteristics of
the diode are curve between voltage across the diode and current flowing through the
diode. When external voltage is zero, circuit is open and the potential barrier does not
allow the current to flow. Therefore, the circuit current is zero. When P-type (Anode) is
connected to +ve terminal and n- type (cathode) is connected to –ve terminal of the
supply voltage is known as forward bias. The potential barrier is reduced when diode is in
the forward biased condition. At some forward voltage, the potential barrier altogether
eliminated and current starts flowing through the diode and also in the circuit. Then diode
is said to be in ON state. The current increases with increasing forward voltage.

When N-type (cathode) is connected to +ve terminal and P-type (Anode) is

connected –ve terminal of the supply voltage is known as reverse bias and the potential
barrier across the junction increases. Therefore, the junction resistance becomes very
high and a very small current (reverse saturation current) flows in the circuit. Then diode
is said to be in OFF state. The reverse bias current is due to minority charge carriers.

30
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

A) Forward bias:

B) Reverse Bias:

MODEL GRAPH:

31
OBSERVATIONS:

A) FORWARD BIAS:

S.NO Applied Forward Forward

Voltage(V) Voltage(Vf) Current(If(mA))

B) REVERSE BIAS:

S.NO Applied Reverse Reverse

Voltage(V) Voltage(VR) Current(IR(µA))

Calcutions:
Calculation of Static and Dynamic Resistance for a given diode. In forward bias condition:
Static Resistance,

Rs R=D Vf/If=
Dynamic Resistance, = ∆Vf/ ∆If =

In Reverse bias condition:

Static Resistance , Rs = VR/IR =

Dynamic Resistance, RD = ∆VR/ ∆IR =

32
PROCEDURE:
A) FORWARD BIAS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. for forward bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the anode of the diode
and RPS –ve is connected to the cathode of the diode
3. Switch on the power supply and increases the input voltage (supply voltage)
in Steps of 0.1V
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode and voltage
across the diode for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The reading of voltage and current are tabulated.
6. Graph is plotted between voltage (Vf) on X-axis and current (If) on Y-axis.

B) REVERSE BIAS:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram

2. For reverse bias, the RPS +ve is connected to the cathode of the diode
and RPS –ve is connected to the anode of the diode.
3. Switch on the power supply and increase the input voltage (supply voltage)
in Steps of 1V.
4. Note down the corresponding current flowing through the diode voltage across
the diode for each and every step of the input voltage.
5. The readings of voltage and current are tabulated
6. Graph is plotted between voltage (VR) on X-axis and current (IR) on Y-axis.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. All the connections should be correct.

2. Parallax error should be avoided while taking the readings from the Analog meters.

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. Define depletion region of a diode?
2. What is meant by transition & space charge capacitance of a diode?
3. Is the V-I relationship of a diode Linear or Exponential?
4. Define cut-in voltage of a diode and specify the values for Si and Ge diodes?
5. What are the applications of a p-n diode?
6. Draw the ideal characteristics of P-N junction diode?
7. What is the diode equation?
8. What is PIV?
9. What is the break down voltage?
10. What is the effect of temperature on PN junction diodes?
11. Specifications of diodes

33
 2. ZENER DIODE CHARACTERISTICS AND ZENER AS
VOLTAGE REGULATOR
AIM:

a) To observe and draw the static characteristics of a zener diode

b) To find the voltage regulation of a given zener diode

APPARATUS:

1. Zener diode - 1No.

2. Regulated Power Supply (0-30v) - 1No.
3. Voltmeter (0-20v) - 1No.
4. Ammeter (0-20mA) - 1No.
5. Resistor (1K ohm)
6. Bread Board
7. Connecting wires

THEORY:

A zener diode is heavily doped p-n junction diode, specially made to operate in
the break down region. A p-n junction diode normally does not conduct when reverse
biased. But if the reverse bias is increased, at a particular voltage it starts conducting
heavily. This voltage is called Break down Voltage. High current through the diode can
permanently damage the device.

To avoid high current, we connect a resistor in series with zener diode. Once the
diode starts conducting it maintains almost constant voltage across the terminals
whatever may be the current through it, i.e., it has very low dynamic resistance. It is
used in voltage regulators.

34
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM

A) STATIC CHARACTERISTICS :

b) REVERSE BIAS CHARACTERISTICS:

35
 OBSERVATIONS:

A) FORWARD BIAS Characteristics:

S.NO Applied Voltage(V) Forward Voltage(Vf) Forward Current(If(mA))

B) REVERSE BIAS Characteristics:

S.NO Applied Voltage(V) Reverse Voltage(VR) Reverse Current(IR(mA))

36
PROCEDURE:

A) Static characteristics:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. The Regulated power supply voltage is increased in steps.
3. The Forward current (lf), and the forward voltage (Vf.) are observed and
then noted in the tabular form.
4. A graph is plotted between Forward current (lf) on X-axis and the forward
voltage (Vf) on Y-axis.

B) Load Regulation characteristics:

1. Connect the Circuit as per the Circuit Diagram on the bread board.
2. By changing the load Resistance, kept constant I/P Voltage at 5V, 10 V, 15 V
as per table given below. Take the readings of O/P Voltmeter (Vo=Vz).
3. Now by changing the I/P Voltage, kept constant load Resistance at 1K, 2K, 3K
as per table given below. Take the readings of O/P Voltmeter (Vo=Vz).

LOAD REGULATION LINE REGULATION

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The terminals of the zener diode should be properly identified

2. While determined the load regulation, load should not be immediately shorted.
3. Should be ensured that the applied voltages & currents do not exceed the ratings of
the diode.

RESULT:

37
VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What type of temp coefficient does the zener diode have?

2. If the impurity concentration is increased, how the depletion width effected?
3. Does the dynamic impendence of a zener diode vary?
4. Explain briefly about avalanche and zener breakdowns?
5. Draw the zener equivalent circuit?
6. Differentiate between line regulation & load regulation?
7. In which region zener diode can be used as a regulator?
8. How the breakdown voltage of a particular diode can be controlled?
9. What type of temperature coefficient does the Avalanche breakdown has?
10. By what type of charge carriers the current flows in zener and avalanche
breakdown diodes?
11. Define zener break down
12. Applications of zener diode
13. Explain how zener diode as voltage
regulator 14.

38
 3. HALF -WAVE RECTIFIER WITH AND WITHOUT FILTER

AIM: To examine the input and output waveforms of half wave Rectifier and also
Calculate its load regulation and ripple factor.
1. With Filter
2. Without Filter

APPARATUS:

Digital Multimeter - 1No.

Transformer (6V-0-6V) - 1No.
Diode, 1N4007 - 1No.
Capacitor 100μf/470 μf - 1No.
Decade Resistance Box - 1No.
Breadboard
CRO and CRO probes
Connecting wires

THEORY:

In Half Wave Rectification, When AC supply is applied at the input, only Positive Half
Cycle appears across the load whereas, the negative Half Cycle is suppressed. How this
can be explained as follows:

During positive half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode D1 is in forward bias
and conducts through the load resistor R L. Hence the current produces an output voltage
across the load resistor RL, which has the same shape as the +ve half cycle of the input
voltage.

During the negative half-cycle of the input voltage, the diode is reverse biased and
there is no current through the circuit. i.e., the voltage across R L is zero. The net result is
that only the +ve half cycle of the input voltage appears across the load. The average
value of the half wave rectified o/p voltage is the value measured on dc voltmeter.

For practical circuits, transformer coupling is usually provided for two reasons.
1. The voltage can be stepped-up or stepped-down, as needed.
2. The ac source is electrically isolated from the rectifier. Thus preventing shock
hazards in the secondary circuit.
The efficiency of the Half Wave Rectifier is 40.6%

39
Theoretical calculations for Ripple
factor: Without Filter:
Vrms =
Vm/2 Vm =
2Vrms Vdc =
Vm/П
Ripple factor r=√ (Vrms/ Vdc )2 -1 =1.21
With Filter:
Ripple factor, r = 1/ (2√3 f C R)

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

A) Half Wave Rectifier Without Filter:

B) Half Wave Rectifier With Filter

40
MODEL WAVEFORMS:

A WAVEFORMS:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Connect the primary side of the transformer to ac mains and the secondary side to
the rectifier input.
3. By the multimeter, measure the ac input voltage of the rectifier and, ac and dc
voltage at the output of the rectifier.
4. Find the theoretical value of dc voltage by using the
formula, Vdc=Vm/П
Where, Vm=2Vrms, (Vrms=output ac voltage.)
5.The Ripple factor is calculated by using the formula

r = ac output voltage/dc output voltage.

41
 WITHOUT FILTER:

REGULATION CHARACTERSTICS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. By increasing the value of the rheostat, the voltage across the load and
current flowing through the load are measured.
3. The reading is tabulated.
4. From the value of no-load voltages, the %regulation is calculated using
the formula,

%Regulation = [(VNL-VFL) /VFL]*100

42
PRECAUTIONS:

1. The primary and secondary side of the transformer should be carefully identified
2. The polarities of all the diodes should be carefully identified.
3. While determining the % regulation, first full load should be applied and then
it should be decremented in steps

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:

What is the PIV of Half wave rectifier?

What is the efficiency of half wave rectifier?
What is the rectifier?
What is the difference between the half wave rectifier and Full Wave Rectifier?
What is the o/p frequency of Bridge Rectifier?
What are the ripples?
What is the function of the filters?
What is TUF?
What is the average value of o/p voltage for HWR?
What is the peak factor?

43
 4. FULL-WAVE RECTIFIER WITH AND
WITHOUT FILTER
AIM: To Examine the input and output waveforms of Full Wave Rectifier and also
calculate its load regulation and ripple factor.

1. With Filter
2. Without Filter

APPARATUS:
Digital multimetersMultimeter -
1No. Transformer (6V-0-6V) - 1No.
Diode, 1N4007 - 2No.
Capacitor 100μf/470 μf - 1No.
Decade Resistance Box - 1No.
Breadboard
CRO and CRO probes
Connecting wires
THEORY:
The circuit of a center-tapped full wave rectifier uses two diodes D1&D2.
During positive half cycle of secondary voltage (input voltage), the diode D1 is forward
biased and D2 is reverse biased. So the diode D1 conducts and current flows through
load resistor RL.

During negative half cycle, diode D2 becomes forward biased and D1 reverse
biased. Now, D2 conducts and current flows through the load resistor R L in the same
direction. There is a continuous current flow through the load resistor RL, during both
the half cycles and will get unidirectional current as show in the model graph. The
difference between full wave and half wave rectification is that a full wave rectifier
allows unidirectional (one way) current to the load during the entire 360 degrees of the
input signal and half-wave rectifier allows this only during one half cycle (180 degree).

THEORITICAL CALCULATIONS:
Vrms = Vm/
√2 Vm =
Vrms√2 Vdc =
2Vm/П
(i) Without filter:
Ripple factor, r = √ (Vrms/ Vdc )2 -1 = 0.812
(ii) With filter:
Ripple factor, r = 1/ (4√3 f C RL)

44
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

A) FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITHOUT FILTER:

B) FULL WAVE RECTIFIER WITH FILTER:

45
MODEL WAVEFORMS:

A) WAVEFORMS:

46
WITHOUT FILTER:

PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. Connect the ac mains to the primary side of the transformer and the
secondary side to the rectifier.
3. Measure the ac voltage at the input side of the rectifier.
4. Measure both ac and dc voltages at the output side the rectifier.
5. Find the theoretical value of the dc voltage by using the formula Vdc = 2Vm/П
6. Connect the filter capacitor across the load resistor and measure the values of
Vac and Vdc at the output.

47
 7. The theoretical values of Ripple factors with and without capacitor
are calculated.
8. From the values of Vac and Vdc practical values of Ripple factors
are calculated. The practical values are compared with theoretical
values.

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The primary and secondary side of the transformer should be carefully identified.
2. The polarities of all the diodes should be carefully identified.

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. Define regulation of the full wave rectifier?

2. Define peak inverse voltage (PIV)? And write its value for Full-wave rectifier?
3. If one of the diode is changed in its polarities what wave form would you get?
4. Does the process of rectification alter the frequency of the waveform?
5. What is ripple factor of the Full-wave rectifier?
6. What is the necessity of the transformer in the rectifier circuit?
7. What are the applications of a rectifier?
8. What is meant by ripple and define Ripple factor?
9. Explain how capacitor helps to improve the ripple factor?
10. Can a rectifier made in INDIA (V=230v, f=50Hz) be used in USA
(V=110v, f=60Hz)?

48
 5. INPUT AND OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF
TRANSISTOR CB CONFIGURATION
AIM: 1.To observe and draw the input and output characteristics of a transistor
connected in common base configuration.
2.To find α of the given transistor and also its input and output Resistances.

APPARATUS
: Transistor, BC107 -1No.
Regulated power supply (0-30V) -1No.
Voltmeter (0-20V) - 2No.
Ammeters (0-10mA) - 2No.
Resistor, 1KΩ - 2No
Bread board
Connecting wires

THEORY:
A transistor is a three terminal active device. The terminals are emitter, base,
collector. In CB configuration, the base is common to both input (emitter) and output
(collector). For normal operation, the E-B junction is forward biased and C-B junction
is reverse biased. In CB configuration, IE is +ve, IC is –ve and IB is –ve. So,

VEB = F1 (VCB, IE) and

IC = F2 (VEB,IB)
With an increasing the reverse collector voltage, the space-charge width at the output
junction increases and the effective base width ‘W’ decreases. This phenomenon is
known as “Early effect”. Then, there will be less chance for recombination within the
base region.With increase of charge gradient with in the base region, the current of
minority carriers injected across the emitter junction increases.
The current amplification factor of CB configuration is given by,
α = ∆IC/ ∆IE
Input Resistance, ri = ∆VBE /∆IE at Constant
VCB Output Résistance, ro = ∆VCB /∆IC at Constant IE

49
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPHS:
A) INPUT CHARACTERISTICS

B) OUTPUTCHARACTERISTICS

50
OBSERVATIONS:

A) INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

VCB=1V VCB= = 2V VCB= 4V

VEE(V)
VEB(V) IE(mA) VEB(V) IE(mA) VEB(V) IE(mA)

B) OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

IE=10mA IE=20mA IE=30mA

Vcc(V) VCB(V) IC(mA) VCB(V) IC(mA) VCB(V) IC(mA)

PROCEDURE:
A) INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For plotting the input characteristics, the output voltage VCE is kept constant at
0V and for different values of VEE note down the values of IE and VBE
3. Repeat the above step keeping VCB at 2V,4V,and 6V and all the readings are
tabulated.
4. A graph is drawn between VEB and IE for constant VCB.

B) OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. For plotting the output characteristics, the input IE is kept constant at 0.5mA and
for different values of VCC, note down the values of IC and VCB.
3. Repeat the above step for the values of IE at 1mA, 5mA and all the readings
are tabulated.
4. A graph is drawn between VCB and Ic for constant IE

51
PRECAUTIONS:

1. The supply voltages should not exceed the rating of the transistor.
2. Meters should be connected properly according to their polarities.

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is the range of α for the transistor?

2. Draw the input and output characteristics of the transistor in CB configuration?
3. Identify various regions in output characteristics?
4. What is the relation between α and β?
5. What are the applications of CB configuration?
6. What are the input and output impedances of CB configuration?
7. Define α (alpha)?
8. What is early effect?
9. Draw Circuit diagram of CB configuration for PNP transistor?
10. What is the power gain of CB configuration?

52
 6. INPUT AND OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS OF
TRANSISTOR CE CONFIGURATION

AIM:

1. To draw the input and output characteristics of transistor connected in

CE configuration
2. To find β of the given transistor and also its input and output Resistances

APPARATUS
: Transistor, BC107 -1No.
Regulated power supply (0-30V) -1No.
Voltmeter (0-20V) - 2No.
Ammeters (0-20mA) -1No.
Ammeters (0-200μA) -1No.
Resistor, 100Ω -1No
Resistor, 1KΩ -1No.
Bread board
Connecting wires

THEORY:

In common emitter configuration, input voltage is applied between base and emitter
terminals and output is taken across the collector and emitter terminals.Therefore the
emitter terminal is common to both input and output.

The input characteristics resemble that of a forward biased diode curve. This is
expected since the Base-Emitter junction of the transistor is forward biased. As
compared to CB arrangement IB increases less rapidly with VBE. Therefore input
resistance of CE circuit is higher than that of CB circuit.

The output characteristics are drawn between Ic and VCE at constant IB the
collector current varies with V CE up to few volts only. After this the collector current
becomes almost constant, and independent of V CE. The value of VCE up to which the
collector current changes with V CE is known as Knee voltage. The transistor always
operated in the region above Knee voltage, I C is always constant and is approximately
equal to IB. The current amplification factor of CE configuration is given by

β = ΔIC/ΔIB
Input Resistance, ri = ∆VBE /∆IB (μA) at Constant VCE
Output Résistance, ro = ∆VCE /∆IC at Constant IB (μA)

53
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPHS:

A) INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

B) OUTPUT CHARACTERSITICS:

54
OBSERVATIONS:

A) INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

VCE = 1V VCE = 2V VCE = 4V

VBB
VBE(V) IB(μA) VBE(V) IB(μA) VBE(V) IB(μA)

B) OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

IB = 50 μA IB = 75 μA IB = 100 μA
S.NO
VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA) VCE(V) IC(mA)

PROCEDURE:

A) INPUT CHARECTERSTICS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram.

2. For plotting the input characteristics the output voltage VCE is kept constant at
1V and for different values of VBB , note down the values of IB and VBE
3. Repeat the above step by keeping VCE at 2V and 4V and tabulate all the readings.
4. plot the graph between VBE and IB for constant VCE

55
B) OUTPUT CHARACTERSTICS:

1. Connect the circuit as per the circuit diagram

2. for plotting the output characteristics the input current IB is kept constant at
50μA and for different values of VCC note down the values of IC and VCE
3. Repeat the above step by keeping IB at 75 μA and 100 μA and tabulate the all
the readings
4. plot the graph between VCE and IC for constant IB

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The supply voltage should not exceed the rating of the transistor
2. Meters should be connected properly according to their polarities

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is the range of β for the transistor?

2. What are the input and output impedances of CE configuration?
3. Identify various regions in the output characteristics?
4. What is the relation between α and β?
5. Define current gain in CE configuration?
6. Why CE configuration is preferred for amplification?
7. What is the phase relation between input and output?
8. Draw diagram of CE configuration for PNP transistor?
9. What is the power gain of CE configuration?
10. What are the applications of CE configuration?

56
 7. FET CHARACTERISTICS

AIM:
a) To draw the drain and transfer characteristics of a given FET.
b) To find the drain resistance (rd) amplification factor (μ)
and TransConductance (gm) of the given FET.

APPARATUS:

FET BFW11 -1No.

Regulated power supply (0-30V) -1No.
Voltmeter (0-20V) -2No.
Ammeter (0-20mA) -1No.
Bread board
Connecting wires

THEORY:

A FET is a three terminal device, in which current conduction is by majority carriers

only. The flow of current is controlled by means of an Electric field. The three
terminals of FET are Gate, Drain and Source. It is having the characteristics of high
input impedance and less noise, the Gate to Source junction of the FETs always reverse
biased. In response to small applied voltage from drain to source, the n-type bar acts as
sample resistor, and the drain current increases linearly with VDS. With increase in ID the
ohmic voltage drop between the source and the channel region reverse biases the
junction and the conducting position of the channel begins to remain constant. The VDS
at this instant is called “pinch of voltage”. If the gate to source voltage (VGS) is applied
in the direction to provide additional reverse bias, the pinch off voltage ill is decreased.
In amplifier application, the FET is always used in the region beyond the pinch-off.

FET parameters:
AC Drain Resistance, rd = ∆VDS / ∆I D at constant
VGS Tran conductance, gm = ∆ID /∆VGS at constant
VDS Amplification, µ = ∆VDS/∆VGS at constant ID
Relation between above parameters
µ = rd * gm
The drain current is given by
.
ID =IDSS (1-VGS/VP)2

57
 CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:
A) DRAIN CHARCTERISTICS:

58
B) TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:

OBSERVATIONS:
A) DRAIN CHARACTERISTICS:

S.NO VGS = 0V VGS = 0.1V VGS = 0.2V

VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA) VDS(V) ID(mA)

B) TRANSFER CHARACTERISTICS:

S.NO VDS =0.5V VDS = 1V VDS = 1.5V

VGS (V) ID(mA) VGS (V) ID(mA) VGS (V) ID(mA)

59
PROCEDURE:
1. All the connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. To plot the drain characteristics, keep VGS constant at 0V.
3. Vary the VDD and observe the values of VDS and ID.
4. Repeat the above steps 2, 3 for different values of VGS at 0.1V and 0.2V.
5. All the readings are tabulated.
6. To plot the transfer characteristics, keep VDS constant at 1V.
7. Vary VGG and observe the values of VGS and ID.
8. Repeat steps 6 and 7 for different values of VDS at 1.5 V and 2V.
9. The readings are tabulated.
10. From drain characteristics, calculate the values of dynamic resistance (rd)
11.
From transfer characteristics, calculate the value of transconductace (gm)
12.
And also calculate Amplification factor (μ).

PRECAUTIONS:

1. The three terminals of the FET must be carefully identified

2. Practically FET contains four terminals, which are called source, drain,
Gate, substrate.
3. Source and case should be short circuited.
4. Voltages exceeding the ratings of the FET should not be applied.

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What are the advantages of FET?

2. Different between FET and BJT?
3. Explain different regions of V-I characteristics of FET?
4. What are the applications of FET?
5. What are the types of FET?
6. Draw the symbol of FET?
7. What are the disadvantages of FET?
8. What are the parameters of FET?

60
 8. h- PARAMETERS OF CB CONFIGURATION
AIM: To calculate the h-parameters of transistor in CB configuration.

APPARATUS:

S.No. Name Quantity

1 Transistor BC 107 1(One) No.
2 Resistors (1K ) 2(Two) No.
3 Bread board 1(One) No.

Equipment:
S.No. Name Quantity
1 Dual DC Regulated Power supply (0 – 30 V) 1(One) No.
2 Digital Ammeters ( 0 – 200 mA) 2(Two) No.
3 Digital Voltmeter (0-20V) 2(Two) No.
4 Connecting wires (Single Strand) 2

Circuit Diagram:

61
h – Parameter model of CB transistor:

Procedure:

Input Characteristics:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Keep output voltage VCB = 0V by varying VCC.
3. Varying VEE gradually, note down emitter current IE and emitter-base
voltage(VEE).
4. Step size is not fixed because of nonlinear curve. Initially vary VEE in steps of 0.1
V. Once the current starts increasing vary VEE in steps of 1V up to 12V.
5. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for VCB = 4V.

Output Characteristics:

1. Connect the circuit as shown in the circuit diagram.

2. Keep emitter current IE = 5mA by varying VEE.
3. Varying VCC gradually in steps of 1V up to 12V and note down collector
current IC and collector-base voltage(VCB).
4. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for IE =

10mA. Repeat above procedure (step 3) for IE =

10mA.

Observations:

Input Characteristics
VCB = 0V VCB = 4V
VEE (Volts)
VEB (Volts) IE (mA) VEB (Volts) IE (mA)

62
63
 Output Characteristics
IE = 0mA IE = 5V IE = 10mA
VCC (Volts) VCB (Volts) IC (mA) VCB (Volts) IC (mA) VCB (Volts) IC (mA)

Graph:

1.
Plot the input characteristics for different values of VCB by taking VEE on X-axis
and IE on Y-axis taking VCB as constant parameter.
2.
Plot the output characteristics by taking VCB on X-axis and taking IC on Y-
axis taking IE as a constant parameter.

Calculations from Graph:

The h-parameters are to be calculated from the following formulae:

1.
Input Characteristics: To obtain input resistance, find VEE and IE for a
constant VCB on one of the input characteristics.

Input impedance = hib = Ri = VEE / IE (VCB = constant)

Reverse voltage gain = hrb = VEB / VCB (IE = constant)

64
 2.
Output Characteristics: To obtain output resistance, find IC and VCB at
a constant IE.

Output admitance = hob = 1/Ro = IC / VCB (IE = constant)

Forward current gain = hfb = IC / IE (VCB =constant)

Result:

The h-parameters for a transistor in CB configuration are:

a.
The Input resistance (hib) Ohms.
b.
The Reverse Voltage Transfer Ratio (hrb) .
c.
The Output Admittance (hob) Mhos.
d.
The Forward Current gain (hfb) .

Discussion/Viva Questions:

1. What is transistor?

2. Write the relation between and ?

3. Define (alpha)? What is the range of ?

4. Why is less than unity?

5. Input and output impedance equations for CB configuration?

6. What is carrier lifetime?

7. What is the importance of Fermi level?

8. Can the junction less transistors be realized?

9. What is the doping level of E, B and C layers?

10. List the various current components in BJT.

65
 9. h-PARAMETERS OF CE CONFIGURATION

AIM: To calculate the h-parameters of transistor in CE configuration.

APPRATUS:

Transistor BC107 - 1No.

Resistors 100 K Ώ 100 Ώ - 1No.Each
Ammeter (0-200µA) - 1No.
Ammeter(0-200mA -1No.
Voltmeter (0-20V) - 2Nos
Regulated Power Supply (0-30V) - 2Nos
Breadboard

THEORY:

A) INPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

The two sets of characteristics are necessary to describe the behaviour of the CE
configuration, in which one for input or base emitter circuit and other for the output or
collector emitter circuit. In input characteristics the emitter base junction forward biased
by a very small voltage V BB where as collector base junction reverse biased by a very
large voltage VCC. The input characteristics are a plot of input current I B Versuss the input
voltage VBE for a range of values of output voltage V CE . The following important points
can be observed from these characteristics curves.

1. Input resistance is high as IB increases less rapidly with VBE

2. The input resistance of the transistor is the ratio of change in base emitter voltage
ΔVBE to change in base current ΔIB at constant collector emitter voltage (VCE) i.e...
Input resistance or input impedance hie = ΔVBE / ΔIB at VCE constant.

B) OUTPUT CHARACTERISTICS:

A set of output characteristics or collector characteristics are a plot of out put current I C
VS output voltage VCE for a range of values of input current I B .The following important
points can be observed from these characteristics curves.

1. The transistor always operates in the active region. i.e. the collector current IC
increases with VCE very slowly. For low values of the VCE the IC increases rapidly with
a small increase in VCE .The transistor is said to be working in saturation region.

66
2. Output resistance is the ratio of change of collector emitter voltage ΔV CE , to change
in collector current ΔIC with constant IB. Output resistance or Output impedance hoe =
ΔVCE / ΔIC at IB constant.

Input Impedance hie = ΔVBE / ΔIB at VCE constant

Output impedance hoe = ΔVCE / ΔIC at IB constant

Reverse Transfer Voltage Gain hre = ΔVBE / ΔVCE at IB constant

Forward Transfer Current Gain hfe = ΔIC / ΔIB at constant VCE

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

A) INPUT CHARACTERSITICS: i) calculation of hieii) calculation of hre

67
 OUPUT CHARACTERISITCS: i) calculation of hfe

ii) calculation of hoe

TABULAR FORMS:

A) Input Characteristics:

VCE=0V VCE=6V
S.NO
VBE(V) IB(μA) VBE(V) IB(μA)

68
 B) Output Characteristics:

IB = 20 µA IB = 40 µA IB = 60 µA
S.NO VCE VCE VCE
IC(mA) IC(mA) IC(mA)
(V) (V) (V)

PROCEDURE:

1. Connect a transistor in CE configuration circuit for plotting its input and

output characteristics.
2. Take a set of readings for the variations in IB with VBE at different fixed values of
output voltage VCE .
3. Plot the input characteristics of CE configuration from the above readings.
4. From the graph calculate the input resistance hie and reverse transfer ratio hre by
taking the slopes of the curves.
5. Take the family of readings for the variations of IC with VCE at different values of
fixed IB.
6. Plot the output Characteristics from the above readings.
7. From the graphs calculate hfe and hoe by taking the slope of the curves.

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What are the h-parameters?

2. What are the limitations of h-parameters?
3. What are its applications?
4. Draw the Equivalent circuit diagram of H parameters?
5. Define H parameter?
6. What are tabular forms of H parameters monoculture of a transistor?
7. What is the general formula for input impedance?
8. What is the general formula for Current Gain?
9. What is the general formula for Voltage gain?

69
 10. FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF CE AMPLIFIER

AIM:
1. To Measure the voltage gain of a CE amplifier
2. To draw the frequency response curve of the CE amplifier

APPARATUS
: Transistor BC107 -1No.
Regulated power Supply (0-30V) -1No.
Function Generator -1No.
CRO -1No.
Resistors [33KΩ, 3.3KΩ, 330Ω, -1No.Each
1.5KΩ, 1KΩ, 2.2KΩ, 4.7KΩ]
Capacitors, 10µF -2No
100µF -1No.
Bread Board
Connecting Wires

THEORY:

The CE amplifier provides high gain & wide frequency response. The emitter lead
is common to both input & output circuits and is grounded. The emitter-base circuit is
forward biased. The collector current is controlled by the base current rather than
emitter current. When a transistor is biased in active region it acts like an amplifier. The
input signal is applied to base terminal of the transistor and amplifier output is taken
across collector terminal. A very small change in base current produces a much larger
change in collector current. When positive half-cycle is fed to the input circuit, it
opposes the forward bias of the circuit which causes the collector current to decrease; it
decreases the voltage more negative. Thus when input cycle varies through a negative
half-cycle, increases the forward bias of the circuit, which causes the collector current
to increases thus the output signal is common emitter amplifier is in out of phase with
the input signal. An amplified output signal is obtained when this fluctuating collector
current flows through a collector resistor Rc.
The capacitor across the collector resistor Rc will act as a bypass capacitor.
This will improve high frequency response of amplifier.

70
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODELWAVE FORMS:

A) INPUT WAVE FORM:

71
B) OUTPUT WAVE FORM:

FREQUENCY RESPONSE:

OBSERVATIONS:

FREQUENCY RESPONSE: Vi = 20mv

Frequency in KHZ OUTPUT GAIN IN

VOLTAGE(Vo) dB=20log10(vo/vi)

72
PROCEDURE:
1. Connect the circuit as shown in circuit diagram
2. Apply the input of 20mV peak-to-peak and 1 KHz frequency using
Function Generator
3. The voltage gain can be calculated by using the expression , Av= (V0/Vi)
4. For plotting the frequency response the input voltage is kept Constant at
20mV peak-to-peak and the frequency is varied from 100Hz to 1MHz Using
function generator
5. Note down the value of output voltage for each frequency.
6. All the readings are tabulated and voltage gain in dB is calculated by Using
The expression Av=20 log10 (V0/Vi)
7. A graph is drawn by taking frequency on x-axis and gain in dB on y-axis On
Semi- log graph.
10. The band width of the amplifier is calculated from the graph using the expression,

Bandwidth, BW = f2-f1

Where f1 lower cut-off frequency of CE amplifier,

and Where f2 upper cut-off frequency of CE amplifier
11. The bandwidth product of the amplifier is calculated using the Expression

Gain Bandwidth product = 3-dBmidband gain X Bandwidth

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What is phase difference between input and output waveforms of CE amplifier?

2. What type of biasing is used in the given circuit?
3. If the given transistor is replaced by a p-n-p, can we get output or not?
4. What is effect of emitter-bypass capacitor on frequency response?
5. What is the effect of coupling capacitor?
6. What is region of the transistor so that it is operated as an amplifier?
7. How does transistor acts as an amplifier?
8. Draw the h-parameter model of CE amplifier?
9. What type of transistor configuration is used in intermediate stages of a
multistage amplifier?
10. What is early effect?

73
 11. FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF CC AMPLIFIER

AIM:

1. To measure the voltage gain of a CC amplifier

2. To draw the frequency response of the CC amplifier

APPRATUS:

Transistor BC 107 -1No.

Regulated Power Supply (0-30V) -1No.
Function Generator -1No.
CRO -1No.
Resistors 33KΩ, 3.3KΩ, 330Ω, -1No.Each
1.5KΩ, 1KΩ, 2.2KΩ & 4.7KΩ

Capacitors 10µF -2Nos

100µF -1No.
Breadboard
Connecting wires

THEORY:

In common-collector amplifier the input is given at the base and the output is
taken at the emitter. In this amplifier, there is no phase inversion between input and
output. The input impedance of the CC amplifier is very high and output impedance is
low. The voltage gain is less than unity. Here the collector is at ac ground and the
capacitors used must have a negligible reactance at the frequency of operation.

This amplifier is used for impedance matching and as a buffer amplifier. This
circuit is also known as emitter follower.

The most common use of the emitter follower is as a circuit, which performs the
function of impedance transformation over a wide range of frequencies.

74
CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL WAVEFORM:

A) INPUT WAVEFORM:

75
B) OUTPUT WAVEFORM:

FREQUENCY RESPONSE PLOT:

OBSERVATIONS:

A) FREQUENCY RESPONSE, Vi = 20mV

Frequency(HZ) Output Voltage(Vo) Gain in dB Av=20log 10(V0/Vi)

76
 PROCEDURE:

1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.

2. The voltage gain calculated by using the expression Av=V0/Vi
3. For plotting the frequency response the input voltage is kept constant
a 20mV peak-to- peak and the frequency is varied from 100Hzto
1MHz.
4. Note down the values of output voltage for each frequency.
5.The voltage gain in dB is calculated by using the
expression,
Av=20log 10(V0/Vi)
6. A graph is drawn by taking frequency on X-axis and gain in dB on y-axis on semi-
log graph sheet.
7.The Bandwidth of the amplifier is calculated from the graph using
the Expression,
Bandwidth BW=f2-f1
Where f1 is lower cut-off frequency of CE
amplifier f2 is upper cut-off frequency of CE
amplifier

8. The gain Bandwidth product of the amplifier is calculated using the

Expression,

Gain -Bandwidth product=3-dB midband gain X Bandwidth

PRECAUTIONS:
1. The input voltage must be kept constant while taking frequency response.
2. Proper biasing voltages should be applied.

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:

1. What are the applications of CC amplifier?

2. What is the voltage gain of CC amplifier?
3. What are the values of input and output impedances of the CC amplifier?
4. To which ground the collector terminal is connected in the circuit?
5. Identify the type of biasing used in the circuit?
6. Give the relation between α, β and γ.
7. Write the other name of CC amplifier?
8. What are the differences between CE, CB and CC?
9. When compared to CE, CC is not used for amplification. Justify your answer?
10. What is the phase relationship between input and output in CC?

77
 12. FREQUENCY RESPONSE OF COMMON SOURCE FET
AMPLIFIER

AIM:

1. To obtain the frequency response of the common source

FET Amplifier
2. To find the Bandwidth.

APPRATUS:

N-channel FET (BFW11) -1No.

Resistors (6.8KΩ, 1MΩ, 1.5KΩ) -1No.Each
Capacitors 0.1µF, -2Nos
47µF -1No.
Regulated power Supply (0-30V) -1No.
Function generator -1No.
CRO -1No.
CRO probes -1pair
Bread board
Connecting wires
THEORY:
A field-effect transistor (FET) is a type of transistor commonly used for weak-signal
amplification (for example, for amplifying wireless (signals). The device can amplify
analog or digital signals. It can also switch DC or function as an oscillator. In the FET,
current flows along a semiconductor path called the channel. At one end of the channel,
there is an electrode called the source. At the other end of the channel, there is an
electrode called the drain. The physical diameter of the channel is fixed, but its effective
electrical diameter can be varied by the application of a voltage to a control electrode
called the gate. Field-effect transistors exist in two major classifications. These are
known as the junction FET (JFET) and the metal-oxide- semiconductor FET
(MOSFET). The junction FET has a channel consisting of N-type semiconductor (N-
channel) or P-type semiconductor (P-channel) material; the gate is made of the opposite
semiconductor type. In P-type material, electric charges are carried mainly in the form
of electron deficiencies called holes. In N-type material, the charge carriers are
primarily electrons. In a JFET, the junction is the boundary between the channel and the
gate. Normally, this P-N junction is reverse-biased (a DC voltage is applied to it) so that
no current flows between the channel and the gate. However, under some conditions
there is a small current through the junction during part of the input signal cycle. The
FET has some advantages and some disadvantages relative to the bipolar transistor.
Field-effect transistors are preferred for weak-signal work, for example in wireless,
communications and broadcast receivers. They are also preferred in circuits and systems

78
requiring high impedance. The FET is not, in general, used for high-power
amplification, such as is required in large wireless communications and broadcast
transmitters.
Field-effect transistors are fabricated onto silicon integrated circuit (IC) chips. A
single IC can contain many thousands of FETs, along with other components such as
resistors, capacitors, and diodes.
A common source amplifier FET amplifier has high input impedance and a
moderate voltage gain. Also, the input and output voltages are 180 degrees out of
Phase.

CIRCUIT DIAGRAM:

MODEL GRAPH:

A) INPUT WAVEFORM

79
B) OUTPUT WAVEFORM

FREQUENCY RESPONSE PLOT:

OBSERVATIONS:

INPUT VOLTAGE (Vi) =20mA

S.NO Output Voltage(Vo) Voltage Gain in

gain=V0/Vin dB=20log10(V0/Vin)

80
PROCEDURE:
1. Connections are made as per the circuit diagram.
2. A signal of 1 KHz frequency and 20mV peak-to-peak is applied at
the Input of amplifier.
3. Output is taken at drain and gain is calculated by using the expression,
Av=V0/Vi
4. Voltage gain in dB is calculated by using the expression,
Av=20log 10(V0/Vi)
5. Repeat the above steps for various input voltages.
6. Plot Av in dB Versus Frequency
7. The Bandwidth of the amplifier is calculated from the graph using
the Expression,
Bandwidth BW=f2-f1

Where f1 is lower 3 dB frequency

f2 is upper 3 dB frequency

PRECAUTIONS:
1. All the connections should be tight.
2. Transistor terminals must be identified properly

RESULT:

VIVA QUESTIONS:
1. What is the difference between FET and BJT?
2. FET is unipolar or bipolar?
3. Draw the symbol of FET?
4. What are the applications of FET?
5. FET is voltage controlled or current controlled?
6. Draw the equivalent circuit of common source FET amplifier?
7. What is the voltage gain of the FET amplifier?
8. What is the input impedance of FET amplifier?
9. What is the output impedance of FET amplifier?
10. What are the FET parameters?
11. What are the FET applications

81
Answer all the following questions:

1. What is a pn junction? How is it formed? (2M)

2. Sketch the energy-band Diagrams for intrinsic and extrinsic semiconductors (3M)
3. What is meant by rectifier? (2M)
4. Compare the performance measure of different filters. (3M)
5. Why Transistor is called Current Controlled Device? (2M)
6. What is early effect? How does it modify the V-I characteristics of a BJT? (3M)
7. What is meant by operating point? Explain its significance (2M)
8. What is the condition for thermal stability and thermal resistance? (3M)
9. Explain when a FET acts as a voltage variable resistor. (2M)
10. Explain the drain and transfer characteristics of a JFET in details (3M)
11. What do you mean by potential barrier for a p-n junction? (2M)
12. What is the significance of negative resistance of a tunnel diode (3M)
13. Define peak inverse voltage (PIV). (2M)
14. Explain FWR working principle with circuit and waveforms. (3M)
15. What are the three regions of a Transistor? (2M)
16. What is thermal runway? How can it avoid? (3M)
17. What is faithful amplification? (2M)
18. Derive relation between α, β and γ? (3M)
19. Define the pinch off voltage (Vp) sketch the depletion region before and after
Pinch-off? (2M)
20. Derive Expression for saturation drain current (3M)
21. What is mean by zener breakdown (2M)
22. Explain the effect of temperature on the V-I characteristics of pn junction diode
(3M)
23. What is meant by filter in rectifier circuits (2M)
24. Bridge rectifier is becoming more and more popular, why? (3M)
25. Write B.J.T specifications and limitations (2M)
26. Explain how transistor acts as an Amplifier? (3M)
27. What is meant by stabilization (2M)
28. What is thermal runway? How can it avoid? (3M)
29. State the application of JFET and compare MOSFET (2M)
30. When FET acts as a voltage variable resistor ( V.V.R)? (3M)
31. What is diode equation? (2M)
32. Draw the V-I characteristics of SCR & define all related terms. (3M)
33. What is the purpose of bleeder resistance in a rectifier circuit using LC filter?
(2M)
34. Write short note on Full wave rectifier (FWR) along with input output
waveforms. (3M)
35. Why hybrid parameters are called so? Define those (2M)
36. What factors are to be considered for selecting the operating point Q for an
amplifier? (3M)
37. Why does potential divider method of biasing become universal? (2M)
38. Why FET is unipolar and BJT is Bipolar Device (3M)

82
39. Draw the symbols of JFET ( N Channel/P channel ) MOSFET (Depletion
MOSFET
(n-channel/p-channel) and Enhancement MOSFET (n-channel/p-channel)
(2M)
40. Draw the low frequency hybrid equivalent circuit for CE,CB and CC (3M)
41. Sketch the V-I characteristics of p-n junction diode for forward bias? (2M)
42. Explain zener diode as a voltage regulator. (3M)
43. Distinguish between the incremental resistance and the apparent resistance of
the diode (2M)
44. Derive efficiency of FWR. (3M)
45. In a filter circuit, why capacitor is a parallel combination and series combination
for inductor. (2M)
46. Define Transformer Utilization Factor (TUF). (2M)
47. What is transistor? (3M)
48. Draw voltage divider bias circuit; derive an expression for its stability factor.(2M)
49. Explain transfer characteristics of JFET with its non-linear relations (3M)
50. Explain tunneling effect (2M)

83