Tema 12
Tema 12
Tema 12
ELEMENT-
ARY COMMUNICATIVE STRUCTURES AND USE OF GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES IN
ORAL AND WRITTEN PRODUCTIONS.
1. Introduction.
The structures of a language, the rules governing the changes of their forms and
the combination of elements composing it, constitute the grammar of that language. If our
intention is to learn a language, we cannot just learn its vocabulary but we will have to
learn also the elements making it up.
The most basic units of syntax are the sentence and the word. The sentence is
the largest unit of syntax: as we move upwards beyond the sentence we pass from syntax
into discourse analysis; the word is the lowest unit of syntax: as we move downwards bey-
ond the word we pass from syntax into morphology. The most elementary words, such as
girl, car, to, have only one morpheme, the smallest units of meaning and the units of
morphology. In this theme we will study the main grammatical units:
- morpheme
- word
- sentence
In English is difficult to analyze irregular nouns and verbs; mice is the plural of
mouse, but it is not obvious how to identify a plural morpheme in the word, analogous to
the –s ending of cats. Another complication is that morphemes sometimes have more
than one phonetic form, eg. The past tense morpheme –ed in English is pronounced in
three different ways. These variant forms of a morpheme are known as allomorphs.
Words have been grouped into word classes, traditionally labelled the parts of
speech.
a) Closed classes: They can be composed of all the existing elements or of
those that may be created. In order to define them in relation with other
words, we must do it with those with which they have a semantic relation.
- prepositions: of, at, in without, in spite of.
- pronouns: he, they, anybody, one, which
- determiner: the, a, that, when, although
- conjunctions: and, that, when , although
- modal verbs: can, must, will, could
- primary verbs: be, have, do
- articles: the, a, an
- demonstratives: this, that, these, those
b) Open classes: The components of this group do not admit any addition
of other elements.
- nouns: John, room, answer, play
- adjectives: happy, steady, new
- full verbs: search, grow, play
- adverbs: steadily, completely, really
Predicate: has a close relationship with what is being dealt with, what the sentence
is about, and it generally implies that something new is being told about a subject
which has previously appeared in another sentence.
Subject: determines the agreement and it is also the changing part within the sen-
tence, that is the reason why few generalisations are permitted.
Subject Predicate
Auxiliary Verbal predication
He will write Arthur a letter.
A) Auxiliaries as “operators”.
The verb may be composed of several auxiliaries, e.g. They would
have been..., in these cases the first auxiliary is considered the “operator”:
would.
1.3.2.3. Complements.
These elements may have the same structure as the subject itself.
We must distinguish between:
1) Subject complement: this type of complement has a direct rela-
tionship with the subject.
1.3.2.4. Objects.
The objects are placed after the subject and the verb. When the sen-
tence is passive, both of them assume the subject status.
indirect object
1.4. Adverbial categories.
Adverbials may be many and varied. From a syntactic point of view the only classifi-
cation which is important to make is that between obligatory adverbials and the remainder.
Some adverbs can be omitted and the sentence would only suffer a slight change, remain-
ing its sense almost untouched, like this time adverbial:
Yesterday she opened the door noisily – She opened the door
noisily.
However, other types of adverbial like manner adverbials: noisily and use care-
fully, silently, etc., when they are replaced by other, the meaning of the sentence would
change although the sentence will continue being grammatically correct. The same hap-
pens when we place some of these adverbials in a sentence with a stative or non-progres -
sive verb:
John is a student noisily (WRONG)
2. Adjective.
The adjective has neither genre nor number. In most cases, it admits inflex-
ion to form the comparative (-er) and the superlative (-est). Other adjectives which
do not admit inflexion form their comparative and superlative differently: good, bet-
ter, best, bad, worse, worst.
Adjectives are placed before the noun. When there is more than one adjec-
tive referred to the same noun the order is as follows:
1) Subjective opinions: careful, naughty,...
2) Size and weight or other subjective opinions: small,
wealthy...
3) Age: old, young...
4) Shape: round, square, oval...
5) Colour: blue, green, red, brown
6) Country or origin: German...
7) Material: glass, leather, woollen...
3. Adverb.
The main characteristic of an adverb is of morphological type: most
adverbs add the –ly suffix. They are formed by adding the –ly suffix to an adjective.
Syntactically, adverbs are characterised by two types of functions:
1) Adverbial function.
There are three different types of adverbial clauses:
a) adjuncts (they are integrated in the sentence):
We usually go there.
b) disjuncts (not integrated and used to express an
opinion about what is being said):
Honestly, I am tired.
c) conjuncts (not integrated and have a connecting
function):
If you go on smoking, them, I am leaving.
4. Preposition.
They expresses the existing relation between two entities, being one
of them the one represented by the prepositional complement.
Semantically, they are divided into: place, time, cause, instrument. A prepo-
sitional phrase is composed of a preposition followed by a prepositional comple-
ment:
Preposition Prep. Complement.
at home
There are simple, like at, in, for... and compound, like in front of, along with...
5. Pronoun.
They substitute the noun. There are personal, reflexive, reciprocal,
possessive, relative, interrogative, demonstrative universal (each, all, every and its
compounds, partitive and quantifying pronouns.
6. The articles.
We must distinguish between specific reference article and generic
reference article. The reference is specific when we refer to a specific element
within a group:
A man and two women are waiting outside.
When we refer to the group to which the element belongs to, then the
reference is generic:
The monkey is a funny animal.
7. Pro-forms.
We shall refer to two subdivisions:
- Pronouns: they substitute the noun:
We wrote Arthur a letter – We wrote him a let-
ter.
- Pro-verbs: they also substitute nominal clauses:
Come home – Come here.
8. Question and negation.
1) Question.
a) Wh-questions.
Within the category of substitutes there is a series of words
forming a special class which substitutes certain parts of a sen-
tence which may need explanation. These substitutes are: which,
when, why, where, who, whose and how.
Who writes her a letter every day?
b) Yes-no questions.
There are questions demanding an affirmative or negative answer with reference to a
full sentence:
Did John write her a letter?
2) Negation.
Its use implies a full predicate negation with the operator and the
negative adverb not, placed between the operator and the verbal nu-
cleus:
John did not write her a letter.
At the stage of Primary Education, children have not yet acquired the ca-
pacity of abstraction. For them to learn a foreign language will be to communi -
cate with other people for different aims. We must take advantage of this con-
ception and give priority to the content of messages, to the situations and to
the activities where the language is present and the language is used, making
the learning of grammar something hidden.
Interaction will make possible that in particular moments specific needs of certain
structures, either new or more complex ones arise. Then, first of all, the student will be
able to use non linguistic resources and when the latter are not sufficient, the pupils can
ask their teacher so that he can give them the appropriate mechanisms. It is the teacher
duty to design a series of activities progressively demanding more complex linguistic uses.
TEACHING-
LEARNING
GRAMMAR FORM MEANING
CATEGORIES
LISTENING Perception and recognition of the
Comprehension of what the spo-
spoken form of the grammar cate-ken grammar category means in
gories. context.
SPEAKING Production of well-formed exam- Use of the grammar categories to
ples in speech. convey meanings in speech.
READING Perception and recognition of the
Comprehension of what the writ-
written form. ten grammar categories means in
context
WRITING Production of well-formed exam- Use of grammar categories to con-
ples in writing. vey meanings in writing.
2) Through explication.
Learning through explication requires two essentials:
- basic knowledge of the language of the explanation
- advanced cognitive development
The formal learning of grammar is not our objective when teaching
English to our pupils. We want them to use grammar categories to improve
their communicative competence. We can do this using, for example, songs
and stories, which can introduce our pupils to the grammatical patterns of
English in a natural and authentic way.
TEMA-12
1. INTRODUCCIÓN
1. Los límites del área de estudio que abarca parecen estar más claros.
a) Las cláusulas o proposiciones son el término que se suele aplicar a las oraciones
constitutivas de una oración compuesta, en especial a las oraciones subordinadas.
c) La frase. Tradicionalmente, las palabras frase y oración han sido sinónimos. Aquí la
empleamos en el sentido próximo a frase adverbial o secuencia de palabras precedidas
por una preposición: in the morning, with a hat, after lunch, etc.
Ejemplo 1:
ORACIÓN
Ejemplo 2:
El concepto de pattern practice se basa, por una parte, en el eje paradigmático del
lenguaje, y por otra, en las cajas de los constituyentes inmediatos.
Las estructuras comunicativas elementales que deben dominar los alumnos de Primaria
en lengua inglesa son las siguientes:
Es esencial desde este punto de vista el dominio de los siguientes puntos gramaticales:
- Presente Simple de los verbos (to be, have got), there's, there're.
- Nombres plurales.
- Presente continuo con sentido futuro (I'm going to London tomorrow, etc.)
- Saludarse y presentarse.
- Decir adios.
- Expresar arrepentimiento.
- Decir la hora.
- Hacer la compra.
- Especular.
- Telefonear a alguien.
- Hacer sugerencias.
- Aconsejar a alguien.
- Advertir a alguien.
- Protestar.
Desde este punto de vista, los alumnos al finalizar la etapa Primaria habrán aprendido:
- La edad.
- El estado civil.
- El origen y la nacionalidad.
- Los lugares.
- Los números de teléfono.
- Los muebles.
- El trabajo.
- El tiempo libre.
- La comida y la bebida.
- Gustos y mamás.
- Preferencias.
- Días de la semana.
- Números ordinales.
- El tiempo.
- Generalizar.
- Cuantificar.
- Graduar.
- Las rutinas.
- Los colores.
- La ropa.
- Las tallas.
- La pobreza y la riqueza.
- La felicidada y la infelicidad.
- El racismo.
- La infancia.
- La educación.
- El clima.
- Planes futuros.
- Las vacaciones.
- Los contrastes.
- El tiempo pasado.
- Los deportes.
- La música.
- El cine y la televisión.
- La lectura.
- Las máquinas.
- Los horóscopos.
- El peligro.
- El futuro.
Una de las técnicas más aplicadas en la enseñanza de una lengua extranjera es el uso de
los denominados "drills" a la hora de practicar la morfosintaxis y aplicarla directamente
tanto en ejercicios orales como de expresión escrita.
3.1. LOS DRILLS
El profesor enuncia diferentes oraciones o expresiones y los alumnos las repiten al objeto
de asimilar su pronunciación, el orden de las palabras, la entonación, etc.
Cuando cambiamos de paradigma dentro del mismo ejercicio, estamos ante una
sustitución múltiple:
En las sustituciones múltiples, normalmente hay que decir, cuando se dan las
instrucciones, "introduciendo los cambios necesarios". Por ejemplo, en el ejercicio anterior
hemos tenido que añadir el morfema "s" al presentar el sujeto "Mary".
Las palabras o elementos que han de ser sustituidos se pueden presentar oralmente, con
realia, es decir, mostrando o señalando los objetos reales, o con tarjetas, también
conocidas con el nombre de "flash cards".
atributivo predicativo
Susan has got a new car Has Susan got a new car?
Este ejercicio ha empleado distintos tiempos verbales y distintos tipos de verbos. Como es
evidente, se puede hacer con un solo tiempo verbal o con un solo tipo de verbo.
4. Expansivo: En este ejercicio el alumno va ampliando una oración inicial con los
elementos
que le facilita el profesor. También se le llama a este ejercicio "pirámide".
Ejemplo: She always gets up at seven and has breakfast has breakfast
She gets up
Estudio desde hace un mes Þ I've been studying for one month
Los drills tienen dos inconvenientes importantes. Si se usan en clase más de un tiempo
prudencial, el interés y la motivación decaen; el otro inconveniente es la situación absurda
en que se encuentran muchos alumnos, que, cuando se trata de manipular las estructuras
en clase, lo hacen perfectamente, pero al pasar a situaciones reales cometen errores
como "want you a cup of tea?" después de haber practicado insistentemente la forma
interrogativa del presente habitual con todo tipo de drills.
Poco a poco, los drills se han ido acomodando a una posición más situacional y
cognoscitiva por medio de la contextualización. Y esto es posible en el aula, ya que en
ella hay personas reales, con un presente, un pasado y un futuro, con posesiones,
anhelos, problemas, familia, etc. Además, el ser humano es un animal curioso: le gusta
enterarse de lo que hacen los demás. Es mucho más provechoso, por tanto, que las
prácticas que se hagan sobre estructuras determinadas se relacionen directamente con la
vida de los miembros de la clase.
3.2. PRÁCTICA CONTEXTUALIZADA DEL PRESENTE CONTINUO
Suponiendo que los alumnos ya hayan visto la estructura a través de una presentación
por diálogo o texto, que se les haya explicado su función y sus variantes, y que se hayan
puesto a su disposición unos cuantos verbos corrientes, como work, play, cook, drive, eat,
drink, write, etc., se pueden seguir los siguientes pasos a fin de que los alumnos asimilen
totalmente esta categoría gramatical en inglés:
Antes de contestar, el profesor consulta su reloj. Esto indica claramente a los alumnos
que se trata de ahora mismo. Entonces contestará la verdad:
- Yes, he is.
- No, he isn't.
- Probably.
- Probably not.
- Perhaps.
El único problema que se presenta con este tipo de práctica es el del vocabulario. ("Es
que mi hermana debe estar estudiando en la biblioteca. ¿Cómo se dice "biblioteca"?). No
es un problema grave; se le dice simplemente al alumno que pregunta que biblioteca es
library. No es necesario que toda la clase aprenda la palabra library, aunque muchos lo
harán por simple curiosidad; la necesidad sólo atañe al alumno que quiere decir lo que
está haciendo su hermana, y a los que quieren entenderle. De todas formas, es un error
restringir en este nivel de Primaria el vocabulario a "lo que poner el libro" porque los
alumnos tienen siempre una curiosidad muy grande por saber palabras sueltas, y porque
cada alumno tiene sus necesidades léxicas, que para él serán vitales, aunque a otros les
parezcan poco importantes. Además, evita el uso constante del llamado "classroom
vocabulary" -la tiza, las sillas, las mesas, los bolígrafos; o del "textbook vocabulary" -los
niños, la nevera, el coche, la casa, etc.-.
3.3. PRÁCTICA CONTEXTUALIZADA DEL FUTURO SIMPLE
Para practicar el futuro simple se presentan varias situaciones, ilustradas con dibujos,
acompañadas de "promts" o vocabulario de apoyo, etc. Los ejercicios han sido diseñados
para que haya trabajo individual y por parejas. Tanto en éste como en otros ejercicios que
se pueden realizar, el maestro no debe olvidar que, aunque esté prestando toda la
atención al componente morfosintáctico, no se pueden descuidar ni la fonología ni el
vocabulario.
Suponiendo que los alumnos ya se hayan familiarizado con la estructura del futuro simple
en inglés y que se les hayan explicado las funciones de éste, se pueden seguir los
siguientes pasos:
SITUACIÓN 1:
"A construction company is building a house for Mr. Evans. They promised him a lot of
thing for Christmas."
b) Trabajo individual:
- They promised they will put the roof, they will complete the kitchen, etc.
c) Trabajo por parejas: You are Mr. Evans, and your friend is the manager of the construc-
tion company. You are impatient, and you are asking him questions with will you
..... by Christmas?
SITUACIÓN 2:
- become internationally famous / win the Nobel prize / write more than 30 novels / etc.
b) Trabajo individual:
c) Trabajo por parejas: You are a television interviewer asking questions to Anthony
Jones. Ask him questions like:
- Are you optimistic about your future? Yes, I am very optimistic.
- What will you do by the year 2000? I will write many novels, I will win the Nobel prize, etc.
SITUACIÓN 3:
Kill all the whales / destroy the Amazon forest / Kill fish / etc.
b) Trabajo individual:
- What does Beatrice Wood think we will do by the end of the century?
- She thinks we will kill all the whales and fish, etc.
c) Trabajo por parejas: You are talking to Beatrice Wood. Ask her these questions:
By the end of the century we will kill the whales, fish and we will destroy the Amazon
forest.
BIBLIOGRAFÍA
ALCARAZ & MOODY. La didáctica del inglés. Ed. Alhambra. Madrid. 1982
M.E.C. Cajas rojas para la Reforma. Área de lenguas extranjeras. Madrid. 1992
BELLO y OTROS. Didáctica de las segundas lenguas. Ed. Santillana (Aula XXI). Madrid.
1992
SWAM & WALTER. The new Cambridge english course. C.U.P. Cambridge. 1991