CCST 9026

Lecture 1
Normal science definition which can be defined bits characteristics:
1. A search for understanding
2. The understanding achieved by means of statements of general laws principles
- laws are applicable to the widest possible variety of phenomena (explaining)
3. The laws and principles can be tested experimentally (predictive)

Scientific discoveries
new results require the change of the paradigm and trigger the scientific revolution

Evolution of science
-does not emerge from the straightforward accumulation of facts
-but from a set of intellectual circumstances and possibilities
-scientific revolution: corresponding dramatic change the understanding of facts
->impact on society: new tech -> affect everything we do-eat, play, interact, move
have shaped and continue to shape the society
affect world economy, sociology, statistics, meteorology, engineering

Most important events in the history of science

1543- Nicolas Copernicus（announces his theory of a heliocentric universe)
1632-Galileo Galilei(change from asking why to asking how)
1869-Mendeleev (periodic table)
M. Planck (develop of Quantum mechanic)

L2
Empirical discovery and the plausible hypothesis
⁃ One of the main tasks of science is to discover these hidden theories of nature eg. Why sun rise and set everyday

Scientific method
1. Deductive reasoning (the general to specific)->theory->hypothesis->observation (top-down logic)
2. Inductive reasoning:generalization (specific to general )->come up to speicific conclusion
- often used in applications that involve prediction, forecasting or behavior
- reasonable/unreasonable

⁃ Science proceeds according to the scientific method.

1.observation 2.hypothesis 3.predictions 4.experiment 5.confirmation or falsification

2. Hypotheses
-> a statement that the community has good reasons to question
->a statement has been accepted as definitive truth (statement of fact)
-> can be changed back-and-forth over time

examples: thales- everything is made of water

Aristotle- all matter is made of only four elements: air, fire, earth, water
leucippus- everything in nature was constructed of infinitesimally small particles that
could not be broken down further

->some hypothesis are invented to explain things

evaluation of hypothesis: direct test/indirect test(eg. The earth is round)

- indirect test: involves 2 kinds of reasoning:deductive and inductive

induction method: 1.method of agreement: choose common object

2.method of difference
3.joint method of agreement and difference ->elimination
4.method of concomitant variation (MCV) (given two variables X and Y, if X varies
(roughly) in direct proportion to Y, or varies (roughly) in inverse proportion to Y, then
X and Y are causally related.*by this method alone we cannot tell which is the cause
and which is the effect .
5.Method of residues (MR) :assumes a principle of additivity of causes and effects.
*if we are to extend our knowledge, weened to make inductive inferences

L3 Paradigms andrevolutions
Science divided into two stages: the empirical stage(stage of generalization), theoretical stage
1. Empirical stage: associative generalization(typically associate one attribute with another attribute. They are all still qualitative in
nature
functional generalization: Functional generalizations typically specify relationships
between variables
eg. Hooke’s Law, Boyle’s Law, Coulomb’s law
scientific growth through associative generalization only is rather limited:
-not many are universally true
-typically discovered one at a time(isolated truth)
-cannot breed further generalization
*2. Theoretical stage:allow sciectists to make real progress

Each field of science starts with the empirical stage(generalization).->sporadic theories do appear, but vague and immature-
>breakthrough with emergence of one or more successful theories->stage of theories

Conceptual theories are produced to give explanations of 3 types of phenomena:

i) conceptual explanation of regularities
ii) conceptual explanation of irregularities
iii)conceptual explanation of anomalies

i) conceptual explanation of regularities

-> a theory combines with a new way of thinking and understanding replace the old way of
thinking which the observed regularities are described
-> the new theory represents the true reality eg.kinetic theory of gases, caloric theory, dalton’s
atomic theory

=>a good theory can satisfactorily explain empirical observations

reality explanation-> theory confirmation-> reality

ii) conceptual explanation of irregularities and anomalies

->most empirical generalizations have exceptions and anomalies. explnation rely on use of theories
Summary
a)Theoretical stage is a why-stage
b)main motivation: curiosity

Development of science
In conceptual theory, scientific development is stated to be cumulative process that builds towards the truth

———————————————————————

Kuhn’s theory of scientific revolution

He thinks that science enjoys periods stable growth, follows by revisionary revolutions
Stable growth in knowledge=normal science, a set of paradigm was commonly accepted
->however, a paradigm may face a crisis which can lead to a paradigm shift and a scientific revolution

1. Normal science
- we come often across regularities, irregularities, and anomalies. Theories are proposed for their
explanations
- done within a paradigm, which provides it with both guidance and constraints:
-Paradigm identifies puzzles and govern expectations
-Paradigm dictates that all problems should have solutions and participants can agree on the
solution.
-Paradigm test scientists more than scientists test the paradigm.
- the paradigm is assumed to be correct during the entire process
4main types of activities:
 i)theory articulation
ii)theory development
iii)thirty application

i)theory articulation
-aims at the completion of paradigm theories, which at their initial stage are usually relatively vague
and filled with gaps
eg. Newton’s theory of gravitation (G remain unknown)
Dalton’s atomic theory
Young-Fresnel “wave” theory of light
ii)theory development
-the development of paradigmatic theories to explain previously unexplained phenomena
iii)theory application
-the application of the paradigm in the identification and description of everyday phenomena
Normal science: as more and more predicted phenomena get confirmed through observations and experiments, the theory
increasingly acquires more. Allegiance from the science community. Eventually, the theory becomes entrenched. In words of kuhn:
the theory acquires the status of a paradigm

2. Scientific revolution
-new facts and theory bring about paradigm change
-accoridng to kuhn: normal science does not aim at novelties fact or theory

driving force of scientific revolutions :

i)discovery
-discvoery begins with the awareness of anomaly(nature violates the expectations of the existing
paradigm )
ii)crisis
-normal science is both narrow and deep, chichis effective in causing novelties to arise
-the more precise and complete the paradigm, the more sensitive it is to detecting an anomaly
-provides the drive for more data necessary for a fundamental paradigm shift.

-responding to crisis
-new theories are invented to the crisis but initially not mature enough to solve the puzzles
-kuhn: paradigm shift is more psychological affair rather than based purely upon the scientific
merits. This is because theory and observations are not independent of each other

-observations and theory in science:

“theory without observation is empty”- kuhn believes the what people see depends on what the
already believe or expect, he believed we do not have observational evidence that is largely
dependent of theory. We are flawed emotional and social beings not always logical or objective

-competing paradigms:
-kuhn argues that rival paradigms cannot be judged on a common scale
-Detailed articulation and ad hoc modifications of the theory are first attempted to eliminate any
apparent conflict.
-Younger participants, less invested in the old paradigm, usually were the first to switch to the new
ways of doing things.
-Generational and other factors are important during a scientific revolution precisely because the
evidence is sometimes inadequate to settle the matter – beating down errors in measurements
often helps here.
-paradigm change:
-sufficient scientists agree that the current paradigm needs to be greatly modified : this paradigm
shift leads to a scientific revolution

Summary
Crisis science may lead to scientific revolution, resulting in paradigm shifts.
Lecture4

examples of paradigm shifts:

1.Copernican revolution (geocentric-> heliocentric view)
2.darwinism
3.continental drift ->plate tectonics
4.Newronian physics->Einsteinian relativity
5.classical mechnics -> quantum mechanics

karl popper: induction plays no role in proper scientific reasoning

there is a fundamental logical asymmetry between falsification and verification
-Hypotheses can be falsified, but cannot be verified or confirmed.
-Popper builds his methodology and analysis of science on falsification
-good thing about falsification tests: they employ only deduction in their reasoning
-scientific reasoning= employ deduction through and through
-A scientific idea can never be proven true, because no matter how many observations seem to agree
with it, it may still be wrong
-science should start with conjectures(hypothesis/theories)
-science is not the product of accumulative process based on induction. He thought that it is a mistake
to take induction as the main tool in scientific method, and that scientific method cannot be conceived
as a matter of accumulation (collection) of knowledge.
-science advances through the elimination of inadequate or incorrect theories by deductive
falsification. thus it is deduction not induction that should be the main tool of science
-science need more precise statements
-scientists should take risk and should aim at bold and precise theories as true statements would not
help the development of knowledge.

Summary
-a theory/hypothesis is falsifiable if it has at least one potential falsifier.
-empirical content of a theory is proportional to its falsifiability.
Falsification is a criterion of negative appraisal, whereas corroboration is a criterion of positive
Appraisal

Revolution example:
1. MRAM may eventually replace hard disks

Is science morally neutral?

Neutral, ethnical and political issues arise only when scientific discoveries are put to work by government
or industries
 Kuhn vs popper
-kuhn: scientific fields undergo periodic “paradigm change”
-popper: falsificationist, a main critic of Kuhn, proposed the demarcation of science
-Feyerabend: described science as being essentially anarchistic
-Lakatos: propsed a synthesis between ideas of Kuhn and Popper
-science and society: its justification and the social influences on scientific thought

Lecture 5

to do science: curiosity and imagination(with discipline and critical thinking)

1. Scientific discovery(solves problem, explains some observed phenomena)
-> will result in new knowledge item: i) unexpected
ii) has a special interest
iii) constitutes an increment of general knowledge or a change
in our general beliefs, as opposed to beliefs in certain matter
-> valid discovery: the discoverer should realize the significance of his discovery,its usefulness or special
interest.

2. Method of discovery
-> discoveries could not be predicted by theory. People making discovery has no idea of their existence
->discoveries predicted by theory. people knew their existence and look for them (discoverer can be
identifies exactly)

3. Kuhn-under normal science (paradigm)

i) Normal science- scientists engaged in problem solving
ii)Revolutionary science- great discoverers are needed, where the known methods of problem solving are
not applicable. Discoveries were not made by the guidance of any existing methods.
4. Serendipitous(偶然發現) discovery
 Since the scientist is in general ‘imprisoned” within the prevailing paradigm or world picture, they will
not intentionally try to go beyond the boundaries of what is considered to be true or plausible.
Eg. Discovery of the bucky ball C60
- Scientists set off to look for long chain carbon molecules in space but found sth different and
special

5. Cultivating serendipity
 Adopt the policy of getting to the target by encircling the spot after the arrow has hit it
 Engage in solving more than one problem at a time and not restrict domainof interst to the current,
narrow area of research.
 .Encourage freedom of research. This is because good science should not be controlled by preconceived
goals.
 In order to enhance the chance for serendipity, scientists should be engaged in problems which appear
on the current level of scientific research; and employing the most advanced knowledge and method.

Lecture 6
The periodic table of elements
Element: cannot be chemically broken down into anything simpler
Proton: +ve charge

1. Atomic mass
-average mass of an element’s isotopes
2. isotope
-atoms of the same element with the same number of protons but different number of nutrons
-the differ in relative atomic mass but not in chemical properties
3. carbon14
-isotope of carbon that is unstable and weakly radioactive (12,13 also)
4.how are elements created
-first few elements are created in the big bang, mostly hydrogen but a few percent helium and trace amount
of beryllium and lithium
-first stars form, where heavier elements like carbon, nitrogen and oxygen get created
-heavier elements- iron and above only in supernova
5.periodic table
-tabular arrangement of the chemical elements, orderees by their atomic number(no.of protons), electron
configurations and chemical properties
-shows periodic trends
-can be used to derive relationships between elements
-can be used to predict properties of new elements
-provide useful framework for analyzing chemical behavior and is widely used in chemistry and other
sciences
Normal Science (1800-1900) (paradigm)Discovery of new elements (random, no known relationship between
elements)Measurement of atomic weights (arbitrary, no way to confirm)
New Science from 1900 onwards (new Paradigm) (After the Periodic Table was discovered)
Periodic Table established the order of elementsRe-measurement of atomic weight (they can be estimated for
the Table) Search for new elements systematically with predicted properties.

6. Mendeleev’s periodic table

- Arranges according to atomic weights
- Elements with similar chemical properties have nearly the same atomic weights or increase
regularly
- Application of periodic law: i)estimate their atomic weights
ii) determine the properties of undiscovered elements
- new element predicted: gallium->scandium->.geranium
- predictions of Mendeleev: i) position of Beryllium in the table
ii) position of Uranium
iii)position of Tellurium and Iodine
iv) correcting atomic weight
- problem: the position of Tellurium and Iodine
predicted: tellurium put before iodine
results: tellurium is 127.6 and iodine is 126.9
->Mendeleev insisted tellurium should be placed after iodine, but he was wrong
reason: isotopes
therefore, even though the atomic weight of tellurium is larger than iodine, it should be
placed in front of iodine
Lecture 7
The Copernican revolution-the birth of modern science
1. motions of the sun
- developed a primitive sundial: measure length and direction of the shadow determined altitude
and direction of the sun
- collecting data for empirical generalizations
- motions of the sun were found to be very complicated:
 the sun rises to a different highest altitude everyday
 the sunrise and sunset locations swing north and south along the horizon throughout the
year
2. motions of the moon
- goes through phases in regular periods
- can be seen in day time
- when the full moon rises, the sun is setting at the same time in the opposite direction
3. motions of the stars
- much simpler and regular
- rise in the east and set in the west
- move throughout the night, except polar star
- can be used to tell time of the year
4. model of the universe
- the heaven is a sphere
- nature can be understood through mathematics
- features of classical greek model:
 all planets, sun ,moon and spherical as sphere is the perfect shape
 the earth is at the rest at the center of the universe(Geocentric)
 The universe is finite and is bound by concentric, crystalline spheres on which planets and
stars are attached.
 Celestial objects are made with eternal material and do not change with time.
 Many of these are wrong(proved later)
5. The problems of the planets
- Five planets were known in the ancient times
- Venus and Mercury are never far away from the sun
- Mars, Jupiter, Saturn: observed at various angular distance from the sun. sometimes in exactly
opposite direction from the sun
- The speed of planets move through the stars is not uniform
- But what is more troublesome is that the normal motion of the planets (except the Sun and Moon)
is occasionally interrupted by westward motion (retrograde motion)
- Astronomer Ptolemy (90-170 AD) brought Greek planetary theory into its final, very successful,
form. (allow the movements of the Sun, the Moon, and the planets to be predicted. )
- Ptolemy was aware that Aristotle’s model cannot explain accurately the observed motions of
planets.
- He introduced new elements to the epicycle model so that all motions of the planets can be
satisfactorily explained.
- A very complicated geometric model is needed to describe the motion of the planets accurately
6. Interlude
- all the phenomena in the sky are produced by uniform and circular motions”  a strongly held
paradigm
- New observations were made, and some scholars were dissatisfied with Aristotelian physics, but
no new theories arose in the Middle Age
- Renaissance-> many changes in the society

7. Integrating Ptolemaic cosmology with Christianity

 - Thomas Aquinas(catholic priest)elevated the Ptolemaic cosmology and Aristotelian physics into a
cornerstone of Christian doctrine and this was quickly and widely accepted.
8. The problem of the calendar
- Basic calendar was instituted by Julius Caesar, but it was no longer accurate: the date of easter
was determined with reference to the equinox. If nothing were done, Christmas could end up in
midsummer.
- Nicolaus Copernicus: “The movements of the sun and moon had not yet been measured with
sufficient accuracy,” he said. He was soon hard at work trying to do that measuring.
- What he discovered will challenge everyone's ideas about the heavens and the Earth.
9. The rise of new perspective
- Copernicus: the sun is at the center of the epicycles
- Fully worked out the geometry of his system, providing a method of predicting future positions
10. The new Copernicus diagram
- Heavenly motions are uniform, eternal and circular of several circles
- Center if the universe is near the sun
- Mercury->Venus->earth->moon->mars->jjupiter->Saturn->fixed stars
- 3 mtions of the earth: daily rotation, annual revolution, annunal tilting of its axis
- distance from earth to the sun is small compared to the stars
11. development of copernicus’ model
- problem: he did not know that planetar orbits are actually elliptical, not circular
- Johannes Kelper found the correct laws of the planetary motion
- He inheried the best planetary position data at the time, which were twice as accurate as those
before.
- He showed that the universe was designed according to the rulesof geometry
- At first was wrong: orbits of planets explained by the geometry of regular solids
- Tries 70 circulare orbits but failed
- After 900 pages found the answer-> the orbit of mars ia an ellipse
12. The birth of modern science
- Attributes to Galileo Galileo: use of telescope and support for the heliocentric model
- Armed with telescope, he made the observation that Venus has phases
- Aristotle held that the falling rate of objects depends on the composition of the body and the
medium through which the body fell.
- Galileo’s theory of mechanics correctly explain why falling objects from a moving Earth will not
land on a position behind (no relative velocity between the Earth and falling object).
- Galileo frequently appealed for many of his arguments to thought experiments, that is, mental
experiments that could, in principle, be performed if the technology were available. (More on this
later with discoveries by Einstein)
- He concluded that all objects must fall at the same rate in the vacuum
13. Shifting to a new paradigm
- Clockwork universe: a world with prefect order, the universe followed precise, mathematical
laws, was in fact as intricate and perfectly regulated as a clock.

Lecture 8
From Galileo to HST
1. Aristotle
- Aristotle’s incorrect views persisted until the time of Galileo
- He thought celestial realm was total perfection
- All objects moved in perfect circles around the earth
- All celestial objects were perfect spheres
2. Telescope
- Light gathering power
 - Resolving power
- Magnifying power (least important)
- advantage: maximize collection area, strive for highest angular resolution, optimize detection
process, limit surface irregularities, avoid/reduce the problems due to the earth’s atmosphere

3. The first study of the galaxy

- 1610 used the telescope to show the milky way(i.e. our galaxy) was made of stars

4. choosing site for observatory: away from major cities to avoid light pollution, get above as much of the
atmosphere as possible for better seeing
5. spectroscopy: one of the most important tools pf modern astronomy
- use to determine man physical properties of celestial objects: mass, temp, composition, speed
6. the doppler effect
- when star move directly toward or away from the earth, spectural lines shift
- shift to longer->red shift/shorter->blue shift
7. gravitational lens
- Einstein predicted that mass can distort space and act as a lens
8. radio telescopes
- 4 parts: a dish reflector, antenna, amplifier, recorder
9. Gamma-Ray telescopes
- Higher energiew than x-ray
- Difficult to detec- cannot be focused like x-rays

Lecture 9
Time and Space (part1)- discovery of the theory of relativity
1. Discovery of relativity
- Albert Eisteun: photoelectric effect, Brownian motion, special theory of relativity(E=mc^2)
i)Photoelectric effect
 Elements emit electrons when photons shines upon them
ii)Brownian motion
 Random motion of particles suspended in fluid resulting from their collision with quick
atoms in gas/liquid
 1905, Einstein published apaper that explained the precise detail
iii) theory of special relativity
 demonstrating that measurements of time and distance depends on relative movements of
the objects, treating light as waves in the process.
2. Einstein and the universe
- 1916, published the general theory relativity: mass and energy mold the shape of space and the
flow of time
3, space and times before eistein
- space: geometry was regarded as a precise concept of space
- space is absolute
- time: marks changes
- time can feel relative, time is absolute
3. scientific revolution that Einstein brought:
- Different observers measure different lengths
- Different observers measure different time.
- Time and space are NO LONGER absolute.
- Time and space are relative quantities based on the state of motion of the observer.
*energy and mass are interchangeable
4. space and time according toGalileo Galilei
 - A reference frame that moves at a constant velocity is called an inertial frame
- Principle of Galilean relativity: The laws of mechanics have the same form in any inertial frame.
5. space and time according to Newton
- He transformed all previous descriptions of fundamental concepts such as space, time and
motion into mathematical prescriptions.
- Newton showed that the motions of objects on Earth and of celestial bodies are governed by the
same set of natural laws.
- space and time are absolute (independent and are unaffected by each other)
- law of gravity: gravitational force operates through space instantaneously
- his theory was tested from an unexpected diraction: the behavior of light
6. light=electromagnetic waves

7. Michelson-Morley Experiment
- Beginning: large experimental error->more precise experiement
- Conclusion: Velocity of light is independent of the velocity of the source
- Thus, experimental accuracy occurs
8. Hendrik Lorentz
- hypothesis: matter contract along the direction of motion
- This contraction cannot be detected in the experiment because our rulers, also moving in the
same direction, also contracts! (A perfect crime…..)

9. Scientific revolutions: responding to crisis

- New theories bring invented in response to the crisis but were not yet mature enough to solve all
the puzzles
- Responding to crisis:
 Stay with the original paradigm and treat the anomaly as a puzzle to be solved (In our
case, many scientists such as Lorentz still held on to the ether theory, going great
length to try to fit it with the new observations.)
 Convert to a new paradigm and put novelty in a new context (Einstein totally ignored
ether and put together a new theory)
10. Thought experiments
- devices of the imagination used to investigate the nature of things.
- Essential tool for the two major developments of physics in the early 20th century: quantum
mechanics and relativity
- Advantages:
- Develop theories and ideas based on strict logical arguments
- Allow us to consider situations that are difficult to duplicate in experiments on earth
(technology not ready, expen$ive to run etx …)
- Disadvantages:
- Difficult to spot errors when the entire “experiment” is based purely on thoughts
 - May lead to wrong conclusions (A space without boundary does not imply it is infinite,
e.g. consider an ant crawling on a balloon surface)
- Cannot replace real experiments

11. Einstein’s thought experiment

- Problems:
- Maxwell equations told us that light ALWAYS move at the speed of light ‘c’. Nothing
in that theory allows light moving at zero speed.
- For different observers, they see different laws of electromagnetism, contrasting the
laws of classical mechanics where the same laws apply for all observers
12. einstein’s theory of special relativity

12. Experimental evidence of special relativity

- Length contraction
- Cosmic speed limit c
- Controlled nuclear fission reactions inside a reactor core inside a nuclear power plant.
- Theoretical studies of nuclear fusion reactions that take place in the center of stars.
- Nuclear reactions that releases power uncontrollably: nuclear bombs
> The theory of special relativity is now a well-tested theory which is essential to the
developments of all branches of science

Lecture 10
Time and space(part II)-discovery of the theory of the universe
1. Method of science(universe)

2. Generalrelativity and the evolution of the universe

- Models of the universe are expanding
3. Distance scale of the universe
 - The scale of the universe is much bigger than previously believed
- Almost all galaxies are moving away drom the earth
- The further the galaxy, the faster it is moving away from us-> Hubble Law
4. The expanding universe
- The universe has no center
- entire universe is expanding and it is doing so equally at all places.
5. experimental evidence of big bang
- Discovery of the cosmic microwave background
- Cosmic expansion of space-time
- Cosmic abundance of light elements
- Evolution of contents over cosmic history

- Einstein’s theory of relativity unified space and time, and is the best theory today which can describe the
universe
- By observations of distant galaxies, we found that all galaxies are moving away from us. The universe is
expanding.
- If the universe is expanding, we can trace its beginning.
- Cosmology has become a subject of scientific study, can be predicated and tested.
- Big Bang model is the best model today to explain the beginning of the universe, currently estimated at
13.6 billion years ago.