Chapter Summary: Heating and Cooling of the Atmosphere

Introduction:

• The atmosphere surrounding the Earth is a vital component for

supporting life, composed of various gases.
• Wind is essentially air in motion, and it plays a crucial role in
distributing heat across the Earth.
Solar Radiation:

• The Earth receives its energy primarily from the sun, known as
incoming solar radiation or insolation.
• Due to the Earth's spherical shape, the sun's rays hit the
atmosphere obliquely, and only a small portion of the sun's
energy is intercepted.
• On average, the Earth receives 1.94 calories per square
centimeter per minute at the top of its atmosphere.
• The distance between the Earth and the sun varies during its
revolution, causing slight variations in the annual insolation.
Aphelion (farthest) occurs on 4th July, and perihelion (nearest)
occurs on 3rd January.
Variation in Solar Output:

• The Earth's distance from the sun is farthest during aphelion

(152 million km) on 4th July and closest during perihelion (147
million km) on 3rd January.
• Despite this variation, other factors like land and sea
distribution and atmospheric circulation mask the effects on
daily weather changes.
Temperature Distribution:

• The Earth's surface experiences differential heating due to

variations in solar radiation.
• Pressure differences in the atmosphere result from this
heating, leading to the movement of air and the formation of
winds.
• Temperature distribution is a crucial factor in uencing weather
patterns across the globe.
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Conclusion:

• Understanding the processes of heating, cooling, and solar

radiation helps explain the dynamics of Earth's atmosphere
and its impact on weather patterns.
• The Earth's complex system of atmospheric circulation and
insolation variations contributes to the diverse climates
experienced globally.
Glossary of Dif cult Words:

• Insolation: Incoming solar radiation received by the

Earth's surface.
• Aphelion: The point in the Earth's orbit where it is farthest
from the sun.
• Perihelion: The point in the Earth's orbit where it is
nearest to the sun.
• Atmospheric Circulation: The movement of air around the
Earth driven by variations in temperature and pressure.
• Differential Heating: Unequal heating of the Earth's
surface, leading to temperature variations.
• Geoid: The three-dimensional shape representing the
Earth, slightly attened at the poles and bulging at the equator.
• Obliquely: At an angle; not perpendicular or parallel.
• Intercepted: Captured or absorbed.
Examples:

• The Earth's geoid shape contributes to the oblique angle at

which the sun's rays reach its atmosphere.
• Aphelion and perihelion showcase the Earth's elliptical orbit
around the sun.
• Differential heating is responsible for the creation of pressure
differences and subsequent wind patterns.
These detailed notes provide a comprehensive overview of the
material, aiding students in grasping the concepts of solar radiation,
atmospheric processes, and temperature distribution.
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 Variability of Insolation and Heating/Cooling of the
Atmosphere
Variability of Insolation:

• Daily, Seasonal, and Yearly Changes:

• Insolation, or incoming solar radiation, varies during
the day, across seasons, and throughout the year.
• Factors in uencing these variations include Earth's
rotation, the angle of the sun's rays, day length,
atmospheric transparency, and land con guration.
•
• Key Factors Affecting Insolation:
• (i) Rotation of Earth on its Axis: In uences day-night
cycles.
• (ii) Angle of Inclination of Sun's Rays: Determines
the angle at which solar rays strike the Earth's surface,
affecting the distribution of energy.
• (iii) Length of the Day: Impacts the duration of
exposure to sunlight.
• (iv) Transparency of the Atmosphere: In uences the
amount of solar radiation reaching the surface.
• (v) Con guration of Land: Though having less
in uence, the land's aspect can affect insolation.
• Earth's Axis Inclination:
• The Earth's axial tilt at an angle of 66.5 degrees
signi cantly in uences insolation at different latitudes.
• Latitude and Sun's Angle:
• Higher latitudes receive sunlight at a lower angle,
resulting in slant rays, less energy per unit area, and
increased absorption, scattering, and diffusion.
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Passage of Solar Radiation through the Atmosphere:

• Atmospheric Transparency:
• The atmosphere is mostly transparent to short-wave
solar radiation.
• Water vapor, ozone, and other gases in the
troposphere absorb near-infrared radiation.
• Scattering of Light:
• Small particles in the troposphere scatter visible
spectrum, adding color to the sky.
• The red and blue colors of the rising/setting sun and
the sky, respectively, result from light scattering.
• Spatial Distribution of Insolation:
• Varies from around 320 Watt/m² in the tropics to
about 70 Watt/m² at the poles.
• Subtropical deserts receive maximum insolation due
to lower cloudiness.
• Continents generally receive more insolation than
oceans at the same latitude.

Heating and Cooling of the Atmosphere:

• Conduction:
• Heat transfer through direct contact, where warmer
air or surfaces transmit energy to cooler ones.
• Important in heating the lower layers of the
atmosphere.
• Convection:
• Vertical movement of heated air, especially in the
troposphere.
• Heat is transferred as air rises and transmits warmth
to upper layers.
• Advection:
• Horizontal movement of air, playing a crucial role in
middle latitudes.
• Responsible for diurnal variations in daily weather.
• Example: In northern India during summer, the local
winds known as 'loo' are a result of advection.
Conclusion:

• Understanding the variability of insolation and the processes of

heating and cooling in the atmosphere is essential for
comprehending weather patterns and climate dynamics.
Glossary of Dif cult Words:

• Insolation: Incoming solar radiation.

• Axial Tilt: The inclination of the Earth's axis concerning
the plane of its orbit.
• Transparency: The degree to which a substance allows
light to pass through.
• Scattering: The redirection of light in different directions
as it interacts with particles in the atmosphere.
• Absorption: The process where solar radiation is taken in
by the Earth's surface or atmosphere.
• Diffusion: The spreading of solar radiation in different
directions after scattering.
• Diurnal: Relating to the daily cycle of day and night.
• Advection: The horizontal movement of air or other
substances.
These detailed notes provide a comprehensive overview, aiding
students in understanding the intricacies of insolation variability and
atmospheric processes.

Terrestrial Radiation

Introduction:

• Insolation received by the Earth is in the form of short-wave

radiation from the sun, which heats up the Earth's surface.
• After being heated, the Earth radiates energy back to the
atmosphere in the form of long-wave radiation.
Terrestrial Radiation Process:

• Radiation from Earth's Surface:

• The Earth, having absorbed solar energy, becomes
a radiating body.
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 • Radiates energy in the form of long-wave radiation
to the atmosphere.
•
• Terrestrial Radiation:
• The process by which the Earth radiates heat
energy to the atmosphere is known as terrestrial
radiation.
• Atmospheric Absorption:
• Long-wave radiation is absorbed by atmospheric
gases, including greenhouse gases like carbon dioxide.
• Greenhouse gases play a crucial role in trapping
and absorbing this outgoing radiation.
• Indirect Heating of Atmosphere:
• The atmosphere is indirectly heated by the Earth's
radiation due to the absorption by greenhouse gases.
• Radiation Transfer:
• The atmosphere, in turn, radiates and transmits heat
energy to space.
• Maintaining Constant Temperature:
• The exchange of radiation between the Earth's
surface and the atmosphere helps maintain a relatively
constant temperature.
• This process contributes to the regulation of
temperatures on Earth.
Glossary of Dif cult Words:

• Insolation: Incoming solar radiation.

• Radiating Body: A substance capable of emitting
radiation.
• Terrestrial Radiation: The process where the Earth
radiates heat energy back to the atmosphere.
• Greenhouse Gases: Gases like carbon dioxide that trap
and absorb long-wave radiation, contributing to the
greenhouse effect.
• Absorption: The process of taking in or assimilating
energy, in this context, by atmospheric gases.
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 • Maintaining Constant Temperature: The balance between
incoming solar radiation and outgoing terrestrial radiation helps
keep the Earth's temperature relatively stable.
Conclusion:
Understanding terrestrial radiation is crucial for comprehending the
Earth's energy balance. The process of absorbing and radiating
heat contributes to the maintenance of a stable temperature, with
the atmosphere acting as a mediator in the exchange of energy
between the Earth's surface and space.

Heat Budget of Planet Earth

Introduction:

• Figure 9.2 illustrates the heat budget of the Earth, highlighting

the balance between incoming insolation and outgoing
terrestrial radiation.
• The Earth maintains its temperature because the heat
received equals the heat lost.
Components of Heat Budget:

• Insolation:
• Energy received at the top of the atmosphere is
considered 100%.
• Passing through the atmosphere, some energy is
re ected, scattered, and absorbed.
• Albedo Effect:
• Approximately 35 units are re ected back to space,
constituting the Earth's albedo.
• 27 units are re ected from the top of clouds, and 2
units from snow and ice-covered areas.
• Absorption:
• Of the original 100 units, 65 units reach the Earth's
surface.
• 14 units are absorbed within the atmosphere, and 51
units are absorbed by the Earth's surface.
• Terrestrial Radiation:
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 • The Earth radiates 51 units back into space in the
form of terrestrial radiation.
• 17 units are radiated directly, and 34 units are
absorbed by the atmosphere.
• Radiation from Atmosphere:
• 48 units absorbed by the atmosphere (14 units from
insolation + 34 units from terrestrial radiation) are
radiated back into space.
• Heat Budget Balance:
• The total radiation returning from the Earth and the
atmosphere (17+48=65 units) balances the 65 units
received from the sun.
• This equilibrium is termed the heat budget or heat
balance of the Earth.
Explanation:

• Despite the massive transfer of heat, the Earth neither warms

up nor cools down due to this balanced heat budget.
Variation in Net Heat Budget:

• Latitudinal Variation:
• Figure 9.3 illustrates the latitudinal variation in the net
radiation balance of the Earth-atmosphere system.
• Regions between 40 degrees north and south experience
a surplus of net radiation, while regions near the poles
have a de cit.
• Heat Redistribution:
• Surplus heat energy from the tropics is redistributed
polewards.
• This redistribution prevents the tropics from excessively
heating up or the high latitudes from becoming
permanently frozen due to excess de cit.
Glossary of Dif cult Words:

• Insolation: Incoming solar radiation.

• Terrestrial Radiation: The process by which the Earth
radiates heat energy back to the atmosphere.
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 •Albedo: The re ectivity of a surface; in this context, it
refers to the re ection of solar radiation.
• De cit: A de ciency or shortage; in this context, areas
with a de cit receive less energy than they radiate.
• Equilibrium: A state of balance or stability where opposing
forces or factors are equal.
• Redistribution: The act of distributing again; in this
context, the movement of surplus heat energy from one region
to another.
Conclusion:
Understanding the Earth's heat budget is crucial for comprehending
the factors in uencing climate, temperature regulation, and the
dynamic processes that maintain equilibrium on our planet.

**Temperature and Its Measurement:**

- **De nition:** Temperature is a measure of the hotness or
coldness of a substance or place, re ecting the molecular
movement of its particles. It is measured in degrees.
- **Heat vs. Temperature:** While heat represents molecular
movement, temperature is the quantitative measurement of this
movement.

**Factors In uencing Temperature:**

1. **Latitude:**
- *Example:* Places near the equator receive more direct sunlight,
resulting in higher temperatures. Polar regions receive less direct
sunlight, leading to lower temperatures.

2. **Altitude:**
- *Example:* Mountainous regions have lower temperatures due
to the normal lapse rate, which is a decrease of 6.5°C per 1,000
meters in altitude.

3. **Distance from the Sea:**

- *Example:* Coastal areas experience milder temperature
variations due to the moderating in uence of the sea. Inland areas
have more signi cant temperature uctuations.
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 4. **Air-mass and Ocean Currents:**
- *Example:* Places in uenced by warm air masses or warm
ocean currents experience higher temperatures, while those
in uenced by cold air masses or cold currents have lower
temperatures.

**Distribution of Temperature:**
- **Global Distribution:**
- *Example:* Isotherms (lines connecting places with equal
temperature) on maps illustrate temperature distribution globally.

- **January vs. July:**

- *Example:* In January, the northern hemisphere shows more
variation due to the larger landmass. In July, the southern
hemisphere displays more uniform temperatures.

- **Effects of Landmass and Ocean Currents:**

- *Example:* n and North Atlantic Drift warm the Northern Atlantic
Ocean, in uencing adjacent land temperatures.

- **January Temperature Deviation:**

- *Example:* In Siberian plain, January temperatures at 60° E are
-20°C at both 80° N and 50° N latitudes.

- **Southern Hemisphere In uence:**

- *Example:* Isotherms in the southern hemisphere are more
parallel to latitudes, resulting in a gradual temperature variation.

- **Temperature Range:**
- *Example:* The northeastern part of the Eurasian continent
experiences the highest temperature range (>60°C) due to
continentality, while the least range (3°C) is found between 20° S
and 15° N.

- **July Isotherms:**
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 - *Example:* In July, equatorial oceans record temperatures
>27°C, subtropical continental Asia along 30° N latitude >30°C, and
10°C isotherms at 40° N and 40° S.

**Conclusion:**
Understanding temperature distribution involves considering
latitude, altitude, distance from the sea, air masses, and ocean
currents. These factors, illustrated through examples, shape
temperature variations globally and seasonally.

**Inversion of Temperature - Detailed Notes**

**1. Introduction:**
- **Normal Lapse Rate:** Typically, temperature decreases with
an increase in elevation, known as the normal lapse rate.
- **Inversion of Temperature:** In some situations, the normal
lapse rate is reversed, leading to temperature inversion.

**2. Occurrence and Duration:**

- **Ideal Conditions:** Inversion often occurs during clear winter
nights with still air.
- **Commonality:** While usually of short duration, inversion is a
relatively common atmospheric phenomenon.
- **Polar Regions:** Inversion is normal over polar areas
throughout the year.

**3. Winter Night Scenario:**

- **Clear Skies and Still Air:** Long winter nights with clear skies
and calm air create an ideal environment for temperature inversion.
- **Radiative Cooling:** Earth loses heat during the night, causing
the surface to become cooler than the air above.
- **Inversion Duration:** Typically lasts until the morning when the
sun starts to warm the Earth.

**4. Surface Inversion Effects:**

- **Atmospheric Stability:** Surface inversion promotes stability in
the lower layers of the atmosphere.
 - **Particle Collection:** Smoke and dust particles are trapped
beneath the inversion layer, spreading horizontally in the lower
strata.
- **Fog Formation:** Dense fogs, especially during winter
mornings, result from surface inversion.

**5. Polar Regions and Year-Round Inversion:**

- **Persistent Inversion:** Over polar areas, temperature inversion
is a normal and persistent phenomenon throughout the year.

**6. Inversion in Hills and Mountains:**

- **Air Drainage:** Inversion occurs in hills and mountains due to
air drainage.
- **Nighttime Cold Air Flow:** Cold air generated during the night
ows downhill under the in uence of gravity.
- **Air Drainage Effects:** Cold, dense air acts like water, owing
down slopes to accumulate in pockets and valley bottoms.
- **Frost Protection:** Known as air drainage, this process
protects plants from frost damage.

**7. Conclusion:**
- Understanding temperature inversion is crucial for
comprehending atmospheric stability and localized weather
phenomena.
- The in uence of topography, clear skies, and calm air on
inversion highlights its dynamic nature.
- Observing and studying temperature inversion aids in predicting
and managing weather-related challenges, particularly in speci c
geographic features such as hills and polar regions.
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