Chapter 4

Global Climates and Biomes

Climates and Biomes

• Climate The average weather that occurs in a

given region over a long period of time.

• Weather The short-term conditions of the

atmosphere in a local area, which include
temperature, humidity, clouds, precipitation, and
wind speed.
 Module 9
The Unequal Heating of Earth

After reading this module you should be able to

• identify the five layers of the atmosphere.

• discuss the factors that cause unequal heating

of Earth.

• describe how Earth’s tilt affects seasonal

differences in temperatures.
Earth's atmosphere is composed of
layers

• Troposphere A layer of the atmosphere closest

to the surface of Earth, extending up to
approximately 16 km (10 miles).

• Stratosphere The layer of the atmosphere

above the troposphere, extending roughly 16 to
50 km (10–31 miles) above the surface of Earth.
Earth’s Atmosphere
The layers of Earth’s
atmosphere.
The troposphere is the
atmospheric layer closest to
Earth. Because the density
of air decreases with
altitude, the troposphere’s
temperature also decreases
with altitude. Temperature
increases with altitude in the
stratosphere because the
Sun’s UV-B and UV-C rays
warm the upper part of this
layer. Temperatures in the
thermosphere can reach
1,750°C (3,182°F).

Figure 9.1
The amount of solar energy reaching
Earth varies with location
As the Sun's energy passes through the atmosphere and
strikes land and water, it warms the surface of Earth. But
this warming does not occur evenly across the planet
because:

• The angle at which the Sun's rays strike varies.

• The amount of surface area over which the Sun's rays

are distributed varies.

• Some areas of Earth reflect more solar energy than

others.

• Albedo The percentage of incoming sunlight

reflected from a surface.
 The Amount of Solar Energy Reaching
Earth

Figure 9.3

Differential heating of Earth. Tropical regions near the equator receive more solar
energy than mid-latitude and polar regions, where the Sun’s rays strike Earth’s surface at
an oblique angle.
 The Amount of Solar Energy Reaching Earth

Albedo. The albedo of a

surface is the
percentage of the
incoming solar energy
that it reflects. Snow and
ice reflect much of the
solar energy that they
receive, but darker
objects such as forests
and asphalt paving
reflect very little energy,
which means that they
absorb most of the solar
energy that strikes them.

Figure 9.4
Earth's tilt causes seasonal changes
in climate

• The Earth's axis of rotation is tilted 23.5 ˚.

• When the Northern Hemisphere is tilted toward

the Sun, the Southern Hemisphere is tilted away
from the Sun, and vice versa.
 Earth's Tilt and the Seasons

Figure 9.5

Earth’s seasons. Because Earth’s axis of rotation is tilted 23.5°, the latitude that receives
the most direct rays of the Sun and the most hours of daylight changes throughout the year
as Earth orbits the Sun. Thus Earth’s tilt produces predictable seasons. This diagram
illustrates the pattern of seasons in the Northern Hemisphere.
 Module 10
Air Currents
After reading this module you should be able to

• explain how the properties of air affect the way it

moves in the atmosphere.

• identify the factors that drive atmospheric

convection currents.

• describe how Earth’s rotation affects the

movement of air currents.

• explain how the movement of air currents over

mountain ranges affects climates.
Air has several important properties
that determine how it circulates in the
atmosphere
• Saturation point The maximum amount of water
vapor in the air at a given temperature.

• Adiabatic cooling The cooling effect of reduced

pressure on air as it rises higher in the atmosphere
and expands.

• Adiabatic heating The heating effect of increased

pressure on air as it sinks toward the surface of Earth
and decreases in volume.

• Latent heat release The release of energy when

water vapor in the atmosphere condenses into liquid
water.
Atmospheric convection currents
move air and moisture around the
globe

• Atmospheric convection current Global

patterns of air movement that are initiated by
the unequal heating of Earth.
 Atmospheric Convection Currents
Atmospheric currents.
Warming at Earth’s surface
causes air to rise up into the
atmosphere where it
experiences lower pressures,
adiabatic cooling, and latent heat
release. The cool air near the top
of the atmosphere is then
displaced horizontally before it
sinks back to Earth. As it sinks,
the air experiences adiabatic
heating and then moves
horizontally along the surface of
Earth to complete the cycle.

Figure 10.2
Atmospheric Convection Currents

• Hadley cell A convection current in the atmosphere that

cycles between the equator and 30°N and 30°S.

• Intertropical convergence zone (ITCZ) The latitude that

receives the most intense sunlight, which causes the
ascending branches of the two Hadley cells to converge.

• Polar cell A convection current in the atmosphere,

formed by air that rises at 60°N and 60°S and sinks at the
poles, 90°N and 90°S.

• Ferrell cell A convection current in the atmosphere that

lies between Hadley cells and polar cells.
 Atmospheric Convection Currents
Hadley cells. Hadley cells
are atmospheric
convection currents that
operate between the equator
and 30°N and 30°S. Solar
energy warms humid air in
the tropics. The warm air
rises and eventually cools
below its saturation point.
The water vapor it contains
condenses into clouds and
precipitation. The air, which
now contains little moisture,
sinks to Earth’s surface at
approximately 30°N and
30°S. As the air descends, it
is warmed by adiabatic
heating. This descent
of hot, dry air causes desert
environments to develop at
Figure 10.3
those latitudes.
Earth's rotation causes the Coriolis
effect

• As Earth rotates, its surface moves much faster

at the equator than in mid-latitude and polar
regions.

• The faster rotation speeds found closer to the

equator cause objects that are moving directly
north or south to deflect.
The Coriolis Effect

• Coriolis effect The deflection of an object’s

path due to the rotation of Earth.

• The prevailing winds of the world are produced

by a combination of atmospheric convection
currents and the Coriolis effect.
 The Coriolis Effect

Figure 10.4

The Coriolis effect. (a) A ball thrown from the North Pole toward the equator would be
deflected to the west by the Coriolis effect. (b) The different rotation speeds of Earth at different
latitudes cause a deflection in the paths of traveling objects.
The Coriolis Effect
Prevailing wind
patterns. Prevailing
wind patterns around
the world are produced
by a combination of
atmospheric convection
currents and the
Coriolis effect.

Figure 10.6
Rain shadows cause mountains to be
dry on one side

• Rain shadow A region with dry conditions

found on the leeward side of a mountain range
as a result of humid winds from the ocean
causing precipitation on the windward side.
 Rain Shadows

Figure 10.7

Rain shadow. Rain shadows occur where humid winds blowing inland from the ocean meet
a mountain range. On the windward (wind-facing) side of the mountains, air rises and cools,
and large amounts of water vapor condense to form clouds and precipitation. On the leeward
side of the mountains, cold, dry air descends, warms via adiabatic heating, and causes
much drier conditions.
Rain Shadows
• Air moving inland from the ocean contains a large amount of
water vapor. When it meets the windward side of a mountain
range (the side facing the wind), it rises and begins to
experience adiabatic cooling.

• Because water vapor condenses as air cools, clouds form

and precipitation falls.

• The presence of the mountain range causes large amounts of

precipitation to fall on its windward side.

• The cold, dry air then travels to the other side of the mountain
range (the leeward side), where it descends and experiences
higher pressures, which cause adiabatic heating.

• This air is now warm and dry and produces arid conditions on
the leeward side forming the region called a rain shadow.
 Module 11
Ocean Currents

After reading this module you should be able to

• describe the patterns of surface ocean

circulation.

• explain the mixing of surface and deep ocean

waters from thermohaline circulation.

• identify the causes and consequences of the El

Niño–Southern Oscillation.
Surface ocean currents move warm
and cold water around the globe
• Ocean currents are driven by a combination of
temperature, gravity, prevailing winds, the
Coriolis effect, and the locations of continents.

• Warm water, like warm air, expands and rises.

• Gyre A large-scale pattern of water circulation

that moves clockwise in the Northern
Hemisphere and counterclockwise in the
Southern Hemisphere.
 Ocean Currents

Figure 11.1

Oceanic circulation patterns. Oceanic circulation patterns are the result of differential
heating, gravity, prevailing winds, the Coriolis effect, and the locations of continents. Each of
the five major ocean basins contains a gyre driven by the trade winds in the tropics and the
westerlies at mid-latitudes. The result is a clockwise circulation pattern in the Northern
Hemisphere and a counterclockwise circulation pattern in the Southern Hemisphere. Along
the west coasts of many continents, currents diverge and cause the upwelling of deeper and
more fertile water.
Ocean Currents

• Upwelling The upward movement of ocean

water toward the surface as a result of diverging
currents.

• This upward movement of water brings nutrients

from the ocean bottom that support large
populations of producers, which in turn support
large populations of fish.
Deep ocean currents circulate ocean
water over long time periods

• Thermohaline circulation An oceanic

circulation pattern that drives the mixing of
surface water and deep water.

• Scientists believe this process is crucial for

moving heat and nutrients around the globe.

• Thermohaline circulation appears to be driven

by surface waters that contain unusually large
amounts of salt.
 Thermohaline Circulation

Figure 11.2

Thermohaline circulation. The sinking of dense, salty water in the

North Atlantic drives a deep, cold current that moves slowly around the
world.
Deep ocean currents circulate ocean
water over long time periods
• Some of the water that flows from the Gulf of
Mexico to the North Atlantic freezes or
evaporates, and the salt that remains behind
increases the salt concentration of the water.

• This cold, salty water is relatively dense, so it

sinks to the bottom of the ocean, mixing with
deeper ocean waters.

• These two processes create the movement

necessary to drive a deep, cold current that
slowly moves past Antarctica and northward to
the northern Pacific Ocean.
The El-Niño Southern Oscillation is
caused by a shift in ocean currents

• El Niño–Southern Oscillation (ENSO) A

reversal of wind and water currents in the South
Pacific.
The El-Niño Southern Oscillation
• Every 3 to 7 years, the interaction of the Earth's atmosphere
and ocean cause surface currents in the tropical Pacific
Ocean to reverse direction.
The El Niño–Southern
Oscillation. (a) In a normal
year, trade winds push warm
surface waters away from the
coast of South America and
promote the upwelling of
water from the ocean bottom.
(b) In an El Niño year, trade
winds weaken or reverse
direction, so warm waters
build up along the west coast
of Peru.

Figure 11.3
The El Niño-Southern Oscillation
• First, the trade winds near South America weaken.

• This weakening allows warm equatorial water from the

western Pacific to move eastward toward the west
coast of South America.

• The movement of warm water and air toward South

America suppresses upwelling off the coast of Peru
and decreases productivity there, reducing fish
populations near the coast.

• These periodic changes in wind and ocean currents

are collectively called the El Niño-Southern
Oscillation, or ENSO.
 Module 12
Terrestrial Biomes

After reading this module you should be able to

• explain how we define terrestrial biomes.

• interpret climate diagrams.

• identify the nine terrestrial biomes.

Terrestrial biomes are defined by the
dominant plant growth forms

• Terrestrial biome A geographic region

categorized by a particular combination of
average annual temperature, annual
precipitation, and distinctive plant growth forms
on land.

• Aquatic biome An aquatic region

characterized by a particular combination of
salinity, depth, and water flow.
 Terrestrial Biomes

Figure 12.3

Biomes. Biomes are categorized by particular combinations of average

annual temperature and annual precipitation.
 Climate diagrams illustrate patterns of
annual temperature and precipitation

Figure 12.4

Climate diagrams. Climate diagrams display monthly temperature and precipitation

values, which help determine the productivity of a biome.
Terrestrial biomes range from tundra
to tropical forests
There are nine terrestrial biomes:
• Tundra
• Boreal forest
• Temperate rainforest
• Temperate seasonal forest
• Woodland/shrubland
• Temperate grassland/cold desert
• Tropical rainforest
• Tropical seasonal forest/savanna
• Subtropical desert
Tundra
• Tundra A cold and treeless biome with low-
growing vegetation.

• In winter, the soil is completely frozen.

• The tundra's growing season is very short,

usually only about 4 months during summer.

• The underlying subsoil is known as permafrost.

• Permafrost An impermeable, permanently

frozen layer of soil.
Tundra

Tundra biome. The tundra

is cold and treeless, with
low-growing vegetation.

Figure 12.5
Boreal Forest

• Boreal forest A forest biome made up primarily

of coniferous evergreen trees that can tolerate
cold winters and short growing seasons.

• Boreal forests are found between about 50˚ and

60˚ N in Europe, Russia, and North America.

• This subarctic biome has a very cold climate,

and plant growth is more constrained by
temperature than precipitation.

• The soil is nutrient-poor due to slow

decomposition.
Boreal Forest

Boreal forest biome.

Boreal forests are made
up primarily of coniferous
evergreen trees that can
tolerate cold winters and
short growing seasons.

Figure 12.6
Temperate Rainforest
• Temperate rainforest A coastal biome typified by
moderate temperatures and high precipitation.

• Found along the west coast of North America from

northern California to Alaska, in southern Chile, on the
west coast of New Zealand, and on the island of
Tasmania.

• Ocean currents moderate temperature fluctuations

and provide a source of water vapor.

• Nearly 12-month growing season where winters are

rainy and summers are foggy.

• Mild temperatures and high precipitation support

growth of very large trees.
Temperate Rainforest

Temperate rainforest
biome.
Temperate rainforests
have moderate mean
annual temperatures and
high precipitation that
supports the growth of
very large trees.

Figure 12.7
Temperate Seasonal Forest

• Temperate seasonal forest A biome with warm

summers and cold winters with over 1 m (39 inches)
of precipitation annually.

• Found in the eastern United States, Japan, China,

Europe, Chile, and eastern Australia.

• Dominated by broadleaf deciduous trees such as

beech, maple, oak, and hickory.

• Warmer summer temperatures favor decomposition;

soils generally contain more nutrients than those of
boreal forests.
Temperate Seasonal Forest

Temperate seasonal forest

biome.
Temperate seasonal forest
biomes have moderate
mean annual temperatures
and moderate amounts of
precipitation that support
broadleaf deciduous trees
such as beech, maple, oak,
and hickory.

Figure 12.8
Woodland/Shrubland
• Woodland/shrubland A biome characterized
by hot, dry summers and mild, rainy winters.

• Found on the coast of southern California,

southern Australia, southern Africa, and in the
area surrounding the Mediterranean Sea.

• There is a 12-month growing season, but plant

growth is constrained by low precipitation in
summer and by relatively low temperatures in
winter.

• Wildfires are common and plants of this biome

are well adapted to both fire and drought.
Woodland/Shrubland

Woodland/shrubland biome.
The woodland/shrubland biome is
characterized by hot, dry summers
and mild, rainy winters.

Figure 12.9
Temperate Grassland/Cold Desert
• Temperate grassland/cold desert A biome
characterized by cold, harsh winters, and hot, dry
summers.

• Lowest average annual precipitation of any temperate

biome.

• Found in the Great Plains of North America, in South

America, and in central Asia and eastern Europe.

• Plant growth constrained by both insufficient

precipitation in summer and cold temperatures in
winter.

• Plants include grasses and nonwoody flowering plants

well-adapted to wildfires and frequent grazing by
animals.
Temperate Grassland/Cold Desert

Temperate grassland/cold
desert biome.
The temperate grassland/cold
desert biome has cold, harsh
winters and hot, dry, summers
that support grasses and
nonwoody flowering plants.

Figure 12.10
Tropical Rainforest
• Tropical rainforest A warm and wet biome found
between 20°N and 20°S of the equator, with little
seasonal temperature variation and high precipitation.

• Average annual temperatures exceed 20˚C.

• Found in Central and South America, Africa,

Southeast Asia, and northeastern Australia.

• Precipitation occurs frequently; warm and wet with

little temperature variation.

• Tropical rainforests contain more biodiversity per

hectare than any other terrestrial biome; contain up to
two-thirds of Earth's terrestrial species.
Tropical Rainforest

Tropical rainforest biome.

Tropical rainforests
are warm and wet, with little
seasonal temperature
variation. These forests are
highly productive with several
distinctive layers of
vegetation.

Figure 12.11
Tropical Seasonal Forest/ Savanna
• Tropical seasonal forest/savanna A biome marked
by warm temperatures and distinct wet and dry
seasons.

• Tropical seasonal forests are common in much of

Central America, on the Atlantic coast of South
America, in southern Asia, in northwestern Australia,
and in sub-Saharan Africa.

• Soil in this biome is fairly fertile and can be farmed

due to high decomposition rates, but the low amount
of precipitation constrains plants from using the soil
nutrients that are released.

• Grasses and scattered deciduous trees are common.

Tropical Seasonal Forest/ Savanna
Tropical seasonal
forest/savanna biome.
Tropical seasonal forest and
savannas have warm
temperatures and distinct wet
and dry seasons. Vegetation
ranges from dense stands of
shrubs and trees to relatively
open landscapes dominated
by grasses and scattered
deciduous trees.

Figure 12.12
Subtropical Desert

• Subtropical desert A biome prevailing at

approximately 30°N and 30°S, with hot
temperatures, extremely dry conditions, and
sparse vegetation.

• The Mojave Desert in the southwestern United

States, the Sahara in Africa, the Arabian Desert
of the Middle East, and the Great Victoria
Desert of Australia are all subtropical deserts.

• Cacti, euphorbs, and succulent plants are well

adapted to this biome.
Subtropical Desert

Subtropical desert biome.

Subtropical deserts have hot
temperatures, extremely dry
conditions, and sparse
vegetation.

Figure 12.13
 Module 13
Aquatic Biomes

After reading this module you should be able to

• identify the major freshwater biomes.

• identify the major marine biomes.

Freshwater biomes have low salinity

Freshwater biomes include:

• Streams and rivers

• Lakes and ponds

• Freshwater wetlands
Streams and Rivers

• Flowing fresh water that may originate from

underground springs or as runoff from rain or
melting snow.

• Streams are typically narrow and carry relatively

small amounts of water where rivers are usually
wider and carry larger amounts of water.
Lakes and Ponds
• Lakes and ponds contain standing water, at least some of
which is too deep to support emergent vegetation.

• Lakes are larger than ponds but there is no clear point at

which a pond is considered large enough to be called a lake.

• Littoral zone The shallow zone of soil and water in lakes and
ponds where most algae and emergent plants grow.

• Limnetic zone A zone of open water in lakes and ponds.

• Phytoplankton Floating algae.

• Profundal zone A region of water where sunlight does not

reach, below the limnetic zone in very deep lakes.

• Benthic zone The muddy bottom of a lake, pond, or ocean.

Lakes and Ponds
Lake zones. The littoral
zone consists of shallow
water with emerging, rooted
plants whereas the limnetic
zone is the deeper water
where plants do not
emerge. The deepest water,
where oxygen can be
limiting because little
sunlight penetrates to allow
photosynthesis by
producers, is the profundal
zone. The sediments
that lie beneath the littoral,
limnetic, and profundal
zones constitute the benthic
zone.
Figure 13.3
Lakes and Ponds

Lakes are classified by their level of primary

productivity.

• Oligotrophic Describes a lake with a low level

of productivity.

• Mesotrophic Describes a lake with a moderate

level of productivity.

• Eutrophic Describes a lake with a high level of

productivity.
Freshwater Wetlands

• Freshwater wetland An aquatic biome that is

submerged or saturated by water for at least
part of each year, but shallow enough to support
emergent vegetation.

• Freshwater wetlands are among the most

productive biomes on Earth.
Marine biomes have high salinity

There are five marine biomes:

• Salt marsh

• Mangrove swamp

• Intertidal zone

• Coral reefs

• Open ocean
Salt Marsh

• Salt marsh A marsh containing nonwoody

emergent vegetation, found along the coast in
temperate climates.

• The salt marsh is one of the most productive

biomes in the world.
Mangrove Swamp

• Mangrove swamp A swamp that occurs along

tropical and subtropical coasts, and contains
salt tolerant trees with roots submerged in
water.

• Mangrove trees are salt tolerant and help

protect the coastlines from erosion and storm
damage.
Intertidal Zone

• Intertidal zone The narrow band of coastline

between the levels of high tide and low tide.

• Waves that crash onto the shore in this biome

can make it a challenge for organisms to hold
on and not get washed away.
Coral Reefs

• Coral reef The most diverse marine biome on

Earth, found in warm, shallow waters beyond
the shoreline.

• Earth's most diverse marine biome even though

coral reefs are found in water that is relatively
poor in nutrients and food.

• Coral bleaching A phenomenon in which algae

inside corals die, causing the corals to turn
white.
Open Ocean
• Open ocean Deep ocean water, located away
from the shoreline where sunlight can no longer
reach the ocean bottom.

• Photic zone The upper layer of ocean water in

the ocean that receives enough sunlight for
photosynthesis.

• Aphotic zone The deeper layer of ocean water

that lacks sufficient sunlight for photosynthesis.

• Chemosynthesis A process used by some

bacteria in the ocean to generate energy with
methane and hydrogen sulfide.
 Open Ocean

Figure 13.9

The open ocean. The open ocean can be separated into several distinct zones.