Revised Teaching of Geography

TEACHING
OF
GEOGRAPHY
Computer Assisted Self Learning Package
(Summarized Version in the form of e-tutorial )
For BED STUDENTS
By
Dr Showkat Rashid Wani
Senior Coordinator
Directorate of Distance education
University of Kashmir
Unit—I: Nature and Scope of Social Sciences
Social Studies and Social Sciences
(1) Social studies represent child’s point of view while social sciences are written from the adult point of
view. The detailed and difficult subject matter of social sciences written from the adult point of view is not
intelligible to the students. Therefore functional, easy and integrated subject matter is to be presented to
them according to the level of school.
(2) Social sciences are taught and studied giving more prominence to theoretical point view while social
studies emphasizes practical aspect which may help in inculcating basic values among the students.
(3) Social sciences are taught at the Senior Secondary, College and University level. They discuss the
human nature, activities and institutions minutely. Social studies, on the other hand, is a subject whose
subject matter is social environment.
(4) The subject matter of social sciences is determined on the basis of research, experimentation and
modern techniques of evaluation which can be understood only by adults and are beyond the
comprehension of young children.
(5) Social sciences present comprehensive systematic and logical treatment of the subject matter. They
are written from the scholarly point of view.
Relationship of History with Geography
History and geography are most intimately related; in fact, they are twins, one stresses time and the
other space. History studies people of different times and geography deals with the people of different
places. Historical facts can serve as a good basis for arousing interest for geographical studies: geography
offers explanation for historical actions of mankind. The geographical phenomena have a profound
influence 'on the course of history'; historical studies devoid of geographical background would be
inaccurate and unscientific. World is a stage on which man plays his part, geography studies the world and
history, the action of man on the world stage. It is obvious that both are allied subjects. No history of a
people or a country could be complete without some reference to space nor can a geographical account be
intelligible without reference to development in time. It is for this reason that it is said history without
geography and geography without history are unthinkable. Since the close of the 11th century, such a
mutual and intimate relationship between these two vital subjects of human knowledge has come to be
emphasized as an important part of the school curriculum.
It is obvious that history cannot be intelligently studied without a constant reference to the geographical
surroundings which have affects on different nations. Both history and geography have common claim on
the equipment and aids of teaching, i.e., maps, pictures and atlases are useful in the teaching of the two
subjects in equal measures. It is necessary that both are taught in relation to each other.
Relationship of Geography with Economics
These two subjects are very intimately related. They are so intimately related that there is a branch of
Geography which is known as Economic Geography. Agriculture, industry and economic activities are
subordinate to geographical factors. Wherever we find the location of coal iron ore, it is possible to
establish industries. Economics, which is called the science of wealth, cannot make proper progress
without the knowledge of geographical factors. It is the geographical factors that govern the wealth of a
particular person or a country. Various agricultural and economic products are the result of geographical
factors. In fact, geography provides a background to the Economics.
In Economic Geography we have the description of various principles on the basis of which it is possible
to study the economic aspect of the geographical factors. While discussing certain departments of
Geography, we have also to take into consideration various factors of Geography. For example, when we
discuss about the production, we cannot discuss it without taking into consideration the geographical
factors. In fact, these two subjects are inter-dependent.
Relationship of Geography with Political Science (Civics)
Political Science is the subject that studies the administration of a particular unit and certain allied
problems. Sometimes political administration differs from land to land. This difference is on account of
geographical conditions. In Switzerland even today direct democracy is practiced. It has been possible
only on account of geographical factors. Traditions, political principles and certain other things are also
guided by geographical factors.
Today world citizenship and world government have become the ideals of Political Science and Practical
Politics. Geography can play a vital role in this direction. Geography also aims at establishing world
citizenship. It does so by explaining the common geographical features of different countries.
The difference in the political set-up of different countries is also explainable through geographical
factors. If Soviet Union of Russia and United States of America are great contenders of each other today, it
is so, to a very great extent, on account of their geographical factors. In South-East Asia, we have an area
which is rich in petroleum and other mineral products. Petroleum in mineral products are essentials of
political progress. Great world powers are anxious to establish their supremacy over this part only on
account of their anxiety to have control over rich petroleum fields.
Sometimes it is possible to solve various political problems with the help of the knowledge of
geographical factors. Once we know about the geographical background of a particular political problem, it
shall not be very difficult for us to solve it. All these factors very clearly indicate that there is close
relationship between Geography and Political Science.
Structure and Scope of Geography
The subject matter of geography is ‘man and his environment ‘or ‘lands and people’. The first person
who started the fashion of describing the lands and people was a Greek scholar Hecatus. He travelled the
then known world, which was confined to the area around the Mediterranean Sea. He described the lands
and people of the areas travelled in his book “lies, peridos” which stand for lands and people. Thus
Hecatus is known as the father of geography.
The different scholars defined geography inn their own way. Thus the subject comprises of a maze of
definitions.
(1) Geography is the study or science of places (Vidal-de-la-Blache).
(2) Geography is the science of distribution (Marthe).
(3) Geography is the study of areal differentiation of the earth’s surface (Alfred Hettner).
Structure of Geography
The subject matter of Geography is man and his natural environment. On the basis of subject matter,
Geography has two main branches:
1. Physical Geography.
2. Human Geography.
1. Physical Geography: Physical Geography is that branch of geography which deals with the study of
natural environment. Natural environment consists of five elements land, water, air, plants and animals.
The sub fields of physical geography are:
(a) Geomorphology: Geomorphology is the study of land-forms and drainage.
(b) Climatology: Climatology is the branch of physical geography which deals with the study of weather
and climate.
(c) Biogeography: Biogeography is a branch of physical geography which deals with the study of
distribution of animals and plants on the surface of the earth.
(d) Soil Geography (Pedatology): it deals with study of development, characteristics and distribution of
soils.
(e) Hydrology: it is the branch of physical geography which deals with the study of occurrence,
properties and distribution of surface and ground water.
2. Human Geography: Human geography is a branch of geography which deals with the study of man
and his activities on the surface of the earth in relation to environment. Man does three types of activities
on the surface of the earth.
Firstly, man lives on the surface of the earth
Secondly, man makes a living and
Thirdly, man makes design for living.
On the basis of the subject matter human geography is divisible into three branches:
(a) Social Geography: It is a branch of human geography. It deals with the study of special arrangement
of social phenomena in relation to total environment.
(b) Economic geography: It is a branch of human geography which deals with the study of special
variation of economic activities on the surface of the earth. It also studies the variation between economic
activities of the people and the relation between them and the natural environment.
(c) Cultural geography: It deals with the study of distribution of cultural groups and the interaction
between them and their environment. The sub-fields of cultural geography include, Languages, Religion,
Tools and skills and Social organizations.
Scope of Geography
In the words of F.Kingdom ward, ”The scope of geography is as wide as earth. It overlaps the boundaries
of many subjects such as geology, botany, physics, economics, sociology, anthropology, mathematics, and
environmental sciences etc; all of which are important branches of knowledge in their own right. It is a
subject which establishes a link between natural and social sciences. Geography is an integrated
discipline.”
Geography has assumed very wide dimensions. It draws materials from almost all natural and social
sciences. An attempt is made to find cause and effect relationship between various geographical factors.
Geography is a subject which studies the process of adjustment as well as various activities which is not
influenced by geographical factors.
Geography begins on the earth’s surface and extends into the earth and higher above in the atmosphere.
It deals with the constant development of human activities and the constant change in the physical factors.
It studies various physical features and whether phenomena because these exercise a great influence on
the life of man- his health, occupation, food, clothing and social customs and beliefs. It studies the
interdependence of man and men and nation. Geographical knowledge develops patriotism and
international understanding. It teaches us that world is a global village.
It is geography alone that studies the areal character of the earth. These areas are distinct and different
from one another. Geography is interested in the distinctive character of these areas. He wants to know
the form, the content and the function of these areas and their relationship with one another.
Geography makes a sizeable contribution to the field of social and economic planning. Geographers have
attended to such problems as coastal erosion, flood control, water supply and land classification.
Geography consists of large number of sub-fields and fields of specialization like geomorphology,
climatology, soil-geography, hydrology, biogeography, economic geography, cultural geography, social
geography etc. All these facts indicate that geography is full of scope and importance.
Geography as a basic discipline
Geography as a basic discipline has had a very chequered cause of development. It passed through
different phases of rise and fall and at every new stage the concept of geography under went a change. The
evolution of geographical thought and concept took place during the age of discoveries and explorations.
The ancient Egyptians, Babylonians, Phoenicians, Greeks and Romans made valuable contribution to the
geographical concepts during the 16th, 17th and 18th centuries. More and more geographical concepts
developed as geography gradually emerged from a descriptive approach to the classical times to analytical
approach of the present times. The geographical discipline is currently over flowing with a number of
concepts and there are branches of geography. Recent years have witnessed the greatest innovations in
the various fields of geography due to its new concepts and techniques and rediscovering phenomena
from a scientific and new approach. Geography is usually divided into physical geography, dealing with the
distribution and activities of people on earth.
The most widely recognized concept of scientific geography treats the world as essentially an abode of
man and solving national and international problems. The perspective of the present day geography is as
wide as the earth, as large as the life itself. In a broad way, we can conveniently say that the subject-matter
of geography is the earth, not only the rock or the water that encircles it, or the universe or the man that
inhabits it, or the atmosphere that surrounds it, but it studies one and all. It is because all these have a
direct bearing on one or the other and have a particular meaning to man and, therefore, a need was felt to
develop the concept of ‘applied geography’.
Importance of Geography in our day to day life

Geography is the study of man and his environment. It tries to understand action of man and his
environment. Its utility and usefulness is being realized in every walk of life. Geography establishes a link
between natural sciences and social sciences. Both scientists and humanists seek to include something of
geography within their respective studies. Geography is science and an art. It tries to train and develop
good citizens. The importance of geography can be studied under the following heads:
(1) Knowledge of Environment: In these days life is very complex. It is highly desirable that one should
be acquainted with the knowledge of environment with in which one happens to live. One gets the
knowledge of his environment through the study of natural and social science. But these subjects only deal
with a particular aspect or feature of environment. But geography presents an integrate picture of natural
and social phenomena. It deals with the study of interaction between man and his environment.
(2) Knowledge of Why and How: Until very recently the study of geography implied a catalogue of
names and a student of geography felt quite satisfied if he could commit to memory such facts as names of
continents, countries and their capitals, oceans, bays, rivers, mountains, etc. the students seldom
attempted to understand why and how of these all these facts and factors that go to influence life of man
on this planet. Today geography is a dynamic science. It tries to find out cause and effect relationship. It
deals with the natural and social aspects of the earth in order to acquire the knowledge of the
surroundings within which man lives.
(3) Creating Understanding: Geography is the study of areal differentiation of the earth’s surface. No two
areas on the surface of the earth are alike. the people who are settled in different areas speak different
languages practice different religion, wear different dresses, live in different house types, eat different
foods belong to different races , have different statures, facial form, hair form and color. All these
differences are because of different environmental conditions. Geography teaches man that although we
are not identical but we are equal. It develops broadmindedness, tolerance, sympathy, cooperation, unity,
we feeling and other social qualities. It makes students better and responsible citizens of the country and
the world.
(4) Satisfies Natural Curiosity: Everybody in this world has a natural curiosity to know about the
different countries and their inhabitants. Geography is the study of land people. The knowledge of
geography helps us in satisfying this curiosity without visiting them.
(5) Understanding Problems: The knowledge of Geography can be made to provide basis for
understanding of many social, economic and political problems. The knowledge of geography helps a
student in developing proper social outlook. It develops social qualities like broadmindedness, sympathy
tolerance, selflessness, fellow feelings, cooperation; unity. It helps a man to become useful member of
world society.
Role of teaching of geography in international understanding
The term” International understanding” implies the presence of good will and spirit of co-operation
among men and nations of the world. For peace, progress, and prosperity world requires unity, solidarity,
true brotherhood, co-operation, co-existence, tolerance, we feeling and friendship among the nations of
the world.
Geography studies lands and people. It is a synthetic science. It studies natural environment which is the
subject matter of natural understanding. On the other hand, it deals with the study of man’s activities, his
society and culture, his economy and habitat, which is subject matter of social sciences. Thus geography is
a link between natural and social sciences. It studies man and the natural conditions under which he lives
and earns his living. It presents a true picture of natural and manmade phenomena of the surface of the
earth. It plays an essential role in promoting international understanding and surpasses other subjects in
this regard. Its importance in developing international understanding can be discussed under the
following heads:
(1) Knowledge of the World: Geography is a chorological science or space science. It develops in the
child sense of space, just as history develops in him the sense of time. Both these qualities are necessary
for the right comprehension of the world. Geography provides accurate knowledge of lands and people to
the students. The knowledge gained by the students through geography helps him to understand the
conditions under which the people of other lands live and work. It widens his mental horizons.
(2) Primary Needs: The natural environment offers its gifts in the form of natural resources. Man
exploits these resources for his good life and living, but the rate at which these resources are utilized
varies from country to country and region to region. The utilization of these resources depends upon his
number, economy and stage of technological advancement. This is the common Endeavour of mankind,
irrespective of the fact, whichever part he has occupied. All the people have similar basic needs (like food,
clothing and shelter) and they are involved in constant struggle to find ways and means of satisfying them.
Here we share the experiences with other countries of the world. The sharing of experiences takes place
between advanced and the developing nations and also between developing and underdeveloped
countries. Increased yield of food crops, problems involved in dry farming, oil exploration and the like are
some of the many fields, where nations share their experiences.
(3) Interdependence: Relief and climatic conditions combine together to give rise to varying
environments in different parts of the world. Each part specializes for the cultivation of specific crops for
which it is best suited. Similarly different countries are endowed with different mineral wealth in varying
proportions. A study of the geography of the world presents a true picture of a country or a region in this
regard and reveals the interdependence and complementary nature of each unit. The exports and imports
of a country indicate its areas of surplus and insufficient production. The disparity in the level of
production and consumption is the basis of international trade. This interdependence is increasing day by
day. No country of the world is self-sufficient in its requirements.
Thus the teaching of geography makes us understand that international co-operation is the secret of
peace, progress and prosperity and hence international understanding is the main objective of teaching of
geography.
Status of home region in the teaching process of Geography
Home area or local area constitutes that a part of the earth’s surface, where the pupil lives and grows,
with which he is in daily contact, where he sees the physical processes at work where he sees the people
living and earning their living. Home geography is the study of local area or home area.
Home area serves as geographical laboratory. In its geographical facts, concepts, phenomena and
interrelationships can be studied directly. Local geography or home geography has great significance in
the teaching of general geography. Let us study it under the following heads:
(1) Trains in Methodology: Every discipline has its specific methodology and students may be suitably
trained in it. The main aspects of geographical methodology are: to observe, to record and to interpret.
This procedure is to be put to practical use during the study of home geography. It provides pupils with
ample opportunities to get training in geographical methodology.
(2) Develops Vocabulary: Every subject is characterized by its specific vocabulary, which gives it
precision and definiteness. Geography is no expectation to this rule. Since most of the terms of geography
are concerned with natural environment, no amount of explanation, alone can make these meaningful for
an average learner. They are to be seen to understand. If students are given chance to observe the various
processes, facts, phenomena, and features in the local area, he will acquire a great deal of geographic
vocabulary.
(3) Standard of Reference: Like other subjects, while teaching a teacher must proceed from known to
unknown. In geography teaching, known area is home region. In this connection it becomes the focal point
of study. In his day to day teaching a teacher has refer to some facts, and features in order to make the
students understand the geographical facts and figures of far of lands. The local region becomes standard
of reference for teaching and learning of geography. It makes geography teaching easy and interesting.
(4) Observe Relationship: Home geography provide a direct learning experience to the pupils. In the
home region he is observing the relationship that exists between the elements of natural environment and
also between the natural environment and cultural environment. By finding the relationship, he is working
out the geography of the local area.
(5) Sense of Reality: If geography teaching is confined to four walls of class room, the children will get an
impression that it is something, which has place only in books. Home geography or local area provides
pupils with an opportunity to see the physical processes at work and to see the people working and
earning their living. He comes to realize that subject matter of geography is realistic and contemporary.
There are lands which really exist and people who actually live and work.
Objectives of Geography at Secondary Level
Instructional objectives of teaching geography at secondary level are summarized below:
(1) Knowledge: It is defined as the remembering of previously learned material. It represents the
lowest level of learning outcomes in the cognitive domain. In geography knowledge is concerned with the
remembering of geographical facts, events, terms, concepts, principles, generalizations, hypothesis,
problems, methods, trends, symbols, tools, techniques, processes etc.
The student in acquisition of knowledge is expected to:
a. Recall terms, facts, events, concepts, principles, symbols etc
b. Recognize terms, principles, concepts, events, symbols etc
c. Indicate information on maps, charts, diagrams, graphs etc
d. Read information in various forms such as charts, maps, diagrams, graphs, tables etc
(2) Comprehension: Comprehension is defined as the ability to grasp the meaning of material. It
represents the lowest level of understanding. For comprehension knowledge is necessary. Comprehension
is one step beyond knowledge.
In comprehension the students are expected to:
a. Translate from one form of communication to another.
b. Distinguish and differentiate between facts and terms.

c. Compare and contrast.
d. Explain different terms, concepts etc.
e. Summarize.
f. Cite illustrations.
g. Detect and rectify errors.
h. Identify relationship between causes and effects.
i. Interpret data presented in various forms.
j. Identify underlying assumptions.
(3) Application: Application is the ability to use the learned material in new and concrete situation.
Application is only possible when the student possess knowledge and comprehension. Knowledge and
comprehension are the pre-requisites of application. Learning outcomes in this area require higher degree
of understanding than those of comprehension.
The student in application step is expected to:
a. Analyze the situation to identify the problem.
b. Select relevant knowledge to explain a new situation or solve a problem.
c. Judges adequacy, relevance, essentiality, verifiability etc of data or any other evidences.
d. Re-organizes the material in a new situation.
e. Establishes relationships.
f. Formulates hypothesis.
g. Verifies hypothesis.
h. Draw inferences.
i. Generalize principles, laws etc.
j. Predict outcomes in a given situation.
(4) Skills: Skill is an instructional objective which finds its place in co native or psychomotor domain. In
this domain the students are expected to:
a. Draws maps, sketches, diagrams and geographical structure to present geographical information.
b. Presents models, tools and apparatus etc.
c. Handles tools and geographical apparatus.
d. Makes observation in an accurate manner.
(5) Interest: Interests form a part of affective domain. The students of geography are said to develop
interest in geography if they perform activities like:
a. Read literature of the subject geography.
b. Collect geographical information from various sources, i.e. books, magazines, journals and
newspapers.
c. Desire to know the lands and people of the different of the country as well as the world.
d. Participate in geographical tours, field trips, excursions, surveys etc.
e. Collect specimens and pictures of geographical interest.
f. Advances relevant geographical reasons to explain various human activities and natural
phenomena.
g. Visits places of geographical interests.
h. Pursues hobbies related to the study of geography such as model making, photography,
cartography, surveying etc.
(6) Attitudes: The subject matter of geography is man and his environment. Through geography, the
students are expected to develop positive attitude towards people and the environment. The students are
said to have developed positive attitude when they;
a. Recognize the contribution of various people of the world living in different parts of the world in
the development of modern civilization.
b. Recognize the significance of interaction between man and his environment.
c. Recognize the interdependence of states, regions and countries of the world.
d. Exhibit, sympathy and love for all the people of the world.
e. Considers national problem in interaction context.
f. Realizes the importance of judicious exploitation and conservation of the available natural
resources.
The above mentioned adjectives make it clear, what is the purpose of teaching geography at the secondary
level. The teacher of geography is expected to realize these behavioral outcomes through the teaching of
geography. The instructional objectives give direction to the activities of the teacher.
Unit—II: Instructional Planning
Lecture method of teaching in Geography
Lecture method of imparting instructions is teacher dominated. Lecture is the method of communicating
directly to the students where the talking by teacher is the most predominant activity.
Lecture can be talking to the students or talking with the students, when it is talking to it takes the form
of one way communication in which teacher plays the active role and remains the focus of the class. When
it is talking with it takes the form of two way communication. In this kind, lecture becomes a question-
answer or discussion activity instead of merely giving information.
Lecture once considered the sole source of information, is now being treated as one of the different
sources of information available to the learners. But lecture has edge over other sources of information.
Apart from its major function of information giving, it plays certain unique roles, which cannot be
performed by other unanimated sources. Firstly, the teacher may use it to motivate the students. It is
through listening to lecture, that students are attracted to different areas of study, secondly, the teacher
may use it to integrate various sources of information and uses it as a thread which brings the different
sources of information into one garland.
Merits of Lecture Method
1. Lecture method is economic method of teaching.
2. It is very useful for teaching large classes.
3. Through Lecture method, the syllabus can be covered quickly.
4. It is very useful for motivating the students and integrating the different sources of information.
5. It saves time as well as energy of the students.
Demerits of Lecture Method
1. This method is teacher dominated method of imparting instructions to the learners
2. This method doesn’t take into consideration individual differences. The teacher expects below
average, average and above average students to learn at the same place, which is not possible.
3. This method is not useful for obtaining psychomotor objectives.
4. In this method the students are passive listeners and not active participants. It is unpsychological
5. Lecture strategy spoon feeds the learners and there is no room for self-study.
Project method of teaching in Geography
John Dewey was an American Philosopher, psychologist and a practical teacher. He was pragmatist. The
project method is the direct outcome of his philosophy.
Project method is a self-learning method. In this method student plays a major role. It is student
dominated method.
The dictionary meaning of the word project is a scheme or a design. Several authors have defined the
concept of project. But one of the most comprehensive definition was given by Good (1973). According to
Good, “Project is a significant practical unit of activity having educational value and aimed at one or more
definite goals of understanding, involving investigation and solution of problems and frequently the use
and manipulation of physical materials, planned and carried to completion by pupils and teachers in
natural, real life manner”.
The project provides real life experience to the pupils. It helps them to plan, to observe and to
conceptualize. It entails the involvement of the both the teachers and the students. It tends to develop self-
learning habits in the learners. The learners learn to solve certain kinds of problems systematically.
Aims of Projects
The aims of projects can be broadly divided into the following categories:
(1) Knowledge: Working on a project enables a learner to develop knowledge of his topic, and various
techniques used in the area of study. He knows about the methodology used in the discipline. The learner
understands the difficulties in solving the problems. These problems may be related to time, material,
labor, cost etc.
(2) Skills: The project develops the following skills in learners:
(a) Skill for independent work :The skill for independent work are independent thinking, working
habits, initiative and resourcefulness, plan work, analyze factors in solving a problem, hunt for sources,
collection of data, select relevant materials, fabricate experiments, manipulate instruments, make keen
observation, analyze results, synthesize findings, generalization, present his findings and communicate
them properly.
(b) Skill for group work: Very often project work is done in groups, while working in a group the people
develop the ability to co-operate and manage the people. Good projects provide the opportunity to
develop fellows’ feelings and democratic outlook.
(c) Skill for communication: Project work develops in learners communication skills through variety of
activities. It develops oral skills by argument and discussion with colleagues and supervisors.
3. Personality Attributes: Project work also inculcates various personality attributes in learners. The
personality attributes include higher mental abilities like critical thinking, creative thinking, evaluating
ability, analytical thinking etc. the project work thus help in cognitive development in the learners.
Merits of Project Method
(1) The students have a clear picture of the project and the aims and they continue to work accordingly.
(2) In this method, there is a good deal of activity and so the knowledge is founded on solid base.
(3) Since the students have to work in realistic circumstances, they develop an attitude of realism.
(4) In projects, the students get a pragmatic education. They learn various things with reference to their
utility in life and so they acquire a pragmatic attitude towards life.
(5) Since the projects have a bearing on life, the students also develop an attitude of interest for life.
Demerits of Project Method

1) Project requires lot of time.
2) It does not provide sufficient knowledge to the students.
3) It is expensive method, because it requires tours, excursions, purchasing of equipments and

instruments.
4) The project work has the tendency to upset the regular time table.
5) This method is not suitable for handicapped children.
Discussion method of teaching in Geography
Discussion method of instructional strategy is a co-operative method in which the teachers and the
learners are active participants. It is also a democratic method because the participants are free to express
their views and opinions. In the discussion there is exchange of opinions accompanied by search for
factual basis. The participants are involved in competitive co-operation. It is the process of collective
decision making. It aims at uniting and integrating the work of the class. Discussion encourages the
students to use their experiences for further clarification and consolidation of learning materials. They are
active participants in discussion. Teachers’ job is to provide guidance to the students activities. A good
discussion is well planned and well mannered conversion and as such participants must be courteous,
clear, good natured, tolerant and sincere.
Discussion involves study and preparation, selection and organization of subject matter, exchange of
ideas and learning procedures. It involves valuable training to the students in reflective thinking.
Discussion may be formal or informal. In formal discussion proper schedule is prepared and certain
rules are observed. The informal discussion takes places informally, where discussion does not take places
informally, where discussions does not demand any schedule or observance of rules.
Advantages
1) Discussion helps to improve verbal-self expression. It provides opportunity to every participant to

express his views on the topic of discussion.
2) Discussion is a process of collective decision making.
3) The discussion method helps in developing higher mental abilities like critical or logical way of
thinking.
4) Discussion discourages role memory and craming. It provides right approach for acquiring
knowledge and information of the problem or topic.
5) Discussion develops right attitude, courtesy, clarity, patience, tolerance and sincerity among the
participants.
Limitations
1) Discussion strategy is not useful for all topics, problems and units of study.
2) It has greater chances for deviation from the main topic. It is likely to go off the track.
3) In discussion there is possibility for monopolization. Only a few students dominate and
monopolize the situation. A large number of participants do not participate in the discussion.
4) Too much of criticism may lead to unpleasant feelings. It may create emotional tension.
5) This method is not suitable for secondary classes but only suitable for higher classes.
Assignment method of teaching in Geography
This method is generally advocated for the teaching of Geography in higher classes. The whole syllbus is
split into significant units, each unit is sub-divided into assignments. The students are usually required to
prepare the assignments in writing. It is believed that written assignments help in organization of
knowledge, assimilation of facts and better preparation for examination. H. R. Douglass and others are of
the view, “The assignment represents one of the most important phases of teaching.”
Types of Assignments
(1) Preparatory Assignments: These assignments are meant for the purpose of circulation. The pupil can
be prepared for the work which is to follow on the next day. The preliminary pilot work will enable the
teacher to lead the class with ease and understanding.
(2) Problem Solving Assignment: Assignments can also be given on making and handling tools-as talking
reading and maintaining records. Converting recorded data into geographical tools for better and clear
understanding, preparing models and charts, interpreting graphs, diagrams and cartograms.
(3) Revisional Assignments: The assignment is given for providing drill to work done by the students,
for checking their retention and reproduction of facts, incidents, etc., of the topic and for checking the
understanding of the topic.
(4) Remedial Assignments: These assignments are devised in the light of pupils reactions to the three
types of assignments mentioned above. The purpose of these assignments is to remove weak points and
clear misunderstandings.
Advantages of the Assignment Method
(1) In this method the teacher can foresee the difficulties which the students may have to face in the
learning of the topic. Teacher can guid the students by intelligently putting thought provoking questions in
his assignments.
(2) This method enables the teacher to know the interests of his students in a particular subject area.
(3) He is also able to discover the specific abilities of the individual pupil which may be developed and
used for their own good.
(4) Assignment method is quite suitable for pupils of different ability levels-slow, average and gifted.
Problem Solving method of teaching in Geography
Whenever there is some obstruction in the learning-teaching situation, we say that there is some
problem. Yoakam and Simpson define it as, ‘a problem occurs in a situation in which a felt difficulty to act
is realised. It is a difficulty that is clearly present and recognised by the thinker. It may be a purely mental
difficulty or it may be physical and involve the manipulation of data. The distinguishing thing about a
problem, however, is that it impresses the individual who meets it as needing a solution. He recognises it
as a challenge.’
Steps in Problem-Solving
1. The Formation and Appreciation of the Problem: The nature of the problem should be made very clear
to the students. The must also feel the necessity of finding out a solution for the problem.
2. The Collection of Relevant Data and Information: The students should be stimulated to collect data in
a systematic manner. Full co-operation of the students should be secured. They may be invited to make
suggestions as to how they could collect the relevant data. The teacher may suggest many points to them
he may ask them to read extra books. He may also ask them to organise a few educational trips to gather
the relevant information.
3. Organization of Data: The students should be asked to sift the relevant material from the superficial
one and put it in a scientific way.
4. Drawing of Conclusions: Discussions should be arranged collectively or individually with each pupil.
Panton suggests that the teacher’s aim ‘should be to secure that, as far as possible, the essential thinking is
done by the pupils themselves, and that their educative process produces the particular solution,
formulation of generalisations at stake.’ Care should be taken that judgment is made only when sufficient
data is collected.
5. Testing Conclusions: No conclusion should be accepted without being properly verified. The
correctness of the conclusion must be proved. The students must be taught to be critical, to examine the
‘truths’ which they, ‘discover’ to see ‘whether they fit all the known data.’ We should have our minds free
from every bias in the process of problem-solving.
Merits of Problem-Solving
1. It helps in stimulating thinking.
2. It develops reasoning power.
3. It helps to improve knowledge.
4. It helps in developing good study habits.
5. It affords opportunities for participation in social activities.
Demerits of Problem-Solving
1. Generally speaking problem-solving involves mental activity only. There is less of bodily activity.
2. Small children do not possess sufficient background information and therefore they fail to participate
in discussion.
3. There is a lack of suitable reference and source books for children.
4. It involves a lot of time and the teachers find it difficult to cover the prescribed syllabus.
Inductive method of teaching in Geography

Inductive method is a method in which general rules and principles are derived at by observing and
analyzing the specific facts and events. It should be remembered that teaching Maxims like from known to
unknown, from particular to general and from concreate to abstract are used in this method. In other
words while making use of this method the teacher presents different examples from their own
experiences before the students and with the help of these examples, the students are guided to come to
certain conclusions that may lead to the particular principles. By examining a number of examples the
students are encouraged to arrive at generalization or establish connection between the cause and effect.
Merits of Inductive Method
(1) Inductive method is a scientific method. it helps to develop scientific mindedness.
(2) This method develops scientific attitude among the students.
(3) This method is based on actual observation, thinking and experimentation.
(4) This method develops interest among the pupils by providing them challenging situations.
(5) It enables the students how to observe and how to come at certain conclusions.
Demerits of Inductive Method
(1) It is time consuming and laborious method.
(2) This method is not suitable for very small children.
(3) Only some generalizations can be discovered through inductive method.
(4) This method alone is incomplete.
(5) It is not possible to apply this method in solving and understanding all the topics of geography.
Deductive method of teaching in Geography
In deductive method we proceed from general to particular. Thus deductive is the reverse of induction.
In this method facts are deduced by the application of established formulae or experimentation. Here the
approach is confirmatory and not explanatory. In this method we proceed from-general to particular, from
abstract to concrete e.g. Hilly areas are cold, Simla is a hilly area, therefore Simla is cold.
In this method the students are told to accept a generalized truth or pre-constructed formulae or a fact
as well as established truth and then asked to apply it in solving so many particular relevant problems. In
other words, first the teacher presents the general principle before the students and then applies different
examples to prove the fact. Many educationists call it with different names. Prof. Bounding calls it
knowledge from knowledge and some call it analysis method.
Merits of Inductive Method
(1) This method is most useful for small children.
(2) It is applicable for all types of students.
(3) It is applicable in all the subjects including geography.
(4) It is more useful for practical life.

(5) This method leads to increase in efficiency and speed.
Demerits of Inductive Method
(1) This method encourages cramming.
(2) There is not much cordial relationship between the teacher and pupils.
(3) In a way this method is unscientific because the approach is merely confirmatory.
(4) This method is unpsychological because the students do not learn through their self-efforts.
(5) It does not develop self-dependence among the pupils because the teacher provides ready made
material.
Regional method of teaching in Geography
It was A. J. Herbertson who gave impetus to this method by dividing the whole world into broad climatic
regions. In present the natural region method has become the most common and universal method in
teaching the regional Geography either of the world or individual country or continent. Herbertson based
his classification on climate and vegetation. This naturally means that nearly all Geographical factors are
taken into account. His classification is of great value is sub-dividing the continents and in analyzing the
factors which influence human activities. Those countries which lie within these climatic divisions may
further be divided into structural zones.
Merits of Regional Method
(1) It is scientific, orderly and systematic method.
(2) It provides a better understanding of geography and economics on time and energy.
(3) It prepares the child to pursue independent study of geography which is very useful in individual
method of teaching.
(4) It contrasts physical, natural, social, economic and other phases of man’s life.
(5) It helps the child to understand the environment.
Demerits of Regional Method
(1) The boundaries of natural regions are not very clearly defined and one region therefore merges into
another.
(2) Sometimes we miss the smaller region while paying full attention to the broader regions. In this way
a very vital point is neglected.
(3) It is not possible to have a final division on regional basis.
Case study method of teaching in Geography
Case study is a learning practice that shifts the emphasis from lecture-based activities towards more
student-based activities. In general, teaching materials for case study can come from various sources.
Teaching materials can be a short journal or news article; they can be a scenario of problem solving and
decision making; they can be an open-ended question, a picture or even a diagram. The aim of case study is
to help students demonstrate the theoretical concepts in real-life issues. Students can also develop various
generic skills, such as decision making and practical skills through the case study. Case study can be
practiced either individually or as a group. Students are actively involved in the learning process because
they are required to produce solution and arguments for their study. Case study can reinforce the
traditional teaching and learning methods because it acts as a bridge between theory and practice.
Advantages of Case Study
(i) An opportunity to apply the theoretical concepts to a real-life scenario
(ii) Encourage active and group learning
(iii) Develop generic skills such as decision making, problem solving and collaboration skills
(iv) The mimic of real-life scenario may enhance students’ engagement to the subject
(v) Stimulate students to carry out independent research outside the classroom
(vi) Practice time management because students need to discuss and decide how to best carry out the
work in class
Disadvantages of Case Study
(i) Some teachers may be reluctant to change to this new teaching modules (prefer talk and chalk
approach)
(ii) Time consuming to look for or create a case
(iii) Students may be unfamiliar with this teaching and learning approach, teachers may need to take
some time to explain the instructions
(iv) Quieter students may find this approach challenging because they may have to work with other
students
Field Trips as a technique in the teaching of Geography
This is the most useful method of teaching of Geography. It is the best way to study geographical facts as
they exist. These trips serve a very useful purpose in the formulation of character of a student so that he
may not be a misfit in society. A good teacher can arrange a good number of opportunities of paying visits,
at least, to local places if not to distant areas. When students are taken out they may be encouraged to
observe carefully the physical phenomena and the social, economic and industrial conditions. The simplest
and important thing to observe is the natural objects like landscapes, land formation and different types of
soils. A journey of hilly area, to a river or of the sea-side may explain terms such as erosion, deposition,
shells, grade and U-shaped valleys, etc. similarly, a visit to a zoo may explain the habitation of plants and
animals and the natural conditions required for them. Thus a teacher can come across varied material for
the teaching of physical Geography.
Merits of Field Trips
(1) This method provides an outlet to the surplus energy of the adolescents and satisfies their instinct of
curiosity.
(2) It provides learning experiences which bring clarity, vividness and lend reality to theoretical
experiences gained in the classroom.
(3) This method not only provides training in leadership for various programmes of excursion but also
inculcates the spirit of cooperation among the students.
Demerits of Field Trips
(1) It is inconvenient and consumes time and money of the students. Every student cannot afford to go
on excursion to learn geography.
(2) It is no doubt, useful method but it is not possible to depend upon it for teaching everything.
(3) Most of the teachers lack initiative and they do not want to organize excursions.
Observation Method as a technique in the teaching of Geography
Geography is the study of man and his environment. Its subject matter is concrete and real. It can be
seen and studied anywhere and at any time if we choose it.
Geography has a peculiar methodology. This helps in carrying out the investigations efficiently. The
principal aspects of geographical methods are: to observe, to record and to interpret.
The technique of obtaining geographical information by direct observation is basic to the subject. By
observation a learner is brought in close contact with the geographical facts. We must bear in mind that
the books written on geography are based on the direct observation of the people who have visited
various countries or regions.
There are certain geographical facts, terms, concepts and processes, which needs direct observation and
without which it is not possible for the learners to understand these terms, facts and processes. Direct
observation aid where the teachers words fail.
Merits of Observation Method
1. Learning achieved by observation method is of higher quality.
2. By observing geographical facts children gain experience. According to Jhon Deway, “an ounce of
experience is better than ton of theory”.
3. Direct observation of geographical facts breaks the dullness and drabness of the classroom. It
makes the learning an enjoyable experience.
4. If geography teaching is confined to the four walls of classroom, the children get a notion that the
subject matter of geography is something which finds place only in books. Direct observations of
geographical facts make them feel that its subject matter is concrete and realistic.
5. Direct observation of geographical facts leaves the permanent impression on the plastic minds of
children.
Demerits of Observation Method
1. If this method is conducted aimlessly and for the purpose of entertainment only, it will degenerate
it aimless wondering.
2. This will upset the timetable and will affect the teaching of other subjects.
3. This method is not suitable for small children because they have not developed the power of
observation.
4. It is time consuming and entails great cost, which any Indian is not in a position to afford.
5. It needs trained teachers, which our schools don’t have.
Questioning Techniques in the teaching of Geography
The questioning is technique as well as method of teaching. It is given by Socrates. It serves various
purposes in the teaching learning situations. Questioning is also an important teaching skill. An effective
teacher employs questioning technique appropriately and also prepares good questions. In the
questioning skill the teaching of social sciences including geography, the teacher asks questions from the
pupils’ questions are put to the students at different stages of the lesson and the pupils answer these
questions. Which are supplemented and elaborated by the teacher. Questions are fundamental to the
concept of learning. They arouse mental activity. A good question is a key to all educative activity. A good
teacher must be a good questioner. It is the most effective instrument in the tool kit of a teacher to make
the teaching learning acitivity meaningful and effecetive. Teachers must acquire mastery over the art of
questioning. Questioning brings out relevant experiences already existing in the minds of pupils and help
in the formation of associations between the new knowledge and the old, thus integrating the two.
For framing good questions, the teacher must have mastery over the subject matter and the power of
clear and logical thinking. He must possess the skill of wording of the questions.
Characteristics of Questions
An effective teacher should be able to construct and to use good questions. Preparation of good
questions requires insight, experience mental ability and awareness of teaching problems. Teaching is
very social and dynamic activity. A teacher should have the full understanding of good questions. The
following are the main characteristics of good questions.
1. The language of questions should be good and simple.
2. The form of the question should be straight forward. There should not be ambiguity.
3. The question should have the definite meaning.
4. The question should be in logical sequence. It should be psychologically workable.
5. The questions should be thought provoking.
6. The question should serve the purpose of teaching learning.
7. The questions should have utility from learners and content point of view.
Broad objectives of Content Analysis
The term ‘Content Analysis’ has been defined I.K. Davies “It is the analysis of topic or content unit to be
taught into its constituents or elements and arrange them in a logical sequence”. A content is broken down
into elements. Each element may be performed by using specific tactics and the specific objectives can be
realized. The elements are arranged in a logical sequence so that positive transfer of learning can be
facilitated. The teacher has to employ his imagination, creativity and insight in synthesizing the elements
of the content.
Methods of writing objectives in behavioral terms
There are many approaches for writing behavioural objectives, but the approach of Robert Mager and
Robert Miller are more prominent. Robert Mager's approach is the most popular approach. He
concentrates on cognitive and affective objectives. In his approach he has given emphasis on action verbs
rather than mental process. According to Mager, instructional objectives are best described in terms of
terminal behaviour expected from the learners. He considers that clear objective should be formulated in
the following manner:
(i) Identify the terminal behaviour by its naming.
(ii) Define the desired behaviour by describing the important conditions under which the behaviour will
be expected to occur.
(iii) Specification of the criteria of acceptance performance by describing how will the learner perform
to be considered acceptable.
Mager's approach has adopted Bloom's taxonomy as a starting base for formulating the objectives. He
has used associated action verbs for stating the different objectives as follow -
Associated Action Verbs for the Cognitive Domain
1. Knowledge Define, list, label, name, recall, recognise, reproduce, state, select, write, underline etc.
2. Comprehension Classify, change, distinguish, explain, formulate, Identify, Illustrate, Indicate,

Interpret, Justify, name, select, summarize, Translate etc.
3. Application Assess, change, choose, construct, compute, demonstrate, discover, explain, establish, find,
modify, illustrate, predict, perform, solve, use, etc.
4. Analysis Analyse, associate, compare, contrast, conclude, criticise, differentiate, justify, identify etc.
5. Synthesis Argue, conclude, derive, discuss, generalize, integrate, organise, prove, relate, restate,
summarize, synthesize etc.
6. Evaluation Associate, choose, compare, criticise, conclude, define, evaluate, judge, relate, support,
verify etc.
Unit Plan
Though syllabus is prescribed for each class, yet the teacher is at liberty to draw up his own teaching
syllabus. It is best to organize the teaching syllabus around a few broad areas of experience of students.
For this purpose the syllabus is divided into a number of units. According to dictionary meaning a unit is a
major sub-division of a course of study or subject field.
According to Mossison, “Unit is a comprehensive and significant aspect of environment of an organized
science and art”.
According to Wesley and Wronky, “The unit is an organized body of information and experience
designed to effect significant outcome for the learner”.
Characteristics of a Unit
(1) A unit is a purposeful organization of a part of aspect of subject matter.
(2) It is organized around some problem.
(3) Its content material is according to the related subject or an aspect of it.
(4) It does not include only bookish subject matter, but also some useful activities
(5) All the aspects of a subject are included in it making it very comprehensive.
(6) Its organization is logical.
(7) It is developed according to experiences of the pupils.
(8) It is developed with the cooperation of the pupils.
(9) It should include those activities and content matter which are helpful in developing their creativity.
Advantages of Unit Planning
(1) It gives training for systematic thinking and establishing relationship.
(2) As knowledge is presented in combination, learning is facilitated. Each thing is learnt in a unit gains
meaning on account of its having been studied in proper context.
(3) Unit planning leads to proper traits and outcomes.
(4) Learning becomes functional.
(5) Provides group situations.
(6) There is a scope for effective use of supplementary material.
Lesson Planning
A lesson plan is a plan of action. It includes the working philosophy of teacher, his knowledge of
philosophy, his information about and understanding of his pupils, his comprehension of the objectives of
education, his knowledge about the materials to be taught and his ability to utilize the effective methods or
procedures.
Lesson planning is a brief outline of the main points of the lesson to be covered by the teacher in a
specified period for the realization of specified objectives. It indicates clearly what already has been done,
what the pupils are to do, how the pupils are to be engaged in various activities and what activities are to
be pursued. It is a clear and precise statement of aims and purposes of the lesson and the various
techniques and devices used by the teacher.
Importance of Lesson Planning

1. Lesson planning helps a teacher to define his aims and objectives more clearly. The teacher thinks
of ways and means with which he can realize his aims most effectively.
2. It helps a teacher in the selection and organization of subject matter, materials and activities,
according to the abilities, aptitudes and development level of students.
3. Lesson plan helps a teacher in the selection of most effective teaching procedure, which will lead to
the modification of pupils’ attitudes, habits and information in desirable direction.
4. Lesson planning helps a teacher to evaluate the outcomes of instructions. Evaluation is very
important part of teaching-learning process. Evaluation is possible if definite aims and objectives are kept
in mind.
5. Lesson planning helps a teacher to be systematic and prevents wastage. It saves him from
haphazard teaching. Needless repetions are avoided.
6. Lesson planning establishes proper connection between the different lesson or the units of study.
Thus it encourages continuity in the teaching process.
CLASS – VI LESSON PLAN

CHAPTER-2: GLOBE: LATITUDES AND LONGITUDES
Unit Globe: Latitudes and Longitudes

Class Total: 5 periods (approx. 40 min each)
Transaction
Pre-requisite This lesson requires
for the course 1. Basic knowledge of planets and solar system
2. Knowledge of earth, moon, sun etc.
Assessment of 1. Written test
qualifying 2. Group Discussion
3. HW notebook
knowledge
4. UT Plans/ Activities
Objective Students would be able to understand Latitudes and Longitudes, Heat Zones
of the earth and the relationship between time and longitude
Learning KNOWLEDGE- Students will know and understand
Outcomes 1. globe as the three-dimensional model of the Earth.
2. the advantages and disadvantages of globe.
3. the concept of latitudes and longitudes.
SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES- Students would be able
1. To Critically analyses heat zones on the basis of Latitude.

2. Collaboratively locate places on globe with the help of latitudes and
longitudes.
3. To clarify difference between the standard time and local time.
4. To identify relationship between longitude and time.
5. Answer knowledge and understanding questions based on the topic.
Differentiation- Difference between Latitude and Longitude.
(Competencies: Critical thinking, COLLABORATION and

COMMUNICATION)
Transaction Transaction would proceed in the following manner-

Methodology
Questioning- Multiple level question- Teacher will prepare a list of question
(The teacher related to the topic (Critical thinking, Communication)
can use the
mentioned Brain Storming-The class would start with a discussion on what the students
techniques, have already learnt in the previous classes and hence what is it that they
wherever would learn now. They would also be told the significance of the topic that
they would be studying.
applicable, and
can use any Introduction of the topic- PPT and Digital Content would be shared
other too.) Guided practice followed by Independent Practice- Spiral questions to be
discussed in the classroom.
Techniques to be used:
Quiz
Daily Practice Problem
MCQ
Peer Assessment
Student -teacher interaction,
Wipro- G.O.s(web chart, flow chart and differentiation table, compare- contrast
matrix),
silent reading,
collaborative learning,
Research work/surveys
Resources Text Book:

NCERT text book –The Earth Our Habitat
Self-Study, Independent Practice: Students would do the questions in their H.W

Home Work, notebooks as mentioned in the monthly planner.
Assignments HW notebooks to be marked as per the given plan:
Assessment Parameters: The total marks for the activity is 5 marks
On time submission………………………………1 mark
Presentation/ Neatness……………………………1 mark
Content……….………………………………......3 marks
It is also advised that the students come to the class with proper background
knowledge of the topic under discussion. They can refer to the resources
stated above.
Assessments Oral Test (5 minutes)

Addressing It’s a different classroom today: As the kids are from different socio-
Classroom economic background, so are their needs, demands and aspirations. Today all
kinds of students including the gifted, the average and the differently able are
Diversity
mainstreamed into one class. So, the teaching learning process must be
devised in such that can cater to the needs and aspirations of students of
abilities
. The following techniques can be used for different groups:
For gifted students:

• Higher order questions to be done
• Preparing a debate
• Making PPT
• Designing an exhibit
• Writing a report
• Preparing a talk
• Encouragement for referring other resources
For weak students:

• Basic understanding questions to be completed
• Buddy help to be provided
• Provide grade-up classes
• Making a Chart/diagram/poster/ flashcards
For differently abled students:

• Ignore spelling mistakes and formulae, if not written
• Call parents at regular intervals
• Provide grade-up classes
Assessment 1. Describe the importance of Equator in three points.
Questions 2. Describe the shape of the earth.
3. Distinguish between latitudes and Longitudes.
4. Compare the three heat zones on the basis of Location and
Temprature of the Earth.
5. What is the difference between Standard Time and Local time?
Marks The weightage would be given by CBSE.
CLASS – VI
DAY WISE CONSOLIDATED LESSON PLAN
SUBJECT: GEOGRAPHY SESSION: 2019-20
Topic DAY 1- What is a Globe?

Class 40 min each
Transaction
Pre-requisite for This topic requires Basic knowledge of a Globe.
the course
Assessment of The facilitator introduces the chapter by using a globe.
qualifying It will be followed by Brain Storming-The class would start with a discussion
on what the students have already learnt in the previous classes and hence
knowledge what is it that they would learn now i.e. latitudes and longitudes. They would
also be told the significance of the topic that they would be studying. It will
be followed by Class discussion for 5 minutes and reading of the chapter till
page no. 10 & 11, Diagram representation of globe by the teacher where she
will explain about parallels of latitudes.
Objective Student will be able to understand more about Latitudes and Longitudes.
Learning KNOWLEDGE- Students will know and understand more about globe. What
Outcomes are latitudes and longitudes.
SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES- Students would be able to perform:
Map and Globe Activity.
Involving the Competencies –
Creative thinking
Collaboration
Communication

Methodology Map and Globe Activity. (Collaboration, Communication)
(The teacher Guided practice followed by Independent Practice- NCERT questions to be
can use the discussed in the classroom.
mentioned
techniques, Techniques to be used:
wherever Quiz
applicable, and Daily Practice Problem
MCQ
can use any Peer Assessment
other too.) Student -teacher interaction,
matrix),
silent reading,

NCERT text book for Social Science.
Self-Study, Independent Practice: Questions related to topic covered in the class.

Home Work,
Assignments
DAY 2 Topic- Heat zones of the earth-Torrid zone
Class 40 min
Transaction
Pre-requisite for The facilitator will conduct One-minute quiz to recap the learning of
the course previous day and check the understanding. She will ask the questions given
below:
RECAP
• What is an axis?
• What is an equator?
• The total number of latitudes are .
Assessment of Facilitator asks the students to write down:

qualifying • What are parallels of latitude?
knowledge • Which line divides the earth into two equal parts?
• What is the degree of north and south pole?
Objective Given the content (topic) the students will be able to learn about the heat
zones of the earth-Torrid zone.
Learning KNOWLEDGE- Students will know and understand about:
Outcomes
Temperate zone and Frigid zone.

Creative thinking
Collaboration
Communication

Methodology
She will then explain the lesson with the help of a globe. Class discussion for
(The teacher
5 minutes will take place followed by the reading of the chapter. The teacher
can use the elaborates the heat zones of the earth-Torrid zone, Temperate zone and Frigid
mentioned zone. The teacher elaborates the longitudes and prime meridian with the help
techniques, of diagrams. (page no. 12,13)
wherever Draw diagrams (Communication, Collaboration)
applicable, and
Techniques to be used:
can use any
Quiz
other too.) Daily Practice Problem
silent reading,

Content……….………………………………......3 marks
stated above.
DAY 3 Topic- Latitudes and Longitudes

Class Transaction (approx. 40 min each)
Pre-requisite for RECAP
the course • Do we have same time in all over the world?
• Why do we have different time?
Assessment of Facilitator will ask the students about:

qualifying • Do we have same time in all over the world?
knowledge • Why do we have different time?
Objective Given the content (topic) the students will be able to explain the difference
between latitudes and longitudes.
Outcomes Students will be able to differentiate between latitude and longitudes.

Creative thinking
Collaboration
Communication

Methodology
(The teacher can The facilitator will use digital content and explain the topic- why do we have
use the mentioned standard time. It will be followed by explanation and reading of the chapter
and explanation of latitude and longitudes.
techniques,
wherever Guided practice followed by Independent Practice- NCERT questions to be
applicable, and discussed in the classroom.
can use any other
too.) Techniques to be used:
Quiz
MCQ
Peer Assessment
matrix),
silent reading,
Closure Summarization by students with the help of web chart
Self Study, Home Independent Practice: Questions related to the topic done in the class.
Work,
Assignments
DAY 4 Topic- Time zones of the world

Class approx. 40 min each
Transaction
Pre-requisite for She will ask the questions given below:
the course • What is the difference between the location of Tonga Island and
Mauritius Island?
• Are they located on same latitudes?
• Then how they are different?
Assessment of The facilitator will share the PPT and Digital Content of the chapter and
qualifying elaborate the topic-Time zones of the world & Longitude and time (page no.
14,15-para-4). It will be followed by Class discussion for 2 minutes to recap
knowledge
the learning of previous day and check the understanding.
Objective Given the content (topic) the students will be able to understand the
difference between Standard time and Local time.
Outcomes Students will be able to
• Understand the Time Zones of the World.
• Discuss the importance of Standard Time.
SKILLS AND COMPETENCIES- Students would be able to
• Discuss about different time zones of the world (Critical thinking,

Communication)
Methodology
Questioning- Multiple level question- Teacher will prepare a list of question
(The teacher related to different time zones of the world (Critical thinking,
can use the Communication)
mentioned
techniques, Introduction of the topic- PPT and Digital Content would be shared
wherever
applicable, and Guided practice followed by Independent Practice- NCERT questions to be
discussed in the classroom.
can use any
other too.) Techniques to be used:
Quiz
Questioning
silent reading,


Content……….………………………………......3 marks
stated above.
DAY 5 Topic- Equator and its importance.
Class (approx. 40 min each)
Transaction
Pre-requisite for RECAP
the course • Why do we have standard time?
• What is the importance of equator?
Assessment of Facilitator will conduct Ball Toss to recap the learning of previous day and
qualifying check the understanding.
knowledge
Objective Given the content (topic) the students will be able to explain about the
Equator.
Outcomes Students will be able to know about the equator and its importance.

Methodology DOL1,2,3
Anticipatory Set: 10 min
(The teacher Facilitator will ask few questions to introduce the topic
can use the
mentioned Guided practice followed by Independent Practice- NCERT questions to be
techniques, discussed in the classroom.
wherever
applicable, and Discussion of topic through Collaborative Learning: 15 min
can use any Techniques to be used:
other too.) Quiz
MCQ
Peer Assessment
matrix),
silent reading,

Closure Summarization by students with the help of web chart

Self-Study, Independent Practice: Questions related to the topic done in the class.
Home Work,
Assignments
Unit-III: Evaluation
Objectives of evaluation in Geography
Evaluation is defined as the estimation of growth and progress of the students towards accepted
objectives and values. Evaluation process involves, testing the comprehension of the subject matter
by the pupils. Evaluation helps a teacher to know, how far teaching-learning process remained
effective.
The main objectives of evaluation in geography for the secondary stage are:
1) Knowledge
2) Comprehension
3) Application
4) Skills.
(1) Knowledge: It is defined as the remembering of previously learned material. It represents the
lowest level of learning outcomes in the cognitive domain
In geography knowledge is concerned with the remembering of geographical facts, events, terms,
concepts, principles, generalizations, hypothesis, problems, methods, trends, symbols, tools,
techniques, processes etc.
(2) Comprehension: Comprehension is defined as the ability to grasp the meaning of material. It
represents the lowest level of understanding. For comprehension knowledge is necessary.
Comprehension is one step beyond knowledge.
In compression the students are expected to:
a. Translate from one form of communication to another.
b. Distinguish and differentiate between facts and terms.
c. Compare and contrast.
d. Explain different terms, concepts etc.
e. Summarize.
(3) Application: Application is the ability to use the learned material in new and concrete
situation. Application is only possible when the student possess knowledge and comprehension.
Knowledge and comprehension are the pre-requisites of application. Learning outcomes in this
area require higher degree of understanding than those of comprehension.
The student in application step is expected to:

a. Analyze the situation to identify the problem.
b. Select relevant knowledge to explain a new situation or solve a problem.
c. Judges adequacy, relevance, essentiality, verifiability etc of data or any other evidences.
d. Re-organizes the material in a new situation.
(4) Skills: Skill is an instructional objective which finds its place in co native or psychomotor
domain. In this domain the students are expected to:
a. Draws maps, sketches, diagrams and geographical structure to present geographical

information.
b. Presents models, tools and apparatus etc.
c. Handles tools and geographical apparatus.
d. Makes observation in an accurate manner.
Design of Question Paper (Blue Print)
A blue print is more detailed document on which question paper is based. While different blue
print can be prepared from the same design, a number of question paper based on the same blue
print will be be more or less parallel.
Design of Question Paper (Blue Print)
Design is the basic layout or pattern of the question paper. Design is based on the following policy
decisions:
1. Weightage to the Instructional Objectives: While designing the question paper, a paper setter
has to consider the weightage to be given to the instructional objectives. The instructional
objectives are knowledge, comprehension, application and skills in which student’s level of
achievement can be tested by a test.
2. Weightage given to the form of Questions: The question paper must contain all the types of
questions i.e. essay type, short answer type, supply type and selection type like multiple choice
type, true false type and matching type. Due weightage should be awarded to the different forms of
questions.
3. Weightage to the Content: While designing a question paper due weightage should be given to
the content according to its need and importance. For example the Central Board of School
Education has prescribed the weightage to the content portion at 10th class level or secondary
level.
4. Weightage to the difficulty level: While framing the question paper easy, average and difficult
questions should be framed in proportion. The proportion of questions should be easy=20%,
average=50% and difficult=30%.
Characteristics of a Good Question Paper
1. It should test the pre-determined objectives.
2. It should specify a particular task.
3. It should indicate the length of the answer.
4. It should indicate time and marks allotted to each question.
5. The content should be closely related to the objectives being tested.
6. It should have simple and comprehensible language.
7. It should have difficulty level according to the level of the class.
8. It should have a discriminating value to differentiate between below average, average and
above average students.
Advantages and Disadvantages of Essay type questions
Essay type questions are subjective in nature. These questions require long answers from
students. It gives them considerable freedom of response. The students answering these questions
are free to select, organize and present the ideas in their own words. The learning outcomes that
may be expected of students through such a question are related to complex set of behavior, which
involve selection and organization relevant ideas and ability to express them in their own words.
An essay type test by its very nature can include only a few questions say 4 to 5 to be answered in
two or three hours. The ability like interpret, argue, explain, analyze and evaluate can be tested
through essay type questions. The subjectivity of the essay type tests can be reduced by devoting
sufficient time in constructing such questions, defining the directions and scope of answer desired,
preparing a tentative scoring key before hand and adopt techniques of reduce scoring errors.
The essay type questions are characterized by the following directional words – discuss, describe,
compare, contrast, state, evaluate, explain, elucidate, elaborate etc.
Advantages
1. The essay type tests are easy to prepare.
2. This type of test provides the examinee a scope to express his knowledge, attitude and
skills.
3. Essay type tests provide a chance to examinee to express his ability. He finds an opportunity
to use words, phrases, analysis, application of rules, principles etc.
4. The tests measure the creativity worth of students.

5. It fosters sound study habits.
Disadvantages
1. These tests are subjective in nature and require longtime and duration to answer and score.
2. These tests encourage cramming habits among the students.
3. It encourages selective study on the part of students.
4. These also suffer from validity because these are not generally objective based tests.
5. These also suffer from practicability and are not easy to administer.
Advantages and Disadvantages of short answer type questions in Geography
In the short answer type questions, the answer is to be given by the examinee. These questions
require brief to the point and limited short answers. Generally the length of the answer is specified.
These questions are thought provoking and to the point these questions offer a greater degree of
objectivity than other evaluating techniques. These can be easily constructed by a teacher. The
answer to these questions can be correctly administered. The scoring of these questions takes less
time. More questions of such type can be asked within the same time limit. These questions help in
covering maximum number of topics.
Advantages
1. These are easy to design.
2. Scoring is less subjective and easy.
3. The question paper becomes comprehensive and it covers entire syllabus.
4. This type of test discourages selective study.
5. This type of test can be used in almost all the objectives of teaching.
Disadvantages
1. These tests do not provide students chance to organize and present their ideas.
2. These tests cannot be used to measure the creative worth of students.
3. Personality traits cannot be known through short answer type tests.
4. The students do not find good chance to explain the meaning of words, phrases and
application of principles etc.
5. The proficiency in the language development remains unexplored.

Advantages and Disadvantages of objective type questions in Geography
The tests which require students to write definite and precise answers or to select the correct
answer from the given set of alternatives are called objective type tests.
The objective type tests can be divided into two broad categories:
1. Supply type tests and
2. Selective type tests.
(1) Supply Type Tests: The supply type tests require the students to supply rather than select
the answers. The students have to write the answers by supplying certain words to fill in the blank
spaces provided:
Supply type tests are of two types:
a. Very short answer type
b. Completion type.
(a) Very short answer type: In the very short answer type tests the answer is supplied by writing
a word. Example –
Q. Name the lowest layer of atmosphere
Ans. Troposphere
(b) Completion type: In the completion type, the student is supposed to complete the missing
word in the sentence. Example –
Q. ____________ is the capital of Rajasthan.
Ans. Jaipur
The student in the supply type test has to recall the answer.
(2) Selective Type Test: In the selection type tests, the students to recognize and select answers
from given set of alternatives. The given set of alternatives may range from to any number. The
selection type tests comprise of:
(a) True-false or Alternate Response type.
(b) Multiple choice type and
(c) Matching type tests.
(a) True-false or Alternate Response type tests: The true-false or Alternate Response type
questions have two possible answers. The students have to select the answer by recognizing the
statement to be true or false. Examples:
• Earth rotates from east to west (T/F)
• Mercury is the smallest planet of our solar system (T/F)
• Ghandinagar is the capital of Gujarat (T/F)
Scoring in such test is quite easy. There is a wide scope for guessing. In this type of test answer is
specified and pre-determined. These tests cannot be judged objectively. Suppose on a test of 50
items, a student has attempted 25 items correctly, one cannot know whether the student scoring is
due to guessing or it represents his actual learning outcome. These tests cannot be used to measure
the students’ knowledge. These tests can be said to possess high objectivity but low validity.
(b) Multiple choice type tests: In multiple choice type tests, the student is provided with more
than two choices from which he has to select the correct answer. The following is an example of
multiple choice type test:
The layer of the atmosphere which contains ions is:
i. Troposphere.
ii. Ionosphere
iii. Exosphere
iv. Thermosphere
In this type of test item, just as in true-false type, the student is not given any freedom to write his
answer, but he selects the best answer or correct answer from the given set of alternatives. Since
there is complete control over the student’s response, this test item is objective. Possibility of
guessing the correct answer is considerably reduced. It is better than true-false with respect to
reliability and objectivity.
A multiple choice questions consists of an incomplete statement or it can be given in the form of a
direct question. The direct question or the incomplete statement is called the stem of the item;
whereas suggested answers are called alternatives.
These questions are useful for measuring high learning outcomes, such as understanding,
application etc.
(c) Matching type tests: In the matching type tests a number of statements, phrases or words are
given in one column and a set of several alternatives are given in the another column. The students
are supposed to match the words, phrases or statements in the two sets. But the B column should
be longer than A column or the number of alternatives should be more than number of statements
or words or phrases.
Advantages
1. These tests provide an easy system of scoring.
2. These involve minimum of writing.
3. These can be used to cover the whole syllabus.
4. These develop thorough study habits.
5. These tests discourage craming and role memory.
Disadvantages
1. These tests are difficult to design or construct and require tremendous efforts on the part of
the paper setter.
2. These tests encourage guess work.
3. These tests cannot measure the student’s knowledge.
4. These tests fail to measure the personality traits.
5. The writing skill is not encouraged.
Importance of Continuous Evaluation
Most of the educationists consider evaluation as a continuous process of assessing the

achievements and abilities of students and analyzing the merits and demerits of the total education
system and providing feedback for its improvement. This process starts from the day the child is
admitted to the school, because as soon as he is admitted, the teachers have to arrange the teaching
learning process according to his needs and abilities keeping in view the objectives of education.
They have to continuously keep on observing and assessing whether the education process is
successful or not and whether the desired changes are taking place in the students or not. The tests
given at short interval are in-fact a part of evaluation. In short a continuous process of evaluation is
useful not only for students and teachers, but also for administrators, educationists and policy
makers. Its main advantages and importance are as follows:
(1) Ascertains the Progress of the Students: Evaluation is an index of student’s achievement. It
tells how much progress has been made by a student during a specified period of time and of what
quality. It tells the teacher whether he is progressing in the right direction whether the desired
changes are taking place among the students.
(2) Inspires and motivates students: Tests inspire the students normally students do not want to
study. But as soon as the test approaches they begin to study. If there are no tests, in which tests are
not held or the subjects in which it is not obligatory to pass students do not take interest in those
subjects. In this way tests inspire and motivate the students and they start learning.
(3) Diagnoses the weaknesses of Students: It is the duty of the teacher to guide the students. But
unless he knows the weaknesses of the students he can not guide them. The students must also
know their weaknesses for making progress. Most of the students fail to now their weaknesses in
day to day work. Those who know their weakness feel shy of telling them to their teachers. They try
to hide it which becomes a hindrance in their personality development. Continuous evaluation
makes them conscious of their weaknesses.
(4) Evaluation reveals the interests of the students: Evaluation indicates the interests of the
students in particular subjects. Then only teacher can try to improve upon those interests. It is only
on this basis that decision can be made about the future vocation of a student. Most of the parents
are unaware of the ability and interests of their wards and they have high expectations from them,
but evaluation tells them about the real position. Now a days emphasis is being given on
educational and vocational guidance. For this various Intelligence, Aptitude, Interest and
Achievement tests are given. All these are various methods of testing. It proves that evaluation tries
to know about abilities and interests of the students.
(5) Grades the Students: Evaluation helps in grading the students into different level or
categories. Which student is suitable for what level, is decided through evaluation. There are tests
at the end of each academic selected session and students achievements are evaluated. Those who
pass are promoted to the next class and those who fail have to repeat the course.
Significance of Construction of Achievement test items
A test is defined as a standardized situation designed to elicit a sample of individual’s behavior.
Tests are classified as;
1. Test of ability
2. Test of typical performance and
3. Educational achievement test.
Educational Achievement Test
Educational achievement test is designed to measure knowledge, comprehension, application and

skills in a specified subject or group of subjects. It also includes educational results as attitudes,
appreciations, ability to solve problems, to draw inferences from subject matter, to apply
generalization t specified situations and problems.
How to Construct Test Items
The following steps are involved in developing the balanced and objective based questions:
(1) Instructional Objectives: The instructional objectives include cognitive, affective and
psychomotor domain. Cognitive objectives include knowledge, comprehension, application, analysis
synthesis and evaluation. Affective objectives include habits, attitudes, interests, feelings, values,
thinking, appreciation etc. psychomotor or co-native objectives various types of skills.
Form of Questions: The questions have two forms.
Free response type.
Fixed response type.
The free response type include essay type or long answer type and short answer type questions.
The fixed response type or objective type questions include supply type tests and selection type
tests. In the supply type questions, the students are supposed to supply the answers. The selection
type tests include true-false type or alternate response type, matching type and multiple choice
types.
Thus, a balanced question paper must contain essay type, short answer type and selection type
questions.
(2) Content Analysis: A teacher must have deep and thorough knowledge of geography content, in
which questions are to be developed. Different content is needed for various types of items while
designing a question paper due weightage should be given to the content according to need and
importance.
(3) Language of Question: The language of questions should be simple, clear, concise and
unambiguous. The student must easily understand what the question asks.
(4) Directional Words: The questions must contain simple directional words like explain,
describe, discuss, etc. and not words like elucidate, elaborate, enumerate, outline etc.
(5) Difficulty Level: The question paper must contain easy, average and difficult questions. The
proportion of questions should be: easy=20%, average=50% and difficult=30%.
(6) Marking Scheme: Answer should be given in a Performa. It must contain marking scheme,
value points and total marks.
Unit—IV: General Geography of World
Natural Environment
Environment literally means surroundings of an object or an organism. The natural environment

in which man finds himself is composed of land, water and air constitute the physical environment
and plants and animals constitute biological environment of man. Man is dependent both on
physical and biological environment for his survival. Without natural environment survival of man
is impossible on the surface of the earth. The relationship between man and environment has
varied from the early periods of human settlement on the surface of the earth to the present day.
This relationship also varies from place to place.
Components of Environment
There are three basic components of environment. These include (1) Abiotic (Physical or
inorganic) components (2) Abiotic (organic) components, and (3) the component of energy.
The abiotic components consist of (i) Lithosphere (the physical space) (ii) Atmosphere (climate
etc) and (iii) Hydrosphere (water).
1. The Biosphere: That part of the earth where the life exists is known as biosphere. In fact, all
the three terms of environment, ecosystem and biosphere have been used to convey almost the
samething (meaning). Horizontally, the biosphere covers the entire globe, though the life may not
be possible in some of the hottest and coldest parts. Moreover, the earth has a total area of 510
Million km2 of which 71 % is covered by oceans and only 29% by the landmass. Vertically, the
biosphere extends from the deepest part of any ocean (about 36000 feet below the sea level) to at
least 32000 feet above the sea level (a height upto which some bacteria and fungi can be found
floating in the atmosphere).
The biosphere is a unique feature of the earth. Other planets, except probably Mars, are not likely
to have any trace of life.
Thus, the biosphere is essential both for the sustenance of life and march of human civilisation.
2. The Lithosphere: The word ‘lithosphere’ is generally restricted to the earth’s solid but
relatively thin crust which envelops the interior of the earth, viz., the barysphere. The average
thickness of the lithosphere is 60 kilometres. The thickness of the earth's crust is greater in the
continents than on the ocean floors. Rocks forming the earth's crust are of lower density than those
below the crust. The density increases with depth, and well-marked shells or layers may be
distinguished in the interior of the earth. Shells are (i) Sial, (2) Sima, and (3) Metallic Core. The core
of the earth is believed to be metallic, consisting predominantly of nickel and iron.
3. The Hydrosphere: Hydrosphere is another important component of the biospheric
environment. Water is essential for all types of life on the earth's surface. The term hydrosphere
refers to oceans plus their extension into other realms like water vapors in atmosphere, the lakes
and the rivers, water in the soil and in deep layers of water beneath the earth's surface (ground
water). The water locked up in ice caps and glaciers. The hydrosphere plays an important role in
the circulation of nutrients within various components of the environment. It is also responsible for
bio-geochemical cycle and hydrologic cycle.
Layering structure of Atmosphere
The air envelope that completely surrounds the earth is called the atmosphere. The earth is a
unique planet in that it has an atmosphere containing oxygen in abundance. This fact has been
responsible for the origin and growth of life on the earth. Though the atmosphere extends a little
beyond 1600 kilometers from the earth's surface, 99 per cent of the total mass of the atmosphere is
within 32 kilometers from the earth. The atmosphere is held to the earth by the gravitational pull.
The atmosphere is made up of a mixture of gases. An average sample of pure dry air consists of
nitrogen (78 per cent), oxygen (21 per cent) and argon (0.9 per cent). Other gases, such as carbon
dioxide, hydrogen, helium and ozone, are present in small quantities. The composition of the
atmosphere is relatively constant in the lower layers of the atmosphere. Besides these gases, the
atmosphere contains variable quantities of water vapor in the lower layers. Most of water vapour
content of the atmosphere is derived from the evaporation of water from oceans, rivers, lakes, etc.
Some of it gets condensed and gives rise to various forms of precipitation. Water vapour is an
important constituent of the atmosphere though it may not exceed 3 to 4 per cent of the total
volume of air at any given place. Clouds are visible evidence of the presence of water vapour in the
atmosphere. The water-vapor content of the atmosphere varies from place to place and from time
to time. Solid particles, like dust, carbon particles, salt, pollen grains, etc., are also found in the
atmosphere.
The atmosphere has maximum density near the earth’s surface and the density decreases with
height. There are four distinct layers in the atmosphere. The lowest layer is known as troposphere.
Most of the weather phenomena take place in the troposphere. In this layer, the temperature of air
decreases with height at an average rate of 10 C for 165 meters. The limit of the troposphere is a
height of 18 kilometers above the equator and about 8 kilometers above the poles.
Beyond the troposphere is a zone called the stratosphere in which temperature remains constant
and then gradually increases with height. The troposphere separates the stratosphere from the
troposphere. The stratosphere is free from clouds and the associated weather phenomena. It
provides ideal flying conditions for large jet airplanes. The thickness of the stratosphere is about
50-55 kilometers. The stratosphere has a rich layer of ozone. This layer absorbs harmful ultra-
violet radiation from the sun.
Above the stratosphere is the zone called ionosphere, containing electrically charged par¬ticles
called ions. These particles reflect radio waves back to the earth's surface and enable wireless
communication. The uppermost layer of the atmosphere is called the exosphere and its density is
extremely low. The exosphere extends beyond 1000 kilometres and gives way to inter-planetary
space.
The atmosphere acts as a blanket for the earth. The incoming solar radiation and outgoing
radiation from the earth are affected by the atmosphere. The water vapor and carbon dioxide in the
lower layers of the atmosphere absorb the heat radiated from the earth’s surface and keep the
atmosphere warm even during night. The extremes of temperature between day and night would
be much greater if there were no atmosphere. The differential heating up of the atmosphere by the
sun's rays produces circulation in the atmosphere leading to winds and precipitation. The plant and
animal life are in harmony with seasonal changes in weather phenomena.
Major Natural Regions of the World
Many schemes have been suggested for dividing the world into major natural regions. The
scheme suggested below takes into account the major regions which are easily defined.
1. Equatorial Region: This region extends from the equator to about 10° North and 10° South
latitudes. The region has hot and humid conditions throughout the year. The annual rainfall exceeds
150 centimeters. The forests contain broad-leaved evergreen trees with a variety of species. There
is a thick undergrowth of plants between the trees. The Amazon basin in South America, the Congo
basin in Africa, Malaysia and Indonesia are the main areas which belong to this region. The impact
of man on the environment is minimum in the Amazon basin where there are still large areas
almost entirely uninhabited by man. On the other hand, in the island of Java in Indonesia, forests
have been cleared and intensive cultivation supports a very high density of population.
2. Tropical or Savanna Grassland: This region extends on both sides of the equatorial region up
to about 25° North and South latitudes. The area experiences hot summers and warm winters.
Annual rainfall varies from 100 centimeters near the margins of the equatorial region to about 25
centimeters where it begins to merge with the hot desert regions. Rainfall also decreases from the
coast to the interior. The main areas are in Africa and South America. The most extensive type of
vegetation is tall, coarse grass. There may be scattered trees in the area. In areas of higher rainfall
and river valleys, trees are more numerous.
3. Monsoon Region: This natural region is spread over a wide latitudinal extent both in tropics
and temperate regions. The reversal in the wind direction with the change of seasons is its
characteristic feature. Winds become on-shore during summer bringing rains in their wake. During
winter winds become off-shore giving these lands cool and dry winters. Broad-leaved deciduous
trees are typical of this region. The Indian sub-continent, South-East Asia and parts of Australia are
the major monsoon regions of the world. The Asian monsoon region supports nearly half the
world’s total population.
4. Tropical Deserts: Tropical deserts occur on the western margins of continents on either side
of the Tropic of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. Summer temperatures are high throughout.
Annual rainfall is usually less than 25 centimeters and is highly variable. Scattered patches of
thorny shrubs or bushes are found. Large areas are barren, consisting of sandy or rocky deserts.
Sahara, Arabia and Western Australia are tropical deserts of great extent. The Thar and the Great
Rajputana desert in the Indian sub-continent belong to this natural region. The Atacama and
Kalahari deserts in South America and Africa respectively, are relatively small. Most of the desert
areas are uninhabited except for irrigated areas like the Nile Valley.
5. Coniferous Forest: This region extends from 55° North to the Arctic circle and includes
extensive areas in the Soviet Union, Scandinavia, Canada and Alaska. The region has cool summers
of short duration with long cold winters. Annual rainfall is less than 50 centimeters and is
maximum in summer. The vegetation consists of trees with needle-like leaves and there are only a
few species. The impact of man on this region has been found only in accessible localities where the
forest has been cleared for the manufacture of wood pulp, paper and newsprint.
Classification of the Resources
Natural resources may be classified in several ways. They may be classified on the basis of their
sources of origin. For example, most of the minerals are obtained from the land. Salt and fish are the
resources available from the oceans.
1. Renewable Resources: The resources which can be renewed or reproduced by physical,

mechanical and chemical processes are known as renewable resources. Solar energy, water, air,
soil, forests, wild life, agricultural products and human beings are some important examples of
renewable resources. But we have to take precautions to maintain the renewability of these
resources. For example trees are felled for obtaining wood from the forests. But we can get the
uninterrupted supply of wood only if we maintain the original forest cover through afforestation. In
other words we will have to plant the equal number of trees which have been cut down.
2. Non-Renewable Resources: Non-renewable resources are those resources which once used,
cannot be easily replenished. All minerals belong to this category. They are exhausted quickly but
their formation takes thousands and sometimes lakhs of years. Coal, petroleum, natural gas, iron
ore, copper, aluminum, bauxite, uranium, thorium, etc. some examples of non-renewable resources.
3. Potential Resources: Potential resources are those whose entire quantity may not be known
and these are not being used at present. These resources could be used in future. The level of
technology we have at present may not be advanced enough to easily utilize these resources.
Potential Resources are known to exist and may be used in the future. For example, petroleum may
exist in many parts of India and Kuwait that have sedimentary rocks, but until the time it is actually
drilled out and put into use, it remains a potential resource.
4. Developed Resources: When the resources are properly surveyed their quantity, quality and
utility are determined with the help of available technology referred to as developed resources.
Fossil fuel resources, solar energy, hydro power, geo thermal, and wind are examples of developed
resources.
Distribution and Utilization of Resources
The resources may also be classified on the basis of their continued availability to serve the needs
of man. Some resources, like those obtained from agriculture, may be obtained continuously year
after year. These are called replenishable resources. Such resources do not get exhausted. Mineral
resources may get exhausted after some years. Oil wells and coal-fields are abandoned after a few
years. These resources are non-replenishable resources. There is a limit to the availability of such
resources in the earth. Following are some important natural resources:
1. Land Resources: Land is an important resource as it is put to diverse uses by man. It is used
for the construction of buildings, roads, railways, etc. It is also used for cultivation, the grazing of
animals, mining, industries, etc. The type of land-use varies from one region to another. The
physical characteristics of the land put certain limits to its use. Like steeply sloping land is not
suitable for cultivation. The slope of the land is an important factor in deciding the land-use of an
area. The construction of roads and railway lines is also related to the topography of a region.
Accessibility is an important factor affecting land-use. For example, Canadian praries developed
only after the construction of railway lines and roads. Land ¬use in an area also depends on the
mode of life of the people-living in the area. Land-resources available in an area are limited and
there is a great demand for land especially in densely populated regions. In a given region different
types of land use compete with one another. The same piece of land can be used for cultivation or
for the construction of buildings, or setting up a factory or for mining, or for providing recreation.
2. Soil Resources: Soil is the most important natural resource available to man. It is the
substance in which all types of plants grow and therefore, soils are indispensable for providing food
for man and animals. The soil layer consists of a mixture of mineral matter such as sand and clay, as
well as organic matter such as the decayed leaves, flowers, bacteria and earthworms. Soil also
contains varying amounts of moisture and air between the solid particles. The formation of soil on
the surface of the land depends on a number of factors. Climate is the most important factor for soil
formation. It is responsible for the weathering of rocks, the quantity of moistures in the soil layer,
the nature of vegetation and the bio-chemical processes which take place in the soil. In short we can
say that soil is the most important gift of nature to man. The growth of human life and development
of human civilization largely depend on soil.
3. Forest Resources: Thick growth of plants, trees and grasses in natural way is called a ‘forest’.
In early stages, about 25% of earth's surface was covered by forests. But increasing demands of
man for forest-products and land for agriculture has reduced to the forest cover of the world to just
15% of the total land area.
4. Fisheries: The Occupation of fisheries concerns catching fish from water. Man learnt fishing
much before he learnt hunting and agriculture. It is one of the oldest occupations of man. Fish
provide about 3% animal products and 23% of animal proteins used by man. Countries like Japan,
Norway, New Foundland of Canada and Iceland with rocky land and infertile soil obtain about 10%
of their food requirements from fish. Besides being a rich source of protein, fish is also used for
preparing poultry feed, fisheries and oils.
Conservation of Natural Resources
Conservation means wise use of world’s natural resources efficiently to produce the greatest
possible benefit to man over the longest possible period of time. These resources are to be used
properly without any waste. They must also be replenished whenever possible. Therefore,
conservation is more than just preserving or a denial of use. With the passage of time human needs
increased and advancement in science and technology took place. This led to over utilization of
natural resources which resulted in their exhaustion and depletion. In the present, our needs have
gone beyond the means to fulfill them. This has led to a serious problem for the future generations.
While it is our right to use the natural resources for meeting the needs of the present generation, it
is our moral duty to conserve the resources for the benefit of the future generations.
Man realized the importance of conserving resources right from the early days. Cutting of trees,
killing of animals and destroying the environment is still considered to be bad in many religions.
Earlier when a tree was cut, another was planted and thus preservation was practiced. Terraced
fanning in hilly areas is an ancient technique. It was and is still a good device to check soil erosion
minerals are the back-bone of modern economy. It should be remembered that the concept of
exhaustibility of resources is always linked with level of technology. It is possible to extract
minerals from greater depths but that will require higher and expensive technology. At present we
have some alternatives like: firstly, the development of advanced technology and secondly, the use
of alternative sources of power. Efforts are already on to develop solar power, Wind power and
Water power. At present there is a fast ¬growing awareness all over the world to conserve
resources.
Unit-V: Population & Occupation
Population Distribution
The way in which people are spread across a given area is known as population distribution.
Geographers study population distribution patterns at different scales; local, regional, national,
continental and global.
People do not live evenly spread through the world. For example large parts of Australia are very
sparsely populated (low population density), whereas areas in the south-east and around Perth are
crowded (high population density).
Humans vary widely in their tolerance of environmental conditions. Some can survive in several
types of habitat, whereas others perish when removed from their natural surroundings. No animals
other than humans can create sufficient artificial changes to enable them to exist in a totally strange
environment without evolving through many generations of adaptation. The specific interactions of
humans with their environment are the subject matter reason for the world distribution of man. So,
the studies of the distribution of human life, using ecological principles to explain the patterns of
that distribution.
Physical and Non-physical factors affecting population distribution
The distributional pattern of population is ever changing and both cause and effect vary in time
and space. The main factors which affect the population distribution can be classified into two main
groups:
(a) Physical Factors
(b) Non-Physical Factors
(A) Physical Factors:-
(1) Location: The geographical location plays a significant role in determining the regional
pattern of population distribution. It is observed that the main concentrations of people throughout
the globe are marginal to the continents and the interiors tend to be sparely populated. Nearly 75%
of the world’s population is concentrated within a 1000 kms of the Coast and about 66% of this is
confined within 500 kms. Thus it is evident that population is attracted by coasts and to a greater
extent repelled by continentality.
(2) Relief: Relief exerts great influence upon the distribution of population in different parts of
the world. High and rugged relief restricts human access, habitation and cultivation. Almost all the
mountainous regions of all the continents are very sparsely populated. The relief features i.e.,
Mountains, Plateaus, and Deserts are either sparsely populated or there is no population.
(3) Climate: Climate is the most important factor that controls the distributional pattern of
population in the world. Climatic conditions limit the habitable area of the earth. Climate also
influences more indirectly by controlling the wide range of his life conditions dependent upon the
plant and animal life about him. Indirect influences of climate are equally important because they
determine the types of soil, vegetation and agriculture, which in turn influence the distribution of
population in the world.
(4) Drainage: Water is often referred as elixir of life. Water is essentially needed both for human
consumption as well as cultivation. Water is an important resource and it is used for irrigation and
industry. The availability of water varies form place to place and time to time. Human life cannot
survive without the supply of water. Accordingly, human beings have always preferred to live in
those regions where there are plenty of water resources, but has been so controlled that it does not
devastate. It is a historical fact that all world civilizations, have developed on the banks of rivers like
Indus valley civilization, Nile valley civilization and Hwang Ho civilization etc. It has been observed
that in ancient past, all ¬important cities of the world were found near riverbanks.
(5) Soils: Matured and fertile soils have always attracted people to settle. The soils of the world’s
grassland particularly in the middle and sub-tropical latitudes, and those of the broad leaf forest in
the middle latitudes generally favour relatively dense settlement. The fertile alluvial soils of the
deltas of south-East Asia and the Nile have supported-dense population from time immemorial. Soil
conditions often act as a micro-factor. They not only control the cropping pattern but also
population distribution. Depletion of soil resources, on the other hand, restricts population
concentrations. In areas where soils are not ideal for crop cultivation, the soil is always discarded.
That is why, the areas with-rocky terrain support a very sparse population. On the other hand, the
plains and coastal areas, with rich and fertile alluvial soils, support maximum populations on the
earth. The indo-genetic plain in India, Hwang Ho valley of china and Nile valley of Egypt are
overcrowded since historic past.
(B) Non Physical Factors
(1) Socio-cultural condition: Social and cultural conditions do influence the distribution of
population throughout the world. The societies where customs, culture and social restrictions are
very rigid, the people try to settle down at other places and thus add to the population of that area.
Similarly, people who share the same cultural heritage, ancestors and fore fathers settle down at
one place and increase population.
(2) Economic Conditions: The economic activities are responsible for the settlement of people in
various parts of the earth's surface. In areas, where there are more chances of employment with
good economic returns, the population is always thick. Population distribution in an Agrarian
Society often responds to the type of staple food and its relationship to physical conditions. In
contrast, livestock economies are normally associated with low population density. Compared to
agricultural society, an industrial society can support denser population. The process of
urbanization is of great importance in modem times as people tend to live in urban than rural areas,
due to high standard of living and better facilities of life in cities.
(3) Political Conditions: The people are very sensitive with respect to their political ideology.
People often seek political asylum in other countries as the country of their origin is not suited for
their political activities. Great number of people have shifted to India from East Pakistan during
1971 indo-pak war. Similarly people from Tibet migrated to India to settle down here. In the same
way during Afghan crisis people from Afghanistan migrated to settle in Pakistan.
(4) Historical Background: People generally do not want to leave their place of origin due to
human weakness. Once settled at a place, he continues to remain there unless and until change is
unavoidable. Thus the people who in the past settled down at one place, their off springs continue
to remain there, adjusting themselves to the problems and try to solve them, rather than leaving the
place.
(5) Desire for Knowledge: Intelligent and talented people often migrate from the country of their
origin to other countries for seeking knowledge. Once they feel that the conditions are favourable
for them, they settle down there. Doctors, Engineers and IT professionals from underdeveloped
countries migrate to affluent European and American states, where they become citizens of that
country after sometime.
Population Density
Population density means average number of people living per square kilometer. Population
density is the measurement of population per unit area or unit volume. It is frequently applied to
living organisms (humans). For humans, population density is the number of people per unit of area
(which may include or exclude cultivated or potentially productive area). Commonly this may be
calculated for a county, city, another territory, or the entire world.
The world population is 6.6 billion humans, and earth's area is 510 million square kilometers
(200 million square miles). Therefore the world-wide human population density is 6.6 billion / 510
million = 13 per km2 (33 per sq mi), or 43 per km2 (112 per sq mi) considering that humans live on
land, which forms 150 million km2 (58 million sq mi) of the earth. This density rises with the
population growth. It also includes all continental and island areas, including Antarctica. Since over
half of the earth's land mass is desert and high mountains hostile to human habitation, only a
fraction of the rest is arable, and population clusters heavily around seaports and fresh water
sources, this number by itself significantly understanding the level of humans crowding.
Density of the Population in the World
The population of the world can be recognized into three distinct density Zones on the basis of
their distribution. Density of the population is defined as the number of people residing in one
sq.km area of the earth’s land surface. The density Zones of the world are classified as:-
(1) Highest Density Zones: Zones with more than 250 persons per square kilometer. The high
density Zones of the world are scattered following are some areas of high population
concentrations: (a) Western and Central Europe (b) North-Eastern areas of USA (c) South Asia (d)
South East and East Asia (e) The Nile Valley; etc.
(2) Moderate Density Zones: Zones with 25-250 persons per square kilometer. The regions with
moderate density population are characterized by neither too harsh nor too favourable
environmental conditions. This includes the cold temperate forest region which has recently been
cleared for agricultural activities. Similarly, the tropical and temperate grasslands are recognized as
moderately populated areas. This moderate density Zone, comprises of two distinct types of
human-settlements.
(a) The ‘Old World’ of Asia, Africa and Europe.
(b) The ‘New World’ of America and Australia.
The moderate population density Zones are the regions engaged in extensive agriculture, pastoral
way of living and industrial development.
(3) Lowest Density Zones: Zones with 0-25 persons per square kilometer. The low density
regions include 80% of the total land area, which is either too rugged, hot or cold, wet or dry for
people to settle in large numbers and engage in productive activities.
The regions with the lowest population density are:-
(a) The polar ice caps and the tundra regions of Eurasia, North America and Antarctic.
(b) The deserts of Sahara and the Kalahari of Africa, the Atacama desert of Chile, the great
Australian desert and the desert areas of South-West USA and Central Asia.
(c) The equatorial rain forests of the Amazon Basin, the Congo Basin and the Interior forest areas
of the Indonesian arch, belago are also very sparsely populated.
Only a small number of nomads inhabit the above inhospitable areas in the world.
Demographic and Geographical factors affecting population density
The uneven distribution of population in the world and India is the result of a number of factors.
All these factors can be grouped into three categories:
A. Geographical Factors (Physical Factors)
B. Economic and Social Factors.
C. Demographic Factors.
A. Geographical Factors (Physical Factors)
1. Climate (Temperature and Rainfall): Human life is difficult to sustain under extreme conditions
of temperature and hence such areas are sparsely inhabited e.g. Arctic and Sub arctic Regions have
long cold winter nights and low intensity of solar radiations. In summer also, living conditions are
very difficult. Rainfall and other sources of water supply like rivers, wells etc determine largely the
population distribution. There are deserts where there is no population at all due to any supply of
water. Ancient civilization flourished on the banks of rivers.
2. The Nature of the Terrain: In mountainous regions, the population density is low. The area of
arable land is limited. Cost of transportation, construction, maintenance of agricultural equipment
etc is high in mountainous areas. Human activity is also affected due to high attitude. Low-lying
plains are most favourable to population settlements.
3. Quality of the Soil: Quality of the soil also affects population distribution. Soil quality can be
divided into two categories
4. Energy Resources: Energy resources also determine the population density e.g. Water power
for generating electricity, Coal, Minerals.
B. Social and Economic Factors
Social and economic factors that affect population distribution are listed below:
1. Nature of Economic Activity: The population density is more in urban areas and less in rural
areas. The nature of activities in urban and rural areas determines the population distribution. In
urban areas activities include whole¬-sale and retail trade, manufacturing, finance, business.
Agricultural activities are the main activities in rural areas.
2. Nature of Technology: Technological advancements are also affecting population distribution.

The areas which were earlier not much populated may become heavily populated due availability of
technology.
3. Social Policy: Social policy of the government is a factor that determines population
distribution. For example, Steel plants were developed at Durgapur and Bhilai. The population in
these areas increased due to these steel plants. Steel towns developed due to employment. People
migrate to those areas where employment opportunities are available. The creation of employment
opportunities depend upon the social policies of the government.
C. Social and Economic Factors
There are three demographic factors that affect the population distribution:
(1) Fertility
(2) Mortality
(3) Migration
The above factors are themselves determined by geographical and socio-economic factors.
Differential fertility and mortality rates lead to differential growth rates and these in turn lead to
changes in the population of a country over long period of time. Migration is the most important
demographic variable that affects population distribution and density. People migrate to
centers/places where there is employment opportunities (may be due to industries or other
factors).
India’s Population Composition with reference to Age and Sex
Population Composition is a very important aspect of the population study. This includes the
personal, social and economic characteristics including age, sex, race, nationality, religion, language,
literacy, employment, rural and urban, etc. each population may be classified into different groups,
according to the above mentioned characteristics.
Age Structure
Age structure of the population of a country indicates the extent to which the population of that
country is useful from the economic point of view. The relative age structure of people contained
within a specific age group is one of the most vital and basic characteristic feature of population
since it affects almost all the different dimensions of community life, social attitudes, political
tendencies, economic activities, military services, and mobility of population.
Human population is divided into three groups.
(1) Below 15 years of age.
(2) Between 15 and 60 years of age.
(3) Above 60 years of age.
The first group is of children supposed to be entirely dependent on parents. The second group
consists of adults or workers who are supposed to be economically independent. The third group
comprises old people returning back to category of non-workers. The division of population into
these groups is referred as population pyramids.
In India, as per 1981, census, this threefold division was as follows:-
Age Percent
0-14 39.5
15-59 54.3
60 and above 6.2
Total 100%
Taking the first and the third group together i.e. (39.5+6.2) = 45.7% of our population is taken as
Dependent Population.
The remaining population of 54.3% has to support this dependent population. The proportion
between the two is termed as Dependency ratio. In India the dependency ratio is about 83, which
means that in every 100 persons in the age group of 15-59 years have to support 83 persons who
are dependent on them. The children below 15 years of age are bound to be highly demanding in
terms of educational, nutritional and health needs.
The dependency ratio is very great in India as compared to more developed countries of the
world. Thus the country becomes economically weak.
Sex Ratio
The sex ratio is the common measure used to study population composition of any population.
Human population consists of two main components-male and female. The numerical proportion
between the two is known as sex ratio. Sex ratio is defined as the number of females per 1000
males. In India for the past century males have been increasingly outnumbering female population.
According to 2011 census, sex ratio in India was 940 females to 1000 males. With unfavourable sex
ratio, the female life expectancy too has been low as compared with the males. The average life
expectancy at birth for females is 56.4 against 55.6 for males.
Though India as a whole suffers from a deficiency of females, there are some states which suffer
from deficiency in male population. The examples are Kerala, Pondicherry etc. Jammu & Kashmir,
Punjab, Haryana has less number of females as compared to males. According to 2011 census, sex
ratio in these states was 883, 893, 877 respectively.
Reasons for the growth of higher number of males than females
In India, some of the factors which are responsible for the unusual growth of higher number of
males than females in the total population are as follows.
(i) Higher Mortality of Females: The main cause of low sex ratio in India is that the female death
rate is more than male death rate. From various studies on death rates indicate that there is higher
female mortality.
(ii) Social Conditions: In our country, social factors are unfavourable to females. People do not
want girl-child. If a girl dies none bothers for that.
(iii) Poor Medical Aid: The health and medical facilities for females are generally not cared. A
large number of women die at the time of delivery.
(iv) Inferior Status to Women: Some parents give preference to male children and at least they
want two sons before adopting the method of family planning.
Population composition in India with special reference to rural and urban dichotomy
The population of any country on the earth’s surface is distinguished into rural and urban
categories. The urban population is recent in origin, as the majority of the population since
historical times was confined to rural areas. All rural people who inhabit small villages from which
the farmers who constituted about 90% or more of the village population were engaged in
cultivation of land, to produce food products in order to sustain their life. The small towns of the
early period had comparatively little direct influence on the lives of the peasant who constituted
about 85% of the total population. For well over a century a trend towards urbanization has
characterized the major nations of the world. This growth has been a natural accompaniment of
trade, commerce and manufacturing. It has led to the aggregation of millions of people in small
areas and consequently to new type of social experience for the people. Developing countries with
agrarian economics consist mainly of rural population, while in developed and industrial countries
most of the people are confined to urban settlements.
Rural population confined to small hamlets and villages depends upon agricultural economy,
which involves maximum unskilled labour, who live in villages. Each village is a cluster of shabby
houses constructed in an irregular fashion without any plan. The houses are mostly made up of
mud walls, cheap wood and thatched roofs. There is no proper arrangement of sanitation and
drainage system in a village. In most of the villages, where wells are the main sources of drinking
water, are generally shallow, open and not far from severage spots. The water of these walls is
invariably contaminated and is the main cause of gastric and other diseases. The villages are mostly
devoid of facilities like hospitals, post offices, telephone and other technological devices. The
system of roads and transport is not developed at all in the villages. The life is slow, calm and
peaceful with little scope for competition. The villages lack civic amenities, employment and
educational facilities.
The urban sector is the agglomeration of towns and cities, which is the result of the
industrialization. The cities and towns are the centers of administration, commerce, industry and
education. As towns expand, the pressure of transport water supplies, sewage and refuse disposal,
grows and creates problems. In cities and towns, the problem of pollution is alarming due to the
smoke and chemical effluents from factories and vehicles which pollutes both air as well as water,
making it hazardous for human life. On the other hand, cities and towns provide amenities like
market, entertainment, and better social services. For this reason, there is steady movement of
people form villag.es to towns and cities. The growth of cities which to a large extent, is due to
immigration is responsible for problems of housing, water supply, sanitation, parks, playgrounds,
schools, hospitals and other public services.
The urban areas share some common characteristics i.e., higher number of males, higher literacy
and higher proportion of people employed in non-agricultural occupations.
The rural-urban divide of population in a country signifies its national character. It is generally
believed that people inhabiting villages i.e., rural areas are often lethargic, conservative and
impervious to new and novel ideas. On the contrary the urban classes are active, alert and
resourceful. It is from the cities that all progressive and innovative ideas float and radiate.
Factors affecting population growth in India
Rapid population growth in the world can be attributed to a number of factors. Most countries
suffer from the pressures of population upon resources, and find it extremely difficult to overcome
the problem of raising productivity.
The main factors which affect the population growth in any part of the world are classified as:-
(1) Fertility
(2) Mortality
(3) Migration (Mobility)
Fertility
Fertility or birthrate in India is very high as compared to the other countries of the world.
Number of children born per thousand persons in a year is called birth rate. According to 2001
census, birthrate in India is 26, it means that in India, 26 babies are born per thousand in a year. In
England it is 12 and in U.S.A. the birthrate is 18. Fertility is the natural capacity of giving life. Every
man and women has the capacity to produce children, i.e. they are fertile. In the words of Lewis and
Thompson fertility is defined, “as the actual reproductive performance of a women or group of
women”.
Factors Affecting Fertility
Every man and women has the capacity to produce children i.e., they are fertile, though
exceptions are there. There are however, many factors, which affect and influence the fertility of
both the sexes. In the past, the people were not interested in checking or controlling child birth, but
in the present day world, the people of the elite class in urban areas are keen to have a limited or a
nuclear family. They are, following family planning or family welfare devices or with the help of
means including abortion to check the family size. A family of two children (boy and girl) is today
considered a normal family, though some people still like to have only one child either Male or
female. There are people, who do not at all like to have a child though they are leading a married life
and have capacity to produce children. The main factors, which affect the fertility process of both
the sexes (male & female) may be discussed as under:-
(1) Biological Factors: Biological factors play a vital role in the process of fertility. Health of an
individual is the most important biological factor and with it are related the factors like disease and
food habits etc. When health conditions and living standards of the people are sound and high, the
fecundity also increases and in this way the death rate slows down. It has been observed that the
death rate in developed countries is very slow as compared to the death rate of poor and under
developing nations of the world.
(2) Direct Factors: The direct factors which influence and effect fertility include use of oral pills,
loops, condoms, and other unnatural measures of abortion and infanticide etc. In every society
there is a keen desire and tendency among people that the family size should be small and
population explosion should be checked, otherwise many economic social and political problem are
bound to arise. Thus the most important direct factor which effects fertility is family
planning/family welfare drive in every society.
Mortality
Number of persons dying per thousand in a year is called death rate or mortality rate. Mortality
rate is regarded as an index of the well being of a nation. The countries which are economically
sound and where people enjoy high standards of livings have a lower death rate than the countries
which are economically backward. The advanced countries have succeeded to lower their death
rate due to availability of food supplies, pure drinking water, health care, better sewage disposal
and clean environment. Mortality rate was used to be very high in the past, because people were
not much conscious and careful about their health, as the medical care was not readily available. It
is believed that Romans were the first people, to collect data regarding deaths during 3rd century.
Factors Affecting Mortality
Mortality or death is affected by a variety of factors. They may be biological, physiological,

environmental, etc. From the demographic view point, mortality is related to the age and sex of an
individual. There is infant mortality, mortality of woman at the time of delivery, mortality of man
due to cancer of the prostate, etc. In its Manual on the International Statistical Classification of
Causes of Death, the World Health Organisation (WHO) places them under the following five
categories:
1. Infectious, parasitic and respiratory diseases
2. Cancer
3. Diseases of the circulatory system
4. Violence and accidents
5. All other causes such as diseases of the digestive system:
With the exception of category 4 when deaths occur due to violence and accidents, deaths in the
remaining categories are being reduced with the advancement of medical science in both developed
and developing countries. In the past, the mortality rate was high because of food shortages and
famines, spread of epidemics, in sanitary conditions, and long and recurrent wars. After the Second
World War, the mortality rates have declined so much in ‘developed countries’ along with birth
rates that the problem of extremely small growth rate of population has arisen in a number of
countries like France, Germany, Japan, etc. This has been due to rapid advancement in medical
sciences in controlling all types of diseases through life saving drugs and surgery. Other factors
responsible for low mortality rates in developed countries have been cleanliness of person and
home, hygienic surroundings, pollution control, social security measures, balanced food, health
consciousness, etc.
Migration (Mobility)
Migration is the movement of people between regions or countries. It is the process of changing
one's place of residence and permanently living in a region or country. According to the
Demographic Dictionary of United Nations, “Migration is such an event in which people move from
one geographical area to another geographical area. When people leaving their place of residence
go to live permanently in another area then this is called migration.” Migration may be permanent
or temporary with the intention of returning to the place of origin in future.
Factors Effecting Migrations
No human being will like to leave his native place, his family relations and his near and dear ones
unless there are compulsions so that migrations become inevitable. Yet, migrations are common
throughout the world, as the people move form one country to another for certain reasons, with the
difference that the rate of migrations varies between the countries. There are both ‘pull’, as well as
‘Push’ factors which cense migrations. Pull factors include better education, health and leisure etc.
Whereas push factors include loss of job accommodation or of a kin etc. The main factors which,
effect migrations are:
(1) Economic Factors: The most important factor that influences and effects migration is the
economic opportunities. It has been seen that Gajjars and Bakharwals often come to plains in
search of livelihood. People move from East to West to earn money for them as well as for their
families. It is because that West is economically sound, due to industrialization and needs man
power both skilled and unskilled.
(2) Geographical Factors: Geography of an area influences and effects the migration of the people.
The people migrate to places where there is invigorating climate or where minerals are found in
abundance. Similarly people desert those areas where floods, fire or earthquakes are quite
frequent. The people generally wish to settle or migrate to places where topography is ideal, with
pleasant climate and ample water resources for both drinking, irrigation and industry.
(3) Social Factor: In areas where social barriers are too hard and rigid and do not allow proper
development of an individual people generally leave their place of origin in order to avoid, the
society. The people also migrate to shun away from family feuds and disputed family life or to end
their unhappy married life.
(4) Political Factors: Politics of a state plays a big role in migrations. People who suffer due to
political compulsions in their country migrate and seek asylum in other countries. Similarly,
government policy of discriminations against a particular community can result in the migration of
the said community.
(5) Demographic Factors: Demographic factors also favour migrations. The people living in high
density regions often wish to migrate to areas where the ratio of density is very low. Similarly, the
people wish to migrate to areas where people of their standard and status live. In countries where
death rate is high, obviously the male population is tempted to migrate as there are more chances of
employment to better the economic standards.
Causes of High Fertility Ratio
The rate of fertility in the developed nations of Europe and America remains low, but the rate of
fertility is high in both underdeveloped and developing countries. The population problem of India
is one of rapid population growth or population explosion. This is due to high birth rate and low
declining death rate. During 1901-1951, the population grew by 12.3 crore, while during the next
50 years from 1951-2001, it increased by 66.6 crore, that is by more than 5 times. The two main
causes for this rapid growth of population have been high birth rate and a large decline in death
rate which are discussed as under:
1. Hot Climate. India has a hot climate. In such a climate boys and girls get matured for fertility at
an early age. The reproductive period of girls begins normally from 11-13 years. Consequently, they
have a longer fertility period which has a direct relationship with high birth rate.
2. Universality of Marriage: Marriage is universal in India. It is considered a social and religious

obligation for the parents to marry their children. Unmarried persons are looked down by the
society and universality of marriage results in greater fertility and increasing population.
3. Child Marriage. The average age of marriage among both males and females is very low in
India. Naturally, the number of women in the reproductive age is large.
4. Social Customs and Religious Superstitions. Social customs and religious superstitions are also
responsible for high birth rate in India. A woman without a child is looked down by the society.
Generally, her husband remarries. Moreover, the Hindus believe that everyone must have at least
one son otherwise the parents are supposed to be deprived of certain benefits in the next world.
Parents having many daughters want to have a male child. This tendency results in high birth rate.
5. Joint Family System. Joint family system is prevalent particularly in rural areas which is also a
major cause of high birth rate. In the joint family system, the burden of a child is not borne by the
parents but by the head of the family. So the parents do not think about the increasing
responsibilities associated with every new born child and beget more and more children.
6. Rise in Natural Fertility Rate. The fertility rate among young married women has been rising
gradually in India. This is due to (1) improvement in nutrition and health of couples; (2) the
traditional social and religious checks on fertility have been declining; and (3) the duration of
breast feeding to infants by mothers has also been reduced. Naturally a rise in the marital fertility
rate results in a high population growth rate.
Primary Occupational Activities of Humans
The various occupations may be broadly divided into three major divisions: primary, secondary
and tertiary occupations. Primary occupations are those which produce food products, raw
materials, and fuels and minerals from the natural resources. Agriculture, mining, lumbering,
grazing of animals, etc., are primary occupations. Secondary occupations are those which involve
the processing of the primary products. Manufacturing industries use agricultural, mineral and
other products, and process them to produce various articles.
Primary Occupations
(i) Food-gathering: Primitive communities lead a simple life depending on the bounties of nature.
They gather their requirements of food from the plants in the form of fruits, nuts, roots and leaves.
Very often primitive people have to migrate from place to place in search of these products. Hunting
and fishing provide animal products to supplement the plant products collected by them. They use
simple implements such as spears, bows and arrows for hunting.
(ii) Animal Husbandry: The domestication of animals was one of the steps in the development of
civilization. Man learnt the use of animal products such as milk, meat, hides, skins and wool to
satisfy his essential needs. A variety of domestic animals are reared by people living in different
environments. The primitive communities whose main occupation is the herding of animals are
called nomads as they do not lead a settled life at one place. They migrate with their flocks of
animals in search of pastures and water supply. Each community lives in a well-defined territory
and the people are aware of the seasonal changes in pastures and water supply within the territory.
In mountain regions, the herders move to higher elevations to graze the animals in summer, and
descend to the valleys during winter. Such seasonal migration of people with their animals is called
trans-humane.
(iii) Mining: Mining is an important activity in those regions where valuable minerals occur in
large quantities under favorable conditions for their exploitation. Mining is an arduous task
especially when mineral ores occur at great depths. Miners live in a colony near the mining site.
When the ore gets exhausted or when it becomes uneconomical to mine the ore, the miners leave
the site and the settlement becomes deserted. The mining of a mineral ore depends on several
factors, such as the quality of the ore, the geological structure and the depth of mining, the
accessibility of the mine and the cost of mining.
Secondary and Tertiary Activities
The secondary occupations are those which involve the processing of products obtained from the
primary occupations. For example, the manufacture of sugar from sugarcane is a secondary
occupation. While mining of coal and iron ore is a primary occupation, the manufacture of iron and
steel is a secondary occupation. Thus the occupations provided by manufacturing industries belong
to this category. In the developed countries of the world, such as the United States, the United
Kingdom and Japan, industries are developed on a large scale and the secondary occupations
provide employment to more persons than the primary occupations.
The range of secondary occupations available in a country and the number of persons employed
depend on the extent of industrial development. The development of industries depends on the
availability of raw materials, power, labour, capital and market for the finished product.
Raw materials for manufacturing industries may be derived either from agriculture or from
mining. The industries which are based on bulky or perishable raw- materials, are located near the
source of raw material.
Power is needed for processing raw materials. Usually, the cost of power is only a minor part of
the total cost and in such cases, power may be transmitted to the industrial centers. The industries
which consume large quantities of power, such as chemical and aluminum industries, are located
near the source of power.
Labor is not an important factor in industrial location except when highly skilled labor is needed.
Ordinarily, labor will migrate to the industrial centre and laborers could be trained in course of
time. The diamond-cutting industry in Netherlands and the watch-making industry in Switzerland
are examples of industries located according to the availability of skilled labor. These industries are
now getting dispersed owing to the dissemination of the know-how.
Capital is needed for establishing manufacturing industries. Capital is easily transferable from
one region to another or from one country to another or borrowed from international agencies.
Market is not an important factor as industrial products can be sent to distant markets owing to the
developments in transport. The distance up to which a product could be marketed is related to the
cost of transporting the product.
Manufacturing industries are usually classified into large-scale, small-scale and cottage
industries, depending on the number of persons employed, the quantity of mechanical power used
and the value of products manufactured. Large-scale industries have been adopting the assembly-
line technique for mass production. The raw materials are assembled at different points on the line
of assembly. Each laborer is assigned a particular task and the finished product rolls out at the end
of the assembly line.
The development of manufacturing industries has provided a wide range of secondary

occupations to the people. Industrialization has also led to large-scale use of machines and
mechanical energy for agriculture, mining, fishing and other primary occupations. The percentage
of persons employed in primary occupations declines rapidly with the development of industries.
Tertiary Occupations
The rapid growth of secondary occupations and urbanization has led to the growth of tertiary
occupations. Tertiary occupations include a wide range of personal and professional services
provided to the community. In the developed countries the large-scale use of machines has reduced
the number of persons employed in primary and secondary occupations and more people are
employed in tertiary occupations. Tertiary occupations have developed more in urban centers than
in rural areas. Rural areas have a smaller range of tertiary occupations and the total number of
people employed in them is small. Such occupations as are related to education, health, trade,
transport, banking, communication and administration belong to the tertiary group.
(a) Trade: Exchange of goods and services among different places is known as trade. Trade can be
divided into two, National and International Trade. International trade is a very old tradition
between different countries. Trade was being carried on between China and South-West Asia
through land route in central Asia. This route was known as ‘silk-route’. India had trade links with
west Asia, Africa and South-East Asia in ancient days. In today's complex economic system, even the
most advanced countries are not self-sufficient in all spheres of economy. Every Country produces
some commodities over and above its requirements and at the same time she is deficit in some
other commodities. Thus every country exports its surplus and meets its requirements of deficit
commodities by importing them. Hence, international trade is beneficial to both, exporting and
importing countries. The economic well-being of country depends to a great extent on its
international trade. It is the barometer of the Economic development of a country.
(b) Transport: The means of transport are used for carrying passengers and materials from one
place to the other. Man has been acting as mode of transportation since early days. He started using
animals for transportation about 3000 years ago. The means of transportation assumed much
significance after the invention of machines in the beginning of 19th century. Nowadays, buses,
trucks, trains, ships tankers, airplanes etc. are used for transportation all over the world.
Geographically, three types of transportation are available in today's world.
(i) Land Transport: Highways and railways are two important modes of land transport. Ropeways
cableways and pipelines are other examples of land transportation.
(ii) Water Transport: Water transport is one of the oldest modes of transport. Man has been
navigating in oceans, rivers and lakes since ancient times. This is the cheapest mode of
transportation and is specially useful to transport heavy cargo.
(iii) Air Transport: Modern age is known as the ‘Air-Age’. The air transport has developed in the
early twentieth century. World wars accelerated the pace of development of air transport. There
has been a phenomenal growth of air transport during the last fifty years. Today, even supersonic
planes are flying in the air. Almost all parts of the world are served by air transport, western
Europe, Eastern United States of America and South-East Asia have a very dense network of air
routes.
(c) Communications: The means of communication are used to send messages and ideas from one
place to another. Post and telegraph, radio, telephone, television and satellites are important modes
of communication in the modern world. Till mid nineteenth century communication was mainly
done by man himself using animals. Development of telegraph by Samuel Morse in 1844
revolutionized the communication. Printing press strengthened communication through
newspapers and magazines. Invention of telephone by Graham Bell and radio by Marconi further
added to the process of communication. The latest advancement in the field of communication is
television.
Role of human’s in degrading the quality of environment
Our day-to-day life activities effect the environment in following ways:
(1) The increasing concentrations of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere have caused a warming
trend leading to climate change. The carbon dioxide molecules the property to absorb the heat
radiated by the earth which is useful in keeping our earth warm. Thus the increase of carbon
dioxide in the air may cause rise in atmospheric temperature, leading to melting of polar ice caps,
this would in turn raise the sea level. This phenomenon is called as the greenhouse effect. The Co2
is considered the most dominant factor responsible for the greenhouse effect and the other
greenhouse gases are methane, water vapor, ozone and CFC. If the concentration of these gases
would increase, there would be rise in temperature worldwide. Global warming results in the
melting of polar ice caps. This in turn results in the rise in the level of ocean waters.
(2) It has been found that the chemical Chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) is one of the main destroyers of
the ozone layer. The chlorofluorocarbons are the gases or liquids made up of chlorine, fluorine, and
carbon. These are mainly used in refrigerators and in air conditioners. The chlorine atom in CFC
disturbs the distribution of ozone. It is estimated that one CFC molecule can destroy 1, 00,000
molecules of ozone. The ozone depletion causes skin cancer, eye and immune system sickness in
human beings.
(3) Extensive usage of several pesticides and other chemicals to protect our crops from diseases
and pests has resulted in the entry of these harmful chemicals into our bodies through the food
chain. These chemicals are either washed down into the soil or into the water bodies. From the soil,
these are absorbed by the plants along with water and minerals, and from the water bodies these
are taken up by aquatic plants and animals. This is one of the ways in which they enter the food
chain. As these chemicals are not degradable, they get accumulated progressively at each trophic
level. As human beings occupy the top level in any food chain, the maximum concentration of these
chemicals gets accumulated in our bodies. This phenomenon is known as biological magnification.

Revised Teaching of Geography

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TEACHING

Social Studies and Social Sciences

Relationship of History with Geography

Relationship of Geography with Economics

Relationship of Geography with Political Science (Civics)

Structure and Scope of Geography

(1) Geography is the study or science of places (Vidal-de-la-Blache).

(2) Geography is the science of distribution (Marthe).

(a) Geomorphology: Geomorphology is the study of land-forms and drainage.

Firstly, man lives on the surface of the earth

Secondly, man makes a living and

Thirdly, man makes design for living.

Geography as a basic discipline

Importance of Geography in our day to day life

Role of teaching of geography in international understanding

Status of home region in the teaching process of Geography

Objectives of Geography at Secondary Level

Instructional objectives of teaching geography at secondary level are summarized below:

The student in acquisition of knowledge is expected to:

a. Recall terms, facts, events, concepts, principles, symbols etc

b. Recognize terms, principles, concepts, events, symbols etc

c. Indicate information on maps, charts, diagrams, graphs etc

In comprehension the students are expected to:

a. Translate from one form of communication to another.

b. Distinguish and differentiate between facts and terms.

d. Explain different terms, concepts etc.

g. Detect and rectify errors.

h. Identify relationship between causes and effects.

i. Interpret data presented in various forms.

j. Identify underlying assumptions.

The student in application step is expected to:

a. Analyze the situation to identify the problem.

b. Select relevant knowledge to explain a new situation or solve a problem.

d. Re-organizes the material in a new situation.

i. Generalize principles, laws etc.

j. Predict outcomes in a given situation.

b. Presents models, tools and apparatus etc.

c. Handles tools and geographical apparatus.

d. Makes observation in an accurate manner.

d. Participate in geographical tours, field trips, excursions, surveys etc.

e. Collect specimens and pictures of geographical interest.

g. Visits places of geographical interests.

b. Recognize the significance of interaction between man and his environment.

c. Recognize the interdependence of states, regions and countries of the world.

e. Considers national problem in interaction context.

Lecture method of teaching in Geography

Merits of Lecture Method

1. Lecture method is economic method of teaching.

2. It is very useful for teaching large classes.

3. Through Lecture method, the syllabus can be covered quickly.

5. It saves time as well as energy of the students.

Demerits of Lecture Method

1. This method is teacher dominated method of imparting instructions to the learners

3. This method is not useful for obtaining psychomotor objectives.

Project method of teaching in Geography

(2) Skills: The project develops the following skills in learners:

Merits of Project Method

Demerits of Project Method

2) It does not provide sufficient knowledge to the students.

3) It is expensive method, because it requires tours, excursions, purchasing of equipments and