ATOMIC PHYSICS

RADIOACTIVITY: It is the disintegration (breaking apart) of an unstable atomic nucleus.

Radioactivity is random, i.e. it can occur at any time releasing any number of emissions. Three types of
emissions are produced; alpha particle (α), beta particle (β) and gamma rays (γ).

EXAMPLES OF RADIOACTIVE MATERIALS

Uranium – 238, Carbon -14, Cobalt -60, Thorium -232, Plutonium-244, Potasium-40

BACKGROUND RADIATION

 Various rocks in the earth, including granite contain small percentages of radioactive uranium,
Thorium and Potassium compounds.
Note; Uranium, Thorium and Potassium are the only three naturally occurring radioactive
materials.
 Our bodies also contain traces (small amounts) of radioactive materials as do the bricks and other
building materials that are used to build our homes, schools and work places.
 In addition to these sources we are also exposed to gamma radiation from the sun.

These sources of natural radiation constitute the background radiation. We are exposed to background
radiation all the time, because it is very low it causes no risk to our health.

DANGERS OF RADIOACTIVITY

 Beta and gamma rays can easily pass through the skin and can damage or even kill cells.
 They can cause mutations in a cell’s DNA which may lead to cancer.
 Extremely large doses of radiation can cause radiation burns.

SAFE HANDLING OF RADIOACTIVE SUBSTANCES

 Radioactive materials are lifted with forceps or long tongs. In industry they are handled by
mechanical tongs operated by remote control equipment from behind thick walls made of lead.
 They are stored or transported in lead or concrete walls.
 Workers wear radiation doze badges to check on the amount of radiation they are exposed to.

NATURE OF EMISSIONS

(i) Alpha Particle: It consists of two neutrons and two protons but no electrons, therefore it is a helium
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nucleus ( 2He 2+). The helium nucleus releases two electrons to become an alpha particle.

(ii) Beta Particle: These are streams of high energy electrons (−10e ).

(iii) Gamma rays: These are electromagnetic waves, with wavelength much shorter than that of light.

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PENETRATION AND IONISATION POWERS

Penetration powers are due to the way they interact with matter and ionization occurs when the
emissions knock off electrons from atoms (making ions).

Alpha (α) particles are stopped by a thin sheet of paper or even 5cm of air at normal atmospheric
pressure, so they are the least penetrating of the three.

Since they are large, carry two positive charges and slow moving, they are the strongest ionizers.

Beta (β) particles are more penetrating than alpha particles, they are blocked by 3 mm of aluminum
sheet and go up to 1 m of air at normal atmospheric pressure. Since they carry less charge and move
faster than alpha particles, they are less ionizing.

Gamma (γ) rays are the most penetrating. They can be reduced but not stopped by lead. Since they are
the fastest and carry no charge, they are the least ionizers.

IONISATION EFFECTS

Ionizing emissions damages the complex chemicals necessary for the functioning of the cell. If this
damage is significant, the cell will die. For radiation outside the body, gamma radiation is the most
hazardous because of its high penetration so it can reach the interior of the body, whereas the highly
ionizing alpha emission will be stopped by the dead skin cells, so it will cause little or no harm to the
living cells beneath the skin.

For radiation inside the body i.e. if swallowed by mistake or breathed in. The highly ionizing alpha
particle will cause more harm than gamma rays.

EFFECTS OF ELECTRIC FIELD ON EMISSIONS

EFFECTS OF MAGNETIC FIELD ON EMISSIONS

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 SUMMARY

METHOD OF DETECTION

Geiger- Müller (GM) tube is an instrument specially designed to detect the radioactive radiations i.e.
(alpha beta and gamma).

It operates on the basis of ionization effect of the radiations

If an alpha particle enters the tube, it ionizes the gas inside. This sets a high voltage spark across the
gas and a pulse of current in the circuit flows. A beta particle or burst of gamma radiation has the
same effect.

When the radiation from a radioactive source is measured, the reading always includes any
background radiation. So an average for the background alone must be found and subtracted from the
total.

NUCLEAR REACTIONS

Radioactive Decay: The decay is exponential and has a constant half-life. The rate of decay depends on
the number of undecayed nuclei at any particular time.

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ALPHA DECAY

This occurs when the nucleus ejects two protons and two neutrons thus reducing its nucleon number
(mass no) by four and its proton number by two.
A A −4
Z X Z−2 Y +α

e.g. Uranium-238 decays into Thorium-234 by the emission of an alpha particle

238 234 4
92 U 90 Th + 2He

BETA DECAY

This occurs when a neutron decays into a proton and an electron which is emitted at a high speed. The
proton number increases by one and the mass number remains the same.
A A
Z X Z +1 Y +β

e.g. Carbon -14 undergoes beta decay

14 14
6 C 7 N + −10e

GAMMA DECAY

This normally occurs after an alpha or beta decay when a nucleus is left in an excited state (with excess
energy). To be more stable the nucleus will lose the excess energy by emitting the γ- rays. The element
remains unchanged.
A A
Z X Y Y + Energy

DECAY CURVES

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Half-life: It is the time taken for half of the radioactive atoms to decay or time taken for activity (count
rate) of a radioactive source to decrease by half.t 1/ 2

Generally:

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N = No ( )n
2

Where N is No of undecayed nuclei

No is Original No of nuclei

n is number of half-lifes

t
n= t 1 /2

Where n is number of haif-lifes

t is time of decay

t 1/ 2 is half-life

Example: A radioactive source of mass 200g has a half-life of 8 minutes. Determine the remaining mass
after 24 minutes.

1
N = No ( )n
2

24
n= =3
8

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 1 200
N = 200 ( )3 = =25g
2 8

USES OF RADIOACTIVITY

(i) TRACERS: Radioisotopes can be detected in very small (safe) quantities, so they can be used
as tracers. Their movements can be tracked or traced.e.g. checking the function of body
organs, tracking a plant’s uptake of fertilizer from roots to leaves or detects leaks in
underground pipes.
(ii) RADIOTHERAPY: Used to treat cancer.
(iii) RADIOCARBON DATING: To determine the age of a sample.
(iv) NUCLEAR POWER STATIONS: Used to produce electricity.
(v) STERILISING: Medical equiptments such as needles, syringes and dressings are sterilized by
a radioactive source.
(vi) CONTROLLING POPULATION OF PESTS: They are sterilized.

NUCLEAR FUSION

This is the joining of two light nuclei to form a heavier nucleus.

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e.g. The fusion of two heavier isotopes of hydrogen deuterium (1 H ) and tritium (1 H ) to obtain Helium (
4
2 He ) + neutron
2 2 4 1
1 H + 1 H 2 He + 0n

NUCLEAR FISSION

The fission involves splitting of a heavier nucleus into two, more or less equal fragments.
235 1 144 90 1
E.g. 92 U + 0n 56 Ba + 36 Kr + 20n

If the fission neutrons split other Uranium 235 nuclei, a chain reaction is set up.

The nuclear fission equation above shows that the number of nucleons is conserved. i.e. The nucleon
number adds up to 236 on both sides of the equation, and the proton number adds up to 92 on both sides
of the equation.

But an accurate adding up of the total mass on each side of the equation would show that there is a small
loss of mass on the right- hand side.

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This lost mass is converted into energy.

In 1905 Albert Einstein worked out the relation between mass and energy in his now famous formula.

E = mC2
The energy E released in Joules can be found if the mass loss m is given in kilograms and C = 3 x 10 8
m/s, the speed of light.

EXERCISE

1 Fig.1.1 shows apparatus used to detect radiation.

Fig.1.1

(a) The G-M tube detects some radiation with no radioactive source nearby.

(i) What is the name of this radiation?

……………………………………………………………………………

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 (ii) Where does this radiation come from?

……………………………………………………………………………
[2]

(b) Name the three types of radiation emitted by radioactive sources.

1……………………………………………………………………………..

2……………………………………………………………………………..

3…………………………………………..…………………………………
[3]

(c) A teacher demonstrates the activity of a radioactive source.

State two precautions she should observe when handling the source.

(i) ……………………………………………………………………………………………..

(ii) …………………………………………………………………………………….…… [2]

2. (a) Complete Table 1 to show the nature of each emission and state whether the ionising effect of
each emission is small, medium or large.

Particle or radiation nature Ionising effect

Alpha emission

Beta emission

Gamma emission

Table 1 [6]

(b) A radioactive source Q, emits alpha, beta and gamma radiation. The radiation travels between
charged plates P1 and P2. Draw in the paths followed by each radiation and label each path
accordingly.

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 [3]

3 (a) Fig.3.1 shows an arrangement used to compare the penetrating powers of radioactive
emissions.

Fig.3.1

Identify the particles P, Q and R. [2]

(b) Give one industrial and one medical use of radioactivity.

Industrial; …………………………………………………………………………………………

Medical; ………………………………………………………………………………….…...… [2]

(c) Complete the table by matching each radioactive particle with its property. [3]

Nature of particle particle

High energy electron

Nucleus of helium atom

High energy electromagnetic radiation

(d) State one source of background radiation.

………………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

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4 Fig.4.1 shows the effect of an electric field on the radioactive emissions P and Q given out by a
natural radioactive source.

Fig.4.1
(a) Identify emissions P and Q. [2]

(b) Suggest a reason why;

(i) both emissions are deflected by the electric field,

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

(ii) emission Q is deflected less than emission P.

…………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………….………... [1]

(c) On Fig.4.1, draw electric field lines between the two plates. [2]

(d)Fig.4.2 shows a radioactive source that emits alpha, beta and gamma radiations. The radiations
enter a magnetic field which is directed into the plane of the paper.

Fig.4.2

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 On Fig.4.2, draw and label the path followed by each radiation. [3]

5 State and explain whether the following nuclear reactions are possible or not possible.
A A
(i) Z X Z Y +γ

………………………………………………………………………………..

Explain your answer.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

……………………………………………………………………………………………………[2]
A A 4
(ii) Z X Z−2 Y + 2He

…………………………………………………………………………………….

Explain your answer.

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………………….[2]

6. (a) Write down two ways in which radioactivity is harmful to humans.

1……………………………………………………………………………………………………

2……………………………………………………………………………………………………

(b) Give two precautions that should be taken when handling radioactive sources.

1……………………………………………………………………………………………………

2……………………………………………………………………………………………………

(c) State two uses of radioactive isotopes

1……………………………………………………………………………………………………

…………………………………………………………………………………………..…………

2……………………………………………………………………………………………………

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 ………………………………………………………………….…………………………………
[6]

7 (a) Americium ( Am) decays to Neptunium (Np) by emitting an alpha particle.

Write a complete decay equation.

241
95 Am ………………………... + ………………………………… [2]

(b) Table 4.1 shows the count rate from a radioactive source that emits beta particles.

Table 7.1

Time/min 0 20 40 60 80 100

Count rate/counts/min 96 56 36 25 18 15

A count rate of 10 counts/min is obtained when there is no radioactive source near.

(i)What is the cause of the count rate when no radioactive source is near?

………………………………………………………………………………………………………

………………………………………………………………………………………….………. [1]

(ii) Complete Table 4.2 below to show the count rate due to the beta source only,

Table 7.2

Time/min 0 20 40 60 80 100

Count rate/counts/min

(ii) On the grid provided, plot a graph of count rate against time using the results in Table 4.2. [3]

(iv) From the graph, determine the half-life of the source. [2]

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