Viscosity

u+du
B
u
Fig. 3
The causes of viscosity

One of the causes of viscosity is the interchange of momentum between layers
of fluid moving with different velocities due to the chaotic molecular motion.
The motion of molecules in a flowing fluid is the superposition of the motion
of the fluid media and of the chaotic motion of molecules due to thermal
agitation (figure 3). Molecules are transferred from one layer to another.
Thus molecules with higher momentum (layer A on figure 3) moving into layer
with lower momentum (layer B). There they mix with slower molecules and
increase the overall momentum of the layer B. Similarly, molecules with lower
momentum moving from the layer B moving into the higher momentum layer
A mix and reduce the overall momentum of the layer A. Both processes tend
to reduce the relative velocity between the layers. This momentum exchange
generates an effective shear force between the two layers. This mechanism is
the principal viscosity mechanism for gases, when forces between molecules
are small. When the temperature of a gas increases the chaotic molecular
motion becomes more intensive and the molecular interchange increases. As
the result, the viscosity µ of a gas will increase as the temperature increases,
and it is practically independent on pressure. For liquids molecules are closer
packed and therefore intermolecular forces also play a part in generation of
viscosity in addition to molecular interchange. Viscosity µ is then reduces
with the temperature, and is essentially independent of pressure.
Examples of laminar viscous flows

1. Couette flow
A gap h between two parallel horizontal plates is filled by a viscous fluid,
and the upper plate moves with velocity V (figure 4). The dimensions of the
plates are much larger then the distance h between them. Find the velocity
3
V
111111111111111111111111111111111111
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111111111111111111111111111111111111
y τ (y + δy)
y + δy 11111111111111111
00000000000000000
h
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
y
τ (y)
x
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111111111111111111111111111111111111
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111111111111111111111111111111111111
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111111111111111111111111111111111111
Fig. 4
distribution and the force applied to the upper plate if its area is A.
Solution:
Edges of the plates will influence the flow on a finite distance from the edges,
comparable with h. If the distance between the plates is much smaller then
their other dimensions the main part of the flow will be parallel, and velocity
will not depend on the horizontal coordinate x: u = u(y). For constant pres-
sure on the plate edges the pressure remains the same everywhere between
the plates. Then the only force acting on a fluid element shown on figure 4 is
due to shear stresses on its boundaries: F = A (τ (y + δy) − τ (y)), and for a
steady flow this force should be zero and the shear stress τ is constant. For
a Newtonian fluid we have:
du
τ =µ = const
dy
and after differentiation
d2 u
= 0.
dy 2
The solution of this differential equation gives the linear velocity profile
u(y) = C1 y + C2 ,
where constants C1 and C2 to be found from the no-slip conditions on the
plates:
u(0) = 0; u(h) = V ,
which gives C1 = V /h and C2 = 0, and the velocity profile is
y
u(y) = V .
h
The corresponding shear stress is
V
τ =µ ,
h
4
11111111111111111111111111111111111
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11111111111111111111111111111111111
r = R 11111111111111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000000000000
τ (r + δr)
r + δr 11111111111111111
00000000000000000
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
r
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
r
τ (r)
r=0 x
P (x) τ (r) P (x + δx)

11111111111111111
00000000000000000
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
00000000000000000
11111111111111111
x τ (r + δr) x + δx
11111111111111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000000000000
00000000000000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111111111111
00000000000000000000000000000000000
11111111111111111111111111111111111
Fig. 5
and the force required to move the plate is

µV A
F =τA= .
h
2. Laminar flow in a circular pipe

Calculate the velocity profile and the friction factor for a fully developed
steady flow in a circular pipe.
Solution:
For a fully developed steady parallel flow pressure does not change across the
flow, and the velocity profile (and shear stress) does not change along the
pipe. That is:
P = P (x); u = u(y); τ = τ (y) .
Let us consider a cylindrical fluid volume with the internal radius r, external
radius r + δr and length δx (figure 5). For a steady flow the total horizontal
force acting on the fluid in this volume should be zero:
(P (x) − P (x + δx)) 2πr δr − τ (r) 2πr δx + τ (r + δr) 2π(r + δr) δx = 0 .
This gives:
1 (r + δr) τ (r + δr) − r τ (r) P (x + δx) − P (x)

=
r δr δx
and for small δr and δx we obtain
1 d (rτ ) dP
= .
r dr dx
5
For a Newtonian fluid and a prescribed pressure gradient dP/dx = B this
leads to the following differential equation for the velocity profile:

d du B
r =r .
dr dr µ
The boundary conditions are:
du
u(R) = 0; = 0,
dr r=0
where the first conditions is the no-slip condition on the pipe wall r = R,
and the second one expresses the flow symmetry on the central axis r = 0.
First integration gives:
du 1B 2
r = r + C1 ,
dr 2 µ
and from the boundary condition at r = 0 C1 = 0. After the second integra-
tion we obtain:
1B 2
u(r) = r + C2 ,
4µ
and the solution satisfying the wall no-slip condition is
1B 2
u(r) = − (R − r 2 ) .
4µ
For pressure decreasing in the x-direction B < 0 and u is positive, that is
fluid flows from higher to lower pressure. The mean velocity of the flow is
ZR ZR
Q 1 −B r2 −B R2
U= = u(r) 2πr dr = (1 − ) r dr = .
πR 2 πR2 2µ R2 8µ
0 0
Expressing B via the mean velocity as B = −8µ U/R2 we rewrite the velocity
profile as
r2
u(r) = 2 U (1 − 2 ) .
R
The wall shear stress:
du U
τw = µ = −4µ .
dr r=R R
The sign is irrelevant and we will take plus thereafter, keeping in mind that
the shear stress acts against the flow. The friction coefficient:
τw 8µ 16 µ 16
f= = = = .
ρ U /2
2 ρU R ρU d Red

Viscosity

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u+du

The causes of viscosity

Examples of laminar viscous flows

P (x) τ (r) P (x + δx)

and the force required to move the plate is

2. Laminar flow in a circular pipe

(P (x) − P (x + δx)) 2πr δr − τ (r) 2πr δx + τ (r + δr) 2π(r + δr) δx = 0 .

1 (r + δr) τ (r + δr) − r τ (r) P (x + δx) − P (x)

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