GEOGRAPHY AND HUMAN SOCIETY

Ayogu Chinero Nneka and Nwokocha Victor Chukwunweike

Social Sciences Unit
School of General Studies
University of Nigeria, Nsukka

 Introduction
Geography and the human society is one of the topics in the course GSP 201 –The Social
Sciences. This topic consists of four sub-themes designed with both global and local
examples. The discipline is designed to examine “Spatial variations on the global earth
surface”, “Human-environment interaction” and “Place based population”. Geography is
interested in spatial variations which aimed at understanding how and why things differ from
place to place across the landscape. It is also concerned with the interaction between humans
and the environment, both the impact of the physical environment on the society and the
various ways in which people adapt and change their natural environment over time (Withers,
2010).
The Planet Earth

`
Source: Coffey, 2016

 What to learn in this topic

The general aim of this topic is to teach and introduce to students the concept of geography
and its applications in the human society. The topic is structured in a way that knowledge
gained from the study of geography will help the public (students) make informed choices in
the globalized world. The course will provide a wider view of topical issues relevant to
environment, environmental security, conflict and Peace. This will be done within the
purview of geography, with the sole aim of equipping the students with the right tools and
commitment for a better interaction with their immediate surrounding/environment and the
society at large. In view of the general aim of the course-GSP 201, this topic has been
structured to elicit appropriate responses from the students using the following objectives.

 The objectives are:

a. To examine the history and evolution of geography as an academic discipline
b. To analyse the concepts and theories in geography
c. To explore the importance of the environment and its physical and human issues
d. To examine the concept of environmental Security and its roles to peace and Conflict
in the world
 The Definition of Geography

The discipline geography has been defined to mean different things by different authors.
While Ofomata (2003) defined geography as an area of study that examines the inter-
relationship between man and his environment, Ayogu (2014) defined geography as an area
of study that analyzes the earth’s physical phenomena, people and their economic activities.
Geography as an academic discipline therefore is an area of study that examines the earth and
all of its human and natural characteristics (Interactions and Relationships) including the
location and distribution of earth features such as rivers, mountains, markets, industries etc as
well as the processes that brought them into existence.

 HISTORY AND EVOLUTION OF GEOGRAPHY AS AN ACADEMIC

DISCIPLINE
The study of geography as an academic discipline dates back to the 18th and 19th century.
This period led to the discovery of features such as mountains, rivers, lakes etc as well as
places such as Africa and South American Continents. These discoveries were made by
geographers- Aristotle, Eratosthenes, Ptolemy who travelled around the planet in search of
new ideas. Examining and analysing the history and evolution of geography as an academic
discipline provides some important insights about its character and methodology. The history
and evolution of geography as an academic discipline transcends six eras/stage (Pidwirny,
2006). They include:
 Ancient Greek Era
The ancient Greeks were the first civilization to practice a form of geography which was
more than mere map making or cartography. This development which took place in the 8th
century saw the description of a circular world ringed by a single massive ocean. The notable
Greek geographer in this era included Herodotus, Aristotle and Eratosthenes (Pidwirny,
2006).
Roman Era,
This era marked the utilization of the Greeks accomplishments in geography. Some of these
accomplishments include the use of modern satellites technology to compute the earth
circumference as well as the form, size, and geometry of the earth surface.
Middle Age Era,
This era in the evolution of geography as an academic discipline occurred between 5th and
13th centuries. It was marked with little work and intellectual stagnation.
Renaissance Era,
The Renaissance era was made prominent by the numerous geographical expeditions which
were commissioned by a variety of nation states in Europe. Most of these expeditions were
undertaken to explore and acquire new lands in places like Africa and Asia.
Europe and United State Era
This period in the evolution of geography saw the emergence of geographers such as
Alexander Von Humboldt, Carl Ritter and Fredrich Ratzel. These geographers made
substantial contributions to human and physical geography.
Modern Era
The modern era in the study of geography as an academic discipline saw changes in the
philosophy, content and methodology of Geography. This was such that there was a shift
from a descriptive method of analysis to a more scientific approach that relied on quantitative
techniques.
Revision Exercise
1. Define Geography as an academic discipline
2. Describe the Evolution of geography as an academic discipline
3. Using your local environment describe the three cardinal interests of geography
  CONCEPTS AND THEORIES OF GEOGRAPHY
The concepts and theories in geography are the principles that allows for the exploration of
relationships and connections between people and their environment both physical/natural
and human/cultural environments (TKI, 2015). While geographic concepts provides a
framework that geographers use to interpret and represent information about the earth
surface, geographic theory is an organised and systematized geographic knowledge used as a
base to explore new ideas of knowledge (Golledge, 2001). The development and
understanding of geographic theories and concepts will not only enable students to participate
actively in class, it will help them in understanding and explaining the characteristics of their
immediate surrounding or environment. For instance, why is water scarcity a dominant issue
in Nsukka region? Some of the concepts and theories in geography include:
Concepts-
 Location
Location is one of the most basic concepts in geography. It is used to identify a point or an
area on the earth surface. Location in geography can be “absolute” or “relative” location.
Absolute location refers to the exact point on the earth surface usually identified with
longitude and latitude. The relativity of a location is the description of how a place is related
to other places. For instance, the relative location of the School of General Studies shows that
the school is bounded in the North, East West and South by University of Nigeria Primary
School, School of Postgraduate Studies, Department of Economics building and Bursary
Department, while it is absolutely located between Latitudes 50 58 1N and 70 081N of the
Equator and Longitude 70 081E and 70 481E of the Greenwich Meridian.
 Man-land Relationship
In this case, geography tries to establish the functional relationship that goes on between man
and the biotic and abiotic part of environment.
 Spatial Organization
This is focused on unravelling the way things are organized in space. It spans from the human
organizational structure to the physical aspects of the milieu.
 Areal Differentiation
It analyses the peculiarity or the uniqueness of things across the globe and how such variable
characters on the earth facilitates the understanding of regional resource distribution and
man’s well being.
 Earth Science
Geography studies the environment, its components and the processes behind their
occurrences or existence.
Theories-
 System Theory
A system is a component of interrelated parts that work together by way of some driving
process. Systems in geography include eco-system and solar system.
 Alfred Weber’s Theory of industrial location
Alfred Weber’s Theory of industrial location also known as least cost theory examines the
locational pattern of a production infrastructure. This theory which is domiciled in industrial
geography emphasizes the location of industries in areas where transportation and labour cost
are minimum.
 Agglomeration Theory
The theory of industrial cluster and agglomeration is a theory defines the benefit a firm will
achieve by localising its production. This idea project the geographical concentration of
industrial activities in an area.
 Spatial Diffusion Theory (Relocation, Expansion, and Hierarchical diffusion)
Spatial diffusion is a process by which ideas, innovation technologies, diseases etc are spread
across space. The theory projects the dispersion of concepts from a central point of origin to
other locations that may or may not be directly connected
 Population and Migration Theory (Malthus population growth model, Gravity model,
Demographic transition model etc)
Revision Exercise
1. What do you understand by the term “concept” in geography
2. Identify the concepts and theories in geography
3. Describe the absolute and relative location of your base department

 ENVIRONMENT AND ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES

The environment is the natural conditions- land, air and water, in which people, animal and
plant live (Hornby, 1998).
 The Environment

Source: Policy Centre for Environment and Peace

The environment is made up of physical and cultural environments. While the physical or
natural environment denotes features such as rivers and water bodies, trees, hills/mountains,
mineral resources such as iron ore, gold, petroleum etc., the cultural environment denotes an
interaction between man and his environment. The relationship between man and his
environment has led to the ecological imbalance causing environmental issues such as:

 Erosion
Erosion is the removal of soil particles from the earth surface by the actions of wind and
water. The soils (especially top soils) covering the landscape are decreasing on daily bases
through the processes of erosion-the gradual but continuous washing away of soils until it is
checked.

Soil Erosion

Source: Adopted from Schumaker, Gerard and Ellis (2012)

  Oil spillage and Gas flaring
Prior to its treatment, crude contains chemicals-Dual Purpose Kerosene (DPK), Automative
Gas Oil (AGD), Aviation Turbine Kerosene (ATU), Liquefied Petroleum (LP), Premium
Motor Spirit (PMS) in addition to other natural occurring substances (Akande, 2011).
Oil spillage and Gas flaring

Source: Adopted from Amnesty International 2011

 Flooding and Drought

Drought is a deficiency in precipitation over an extended period, usually a season or more,
resulting in water shortage causing adverse impacts on vegetation, animals, and/or people
(National Weather Service, 2006). Flooding on the other hand is the overflow or submerging
of land areas by water. This is a precipitate of poor land management especially when falling
of trees or over –harvesting of trees is not at par with re-planting or replacement of species.
Flooding and Drought

Source: Adopted from Polycarpou (2011)

 Pollution (water, air and soil)
Currently, water pollution is a problem that bedevils mankind because most surface water
bodies have been impacted upon by erosion processes (Ayogu,2016), agriculture(Kevin,
2011) and other activities of man leading to the alteration in the physical, chemical and
biological composition because of contamination and cases of pollution(UNEP 1992).

Pollution (Landscape full of Trash in Bangladesh)

Source: Adopted from Linda (2012)

 Soil degradation
This is the decline in the soil quality due human actions such as mining, extraction, farming
etc. It is a multi faceted problem because it affects environment, agronomic productivity,
food security, and quality of life.

Revision Exercise
1. What is Environment
2. Describe the Environmental issues on the basis of man/land relationship

ENVIRONMNETAL SECURITY, CONFLICT AND PEACE

Environmental Security-
Environmental Security is defined as the relative safety from environmental change caused
by natural or human processes due to ignorance, accident, mismanagement or design
originating within or across national borders (Varshney, 2005).
 Conflict-
Conflict is a perceived disagreement or difference between two persons. In the
environmental context, conflicts are those peculiar issues which are capable of causing
disequilibrium in the environment. The disequilibrium/imbalance in the environment not only
lead to changes in the environmental quality, it is capable of causing disagreement in a
society. Some of the peculiar issues that can lead to environmental imbalance are resource
consumption, exploitation, scarcity and degradation.

Peace-
Peace can be defined as the absence of conflict. It can be viewed from a positive and negative
sense. Positively, peace is a state of calmness and quietness while in a negative sense, peace
is the absence of war or violence.
 History and evolution of environmental security
The history of environmental security can be viewed from three perspectives. These include
the progress of a growing environmentalism in developed countries after the 1960’s, the
attempts to contest the meaning and practice of security from an environmental perspective
and developments in the bipolar world. (Collins, 2007)
 Approaches to Environmental Security
The notion of environmental security emerged in international discussion and debate about
environmental change in the late 1970s (Eddy, 2004). This was as a result of violent conflict
arising from environmental change and natural resource scarcity. This section of the chapter,
explains the three major approaches associated to environmental security. These approaches
according to Eddy (2004) are:
 Geopolitical Environmental Security
 Comprehensive Environmental Security
 Social Justice Approach to Environmental Security

 Environmental Stress as a Source of Conflict

Environmental Stress is an action, agent, or condition that impairs the structure or function of
the environment or system (Cairns, 2013). Many environmental stresses, such as hurricanes,
droughts, floods, and fires are a periodic feature of life on earth (Safriel, 2008) triggered by,
deforestation, pollution, urbanization etc. Consequently, these environmental stressors are
likely to result in scarcity disputes between nations or between ethnic groups. Scarcity
disputes occur when resources become scarce or degraded increasing competition which may
become critical beyond which conflict is inevitable (Homer-Dixion, 1994). Scarcity
disputes/conflicts can be manifested in the society in the following forms
 Conflict over water resources
 Conflict over food scarcity,
 Conflict over land accessibility
 Drought induced migration and conflict
Revision exercise
1. What is Environmental security
2. What is the relationship between environmental security, peace and conflict
3. From the course text, identify the groups affected by land accessibility conflict

REFERENCE/FURTHER READING
Amnesty International (2011). Petroleum and Poverty in the Niger Delta. Eyes on Nigeria,
USA: Amnesty International

Ayogu, N.A. (2014). Geography and Human Society. Social Sciences in Peace and Conflict
Studies Vol.1. Enugu: San Press Limited pp 83-116

Baker, J.N.C. (1963). The History of Geography. Oxford: Basil Blackwell p.66

Coffey, .J. (2016). Earth Surface. Blue marble Earth, Image credit: NASA (Accesses 18th
September 2016, http://www.universetoday.com/60830/earth-surface/)

Collins, A. (2007). Contemporary security studies. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Golledge, R.G. (2001). Geographical Theories. University of California Transportation

Centre. California: University of California pp-461-476

Eddy, E (2004). Environmental security: securing what for whom in I. Lowe and E. Eddy
(eds) Globalisation, Environment and Social Justice. Social Alternatives 23 (4): pp23-
28 Collins (2007).

Homer-Dixon, T. F. (1994). Environmental Scarcities and Violent Conflict: Evidence from

Cases. International Security 19 (1): pp 5-40.

Hornby, A.S (1998) Oxford Advance Learner’s Dictionary, Oxford University Press, P. 387.

Lina, D. (2012). Landscape full of Trash in Banglash. Heartbreaking Photos of Pollution that
will inspire you to Recycle (accessed 16th September, 2016 www.boredpanda.com)
Ofomata,G.E.K.(2008): Geographic Thought, Jamoe Publishers Limited, Enugu.

Polycarpou, L. (2011). The Year of Drought and Flood. World Water Day, Columbia
Univeristy: Earth Institute
Policy Centre for Environment and Peace. (Accessed 16th September 2016
http://www.conservation.org/projects/Pages/Policy-Center-for-Environment-and-
Peace.aspx)

Schumaker, G., Gerard, T., and Ellis, M. (2012). Soil Erosion (Accesses 16th September
2016 www.google.com.ng/search?biw=1024&bih)

TK1 (2015). Key Concepts in Geography. New Zealand Curriculum Guides. (Accessed from
http://seniorsecondary.tki.org.nz/Social-sciences/Geography/Key-concepts)

Varshney, C. K. (2005). Growing Threats to Environmental Security in H. Aydogan, (ed)

Environmental Scarcity and Global Security: The Assessment of Environment
Related Conflicts in Bangladesh, Senegal-Mauritania, Philippines and El Salvador.
European Scientific Journal 11(8): pp1857 – 7881