Unit I: Electrostatics

CHAPTER–2: ELECTROSTATIC POTENTIAL AND CAPACITANCE

GIST OF THE CHAPTER:-

Electric potential, potential difference, electric potential due to a point charge, a dipole and system
of charges; equipotential surfaces, electrical potential energy of a system of two-point charges
and of electric dipole in an electrostatic field.
Conductors and insulators, free charges and bound charges inside a conductor. Dielectrics and
electric polarization, capacitors and capacitance, combination of capacitors in series and in
parallel, capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with and without dielectric medium between
the plates, energy stored in a capacitor (no derivation, formulae only).

DEFINITIONS & CONCEPTS:-

1. Electric potential. The electric potential at a point in an electric field is defined as the
amount of work done per unit positive test charge in moving the test charge from
infinity to that point against the electrostatic force due to the field.
2. Electric potential difference. The electric potential difference between two
points in an electric field is defined as the amount of work done per unit
positive test charge in moving the test charge from one point to the other
against the electrostatic force due to the field of charge Q. Its unit is volt
Mathematically: If W is work done in moving a small positive test charge q, from
point A to B in the electrostatic field of charge Q, then potential difference
between points B and A,

3. Electric potential due to group of charges. The electric potential at a point due
to a group of charges is equal to the algebraic sum of the electric potentials
due to individual charges at that point. It is a scalar quantity.

( )

4. Potential gradient. The rate of change of potential with distance at a point is called potential
gradient at that point. The electric field at a point is equal to the negative potential gradient
at that point. E = - dv/dr.

5. Electric potential at a point due to a dipole:

⃗⃗⃗ ̂

CLASS XII –PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL – 2023-24 Page 12 of 109

Equipotential Surfaces:
A surface with a constant value of potential at all points on the surface. Example: Surface of a
charged conductor.
Properties of Equipotential Surfaces:
(i) No work is required to move a test charge on the equipotential surface.
(ii) The electric field is always normal to the equipotential surface at every point.
(iii) No two equipotential surfaces can intersect each other.
(iv) These are closer in the regions of strong electric fields and farther apart in the regions of weak
field.

Equipotential Surfaces for various charge systems

For like charges: For uniform electric field:

Parallel planes perpendicular to the electric field

For non-uniform electric field:

Electric Potential Energy

CLASS XII –PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL – 2023-24 Page 13 of 109

Electric P.E. (U) is an amount of work done in assembling the charges at their locations by
bringing them in, from infinity.
Note that U is +ve for like charges and -ve for unlike charges.

For Potential energy of a single point charge:

U (r) = q V (r)
For Potential energy of a system of two-point charges:

U (r) = q1V (r1) + q2V (r2) +

For Potential Energy of a system of three-point charges:

U= * +

Potential Energy in an External Field-

U= -pE = -⃗⃗⃗ ⃗⃗⃗

CONDUCTORS, INSULATORS:-
On the basis of their behaviour in an external field, material can be classified into two categories.
1. Conductor: The material which allow the electric current to pass through them, are called
conductor.
Example: Metals, human body, electrolytes etc.
2. Insulator : The material which do not allow electric current to pass through them, are called
insulator.
Example: glass, wood ,mica, wax etc.
Behaviour of conductors in electrostatic fields
1. Net electrostatic field is zero in the interior of a conductor.

2. Just outside the surface of charged conductor, electric field is

normal to the surface.

3. The net charge in the interior of a conductor is zero and any excess charge resides at its

CLASS XII –PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL – 2023-24 Page 14 of 109

 surface.

4. Potential is constant within and on the surface of a conductor.

5. Electric field at the surface of a charged conductor is proportional to the surface charge
density.
6. Electric field is zero in the cavity of a hollow charged conductor.
DIELECTRIC: Dielectric are insulating material which transmit electric effect without actually
conducting itself. Example: Mica, ceramics etc.
There are two types of dielectric -
1. Non polar dielectric: These are the dielectrics in which the center of positive charge
coincides with the center of negative charge is called non polar dielectric. Example: H2, N2,
O2 etc.
2. Polar dielectric : These are the dielectrics in which the center of positive charge do not
coincide with the center of negative charge is called polar dielectric. Example: H2O, HCl etc.
DIELECTRIC CONSTANT (K) : It can be regarded as the ratio of absolute permittivity of
medium to that of free space is called dielectric constant ( ).

DIELECTRIC POLARIZATION: Dielectric Polarization occurs when an external electric field

is applied to a dielectric substance. When an electric field is applied, it causes charges (both
positive and negative) to be displaced.
POLARIZATION DENSITY: The induced dipole moment developed per unit volume of a
dielectric when placed in an external electric field is called polarization density.

P=

P = = = σp

ELECTRIC SUSCEPTIBILITY: The ratio of the polarization to ε0 times the electric field is
called the electric susceptibility of the dielectric.
The unit of electric susceptibility is C2/Nm2

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DIELECTRIC STRENGTH: The maximum electric field that can exist in a dielectric without
causing the breakdown of its insulating property is called dielectric strength of the material.
The Unit of dielectric strength is V/m.
NOTE : 1. Liquid crystal Displays use dielectrics.
2. The dielectric material is used as an insulator and as a cooling agent in a transformer

*CAPACITOR AND CAPACITANCE (C):-

Capacitor: A device to store charges & electrostatic potential energy.

Capacitance: Ratio of charge & potential difference. (It is Scalar) .

SI. unit : farad (F)

Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with no medium between plates : C0 = C =

Capacitance of a parallel plate capacitor with a dielectric medium of dielectric constant K in
between :
Thicness = t Thicness = t=0 Thicness = t=d

Cm C0 = Cm = K
( )
Cm = KC0

*Combination of capacitors: (i) Capacitors in series:

(ii) Capacitors in parallel : C =∑

*Energy stored in capacitors: U= = =

*Energy density : Ud = ϵ0 E 2 =
*Introducing dielectric slab between the plates of the charged conductor with:
PROPERTY BATTERY CONNECTED BATTERY DISCONNECTED
Charge KQ0 Q0
Potential difference V0 V0/K
Electric Field E0 E0/K
Capacitance KC0 KC0
Energy 2
K ϵ0E (Energy is supplied ϵ0E2 (Energy used for
by battery) polarization)

CLASS XII –PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL – 2023-24 Page 16 of 109

*On connecting two charged capacitors:

(a) Common Potential : V=

(b)Loss of energy : ΔU = (V1 – V2)2

SOME USEFUL LINKS:

https://www.learncbse.in/important-questions-for-class-12-physics-chapter-2/
https://www.learncbse.in/ncert-exemplar-problems-class-12-physics-electrostatic-potential-
capacitance/
https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/capacitor-lab-basics/latest/capacitor-lab-basics_en.html
https://ophysics.com/em5.html

GRAPHS

3.Graph between E & C 4. Graph of E & V verses distance r

for a point charge

CLASS XII –PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL – 2023-24 Page 17 of 109

 Formulae and Units:
Potential difference : work done / charge =W/q
*Electric potential due to point charge q at a distance r from it : V =Kq 1 /4π

𝑞 𝑞 𝑞 𝑞𝑛
𝑉 ( )
𝜋𝜀 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟𝑛

. Electric potential at a point due to a dipole:

𝑝 𝜃
𝑉
𝜋𝜀 𝑟
𝑞
Potential Energy of a system of two-point charges: U=
4πє 𝑟

𝑞 𝑞 𝑞
Potential Energy of a system of three-point charges: U= * +
4πє 𝑟 𝑟 𝑟
Potential energy of a single charge in an external Field: U (r) = q V (r)
𝑞
Potential energy of two charges in an external Field U (r) = q1V (r1) +q1V (r1) +
4πє 𝑟
Electric Potential Energy of an electric dipole
U= pE( 𝜃1 - 𝜃 2)

if 𝜃1 9 o
and 𝜃2 𝜃 then U= -pE ⃗⃗⃗ 𝐸⃗
𝜃 = -𝑝
Units: Charge- coulomb, Electric dipole moment- coulomb metre (Cm)
Distance- metre ,
Energy- joule or electron volt (eV) (1eV = 1.6 × 10-19 J)

CLASS XII –PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL – 2023-24 Page 18 of 109

Unit II: Current Electricity
CHAPTER–3: CURRENT ELECTRICITY

GIST OF THE CHAPTER:-

Electric current, flow of electric charges in a metallic conductor, drift velocity, mobility and their
relation with electric current; Ohm's law, V-I characteristics (linear and non-linear), electrical
energy and power, electrical resistivity and conductivity, temperature dependence of resistance,
Internal resistance of a cell, potential difference and emf of a cell, combination of cells in series
and in parallel, Kirchhoff's rules, Wheatstone bridge.

DEFINITIONS & CONCEPTS:-

Electric current- It is the rate of flow of electric charge through a conductor.
Drift velocity- It is the velocity with which a free electron in the conductor gets drifted under
the influence of the applied external electric field.

Mathematically -

Here, A is the area of cross-section of the conductor, 𝜏 is

average relaxation time and n is number of free electrons per
unit volume in the conductor.
Ohm’s law- It states that the current flowing through a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference across its two end provided physical conditions remains same.

Mathematically - V=IR, Hence R=

Here, R is called resistance of the conductor. 1ohm (Ω) = 1 volt/ampere

Ohmic Conductors-Those conductors which obey Ohm‟s law, are called ohmic conductors e.g.,
all metallic conductors are ohmic conductor. Examples of ohmic conductors are metals,
resistors, nichrome wires, etc.
Non- ohmic conductors-Those conductors which do not obey Ohm‟s law, are called non-ohmic
conductors. e.g., diode valve, triode valve, transistor, vacuum tubes etc.
Resistance -Resistance of a conductor measures the opposition to the current flow. The
resistance of a conductor depends on its length l, Area of cross-section A, nature of material and
temperature of conductor.
Resistivity or specific resistance- The resistivity of the material of a conductor is defined as the
resistance offered by a conductor of this material of unit length and unit area of cross-section.
Resistivity is purely a characteristic of the material of wire, it does not depends on length or area
of conductor. ρ =

CLASS XII –PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL – 2023-24 Page 19 of 109

Conductance- The reciprocal of the resistance of a conductor is called its conductance (G).G=

Conductivity- The reciprocal of the resistivity of the material of a conductor is called its
conductivity.
Mobility-The drift velocity of electron per unit electric field is mobility of electron.
Current Density:- The electric current flowing per unit area of cross-section of conductor is
called current density.
It is a vector quantity and its direction is in the direction of motion of positive charge or in the
direction of flow of current.
Electric energy- Energy due to electric potential or kinetic energy of charges.
Electric Power:- Power is defined as the rate of absorption/dissipation of energy

Temperature Dependence of Resistivity:

The resistivity of a material is found to be dependent on the temperature.
The resistivity of a metallic conductor is given by  T   0 1   T  T0 
α is called the temperature co-efficient of resistivity.
For meals, α is positive.
For alloys, α change very little with temperature.
For semiconductors, resistivity decreases with increasing temperature.
1 m
   2 , from this equation ρ depends
 ne 
inversely on the number n of free electrons per
unit volume and on the average time τ between
collisions.
With increase in temperature
Conductors τ ρ
Semiconductors τ ρ

Electrical Energy: The total electric work done.

Energy supplied by the source of emf in
maintaining the current in an electric circuit for a given time
Electric energy = E  VIt  I 2 Rt  Heat

Work V2
Power: The rate at which electric work is done. Power =  VI  I 2
R 
time R
Cell, EMF, Internal Resistance:
Cell: 1] Dry Cell 2] Electrolytic cell
EMF: It is the maximum potential difference between the two electrodes of the cell when no
current is draw from the cell.
Internal Resistance: The opposition offered by the electrolyte and electrodes of a cell to the
flow of current through it.
CLASS XII –PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL – 2023-24 Page 20 of 109
 Internal resistance depends on separation between electrodes of the cell, conductivity of
the electrolyte, nature of electrodes and common area of the electrodes dipped in the
electrolyte.
V    Ir
V  IR

I
Rr
Grouping of cell:
Series Combination Parallel Combination

 eq   1   2  1 r2   2 r1 r1 r2
V  I
req  r1  r2 r1  r2 r1  r2
nE  1 r2   2 r1 r1 r2
I  eq  and req 
( R  nr ) r1  r2 r1  r2
 eq 1 2 n
   .......  and
req r1 r2 rn
mE
I
(mR  r )

Kirchhoff’s Rules:
Junction Rule/Current Rule Loop Rule/Voltage Rule

Algebraic sum of all current at junction is Algebraic sum of changes in potential and
zero. cells in the loop is zero.

CLASS XII –PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL – 2023-24 Page 21 of 109

Wheatstone Bridge:

Wheatstone Bridge

R1 R3
In case of balancing bridge IG=0, then I1=I3 and I2=I4 so 
R2 R4

UNITS AND DIMENSIONS-

SN Quantity and Units Dimension
1 [A]
Current- Ampere (A) or coulomb /second(C s-1)
2 Drift velocity- ms-1 [LT-1]
3 Resistance- ohm or volt amp-1 [ML2T-3A-2]

4 Resistivity- ohm-mt [ML3T-3A-2]

5 Conductance- mho or siemen [M-1L-2T3A2]
6 Conductivity- mho-mt-1or siemen /m [M-1L-2T3A2]
7 Current density- Amp metre-2 [L-2A]
8 Mobility- m2s-1 V-1 [M-1T2A]
9 Energy- Joule or watt-sec [[ML2T-2]
10 Power- Watt or volt-amp [ML2T-3]

CLASS XII –PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL – 2023-24 Page 22 of 109

 FORMULAE-
Physical FORMULA MEANING OF NOTATIONS UNIT
Quantity USED
q- charge flown in time t 1 ampere (A)
I=
Current- n- number of electrons = 1 coulomb
/second(C s-
For non-uniform flow,
1)
I= Or, q = ∫ I dt

A-the area of cross-section of the ms-1

Drift velocity conductor,
𝜏 is average relaxation time and
n is number of free electrons per
unit volume in the conductor.
Here V is the potential
difference between the ends of
conductor of length l.
Ohm’s law- Here, R is called resistance of the 1ohm (Ω) = 1
V=IR, Hence R= conductor. volt/ampere
Resistance- Here, ρ is resistivity of the 1ohm (Ω) = 1
R= material of the conductor. volt/ampere
R=

Resistivity- A-the area of cross-section of the ohm-meter

ρ= conductor, (Ω m)
Also ρ = 𝜏 is average relaxation time and
n is number of free electrons per
unit volume in the conductor.
Conductance It is the reciprocal of the metre-1ohm-1
- G= Also = resistivity of the material of a
conductor
Conductivity
- σ = Also σ =

Mobility
(μ) =

Current Relation between current

J= density electric field:
Density -
J =σE = E
Resistivity of ρT=Resistivity at T temperature ρ:Ωm
metallic  T   0 1   T  T0  ρ0= Resistivity at reference α : 0C-1
conductor temperature T : 0C
α = temperature co-efficient of
resistivity
CLASS XII –PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL – 2023-24 Page 23 of 109
 Table 2
Physical FORMULA MEANING OF NOTATIONS UNIT
Quantity USED
temperature R2  R1 α = temperature co-efficient of α : 0C-1

co-efficient R1 (T1  T2 ) resistivity R1, R2: Ω
of resistivity R2= Resistance at final T1, T2 : 0C
temperature
R1= Resistance at initial
temperature
T1 and T2= Initial and final
temperature
Electrical E  VIt  I 2 Rt E= Energy, V= Voltage, I= E: joule
Energy Current, V: volt
R= Resistance, t= Time I: ampere
Power V2 P= Power, V= Voltage, I= P: watt
P  VI  I R  2
Current,
R
R= Resistance
EMF of Cell W ε= emf of cell ε: volt
 W= work done W: joule
q
q= charge q: coulomb
Potential V  IR    Ir V= Potential difference, I= V: volt
Difference of Current, ε: volt
Cell R= Resistance, ε= emf, r = r: Ω
Internal resistance
Internal  r= Internal resistance, ε= emf, I= r, R: Ω
r R
resistance of I Current,
cell R= External resistance
 I: ampere (A)
I
Rr
Combination 1] In Series: εeq= Equivalent emf εeq: volt
of Cell  eq   1   2 req = Equivalent internal req = Ω
req  r1  r2 resistance

nE I= Current, n= no. cells in series, I: A

I
( R  nr ) E= emf, R= external resistance, r= E: volt
internal resistance R,r: Ω

2] In Parallel: V= Potential Difference, I= V: volt

 r   2 r1 rr Current, ε1, ε2: volt
V  12 I 1 2 ε1, ε2= emf’s of cell 1 and 2 r1, r2: Ω
r1  r2 r1  r2
r1, r2= internal resistances of cell 1
and 2
equivalent  1r2   2 r1 εeq= equivalent emf, εeq : volt
 eq  ε1, ε2= emf’s of cell 1 and 2 ε1, ε2: volt
emf r1  r2
r1, r2= internal resistances of cell 1 r1, r2: Ω
and 2

CLASS XII –PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL – 2023-24 Page 24 of 109

 Physical FORMULA MEANING OF NOTATIONS UNIT
Quantity USED
equivalent r1 r2 req= equivalent resistance req: Ω
internal req  r1, r2= internal resistances of cell 1 r1, r2: Ω
r1  r2
resistance and 2
 eq 1 2 n εeq= Equivalent emf εeq: volt
   .......  req = Equivalent internal req = Ω
req r1 r2 rn
resistance
Current due mE I= Current, E= emf, R= external I: ampere
I
to (mR  r ) resistance, r= internal resistance, E: emf
combination m= number of cells connected in R. r: Ω
parallel
Kirchhoff’s 1] Junction Rule:
Rules: I  0
2] Loop Rule:
 (V  IR)  0
Wheatstone R1 R3 R1, R2, R3, R4= Resistances
Bridge: 
R2 R4

GRAPHS-

Ohmic Conductors Non-Ohmic conductors

CLASS XII –PHYSICS STUDY MATERIAL – 2023-24 Page 25 of 109