Kinematics of the particle (material point)

Kinematics is a part of mechanics dealing with the movement of bodies, without

entering into the relationship between the movement of the examined body (in
particular of the point) and the forces acting on it.
In the case of kinematics, we will consider what happens to the body in space over
time. We will describe this type of relationship as the geometry of motion.
Movement of the body - changing the position of this body in relation to another one
taken from a stationary body (reference body). In the case of mechanics, the Earth is
usually taken as the reference body.
Reference system - a system that is fixed and bound to a reference body. The most
common reference system is a rectangular coordinate system (Euclidean space).
Euclidean space

x, y, z-coordinates of the moving point P with respect to the fixed coordinate system
(reference system).
In order to describe the movement of this point, it is necessary to determine how
particular coordinates change with time.

𝑥 = 𝑓1 (𝑡); 𝑦 = 𝑓2 (𝑡); 𝑧 = 𝑓3 (𝑡)

We will call the above equations the kinematic equations of motion.

Point TRACK - line along which point P moves in space.
Parametric equation of the point track - in the equation the time is a parameter.
After removing time, we get the relations between the x, y, z coordinates (i.e. the
path of motion).
We can also describe the motion of a point in terms of a vector radius 𝑟⃗ from time
𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗(𝑡).
Vector components

𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗𝑥 + 𝑟⃗𝑦 + 𝑟⃗𝑧 = 𝑟𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑟𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑟𝑧 𝑘̂

𝑟𝑥 = 𝑥(𝑡); 𝑟𝑦 = 𝑦(𝑡); 𝑟𝑧 = 𝑧(𝑡)

𝑟⃗ = 𝑖̂(𝑡) + 𝑗̂(𝑡) + 𝑘̂(𝑡)

Where 𝑖̂; 𝑗̂; 𝑘̂ are the versors of the reference coordinate system.
We know very well that we do not always have to move only in a rectangular system,
and in some cases it is better to operate in a different coordinate system. So let's
start by describing the movement of a point on the path using an arc coordinate.
When the path of a moving point P is known, it is possible to describe the position of
this point by specifying the coordinate s measured along the path from a full
stationary point Po.

s - arc coordinate equal to the arc length PoP,

When the point P moves, then s is a function of time

𝑠 = 𝑓(𝑡)
Equation of motion of a point on a track
 Equations of motion of a point in curvilinear coordinates
In addition to rectangular coordinates, the path of a point can be defined by
curvilinear coordinates.

Polar system on a plane

Let's start with a polar system on a plane. In such a system, a point moves only in one
plane, and its instantaneous position can be determined by specifying the length of
the leading radius 𝑟⃗ and the angle 𝜙 with the polar axis. The polar axis is the axis for
which 𝜙 = 0.

𝑟 = 𝑓1 (𝑡); 𝜙 = 𝑓2 (𝑡)
Transition from polar coordinates to the Transition from the Cartesian system to
Cartesian system the polar system

𝑥 = 𝑟 cos 𝜙 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑦 = 𝑟𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑦
𝜙 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑥

Polar system in space (spherical)

The position of the point is described by the vector 𝑟⃗, its length and angles 𝜃 and 𝜙.
Equation of motion
 𝑟 = 𝑓1 (𝑡); 𝜙 = 𝑓2 (𝑡); 𝜃 = 𝑓3 (𝑡)

Transition from spherical coordinates to Transition from the Cartesian system to

the Cartesian system the spherical system

𝑥 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 cos 𝜙 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 + 𝑧 2
𝑦 = 𝑟 sin 𝜃 𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑦
𝑧 = 𝑟 cos 𝜃 𝜙 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝑥
𝑧
𝜃 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑐𝑜𝑠
𝑟

Cylindrical coordinate system

Position of the point defined by:
z - position coordinate
 - distance from the z axis
 - angle

𝑧 = 𝑓1 (𝑡); 𝜌 = 𝑓2 (𝑡); 𝜙 = 𝑓3 (𝑡)

Transition from cylindrical coordinates to Transition from the Cartesian system to
the Cartesian system the cylindrical system

𝑥 = 𝜌 cos 𝜙 𝜌 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑦 = 𝜌𝑠𝑖𝑛𝜙 𝑦
𝑧=𝑧 𝜙 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑥
𝑧=𝑧
Example 1. The path of the point P is a circle with the radius R. Describe the
movement of this point using the radius vector 𝑟⃗. Take the center of the circle at the
center of the coordinate system.
We will begin the solution of the task by drawing a coordinate system.

Then, according to the data in the problem, let's place the center of the circle in the
center of our coordinate system.

Assume that the point started to move from the point Po, which lies on the axis X.
The instantaneous position of the point is determined by specifying the arc
coordinate s equal to the arc length PoP.
We know that
𝑠 =𝑟∗𝜙
𝑠 = 𝑟 ∗ 𝜙(𝑡)
𝜙(𝑡) – the angle of rotation of the radius vector

now going from Cartesian coordinates we get

 𝑟 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2
𝑦
𝜙 = 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑥
Finally, we can write
𝑠 =𝑟∗𝜙
𝑦
𝑠 = √𝑥 2 + 𝑦 2 ∗ 𝑎𝑟𝑐𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑥

Example 2. Given are the equations of motion of the point P moving in the Oxy plane.
𝑥 = 3 + 2𝑡; 𝑦 = −2𝑡, determine the trajectory of the point.
At the beginning, as in the previous task, let's insert a coordinate system.

Next, let's find the equation of the trajectory. We can see that the equations given in
the problem are parametric equations of motion, thanks to which we know what the
position of the point is for a given time. Therefore, our variable parameter is time. To
find an equation that shows us the trajectories of a point's motion, we need to get rid
of time from the given equations.
𝑦 𝑦
𝑡=− → 𝑥 = 3 + 2 (− ) = 3 − 𝑦
2 2
We can write the point path equation as follows
𝑥 = 3−𝑦
or

𝑦 =3−𝑥
Let's check where the point is at time t = 0
𝑥 = 3 + 2𝑡
𝑦 = −2𝑡
For this purpose, in the given parametric equations for motion, we change the time t
to a value equal to 0.
𝑥(𝑡 = 0) = 3
𝑦(𝑡 = 0) = 0

Finally, let's also put the designated path of our point on the graph.
VELOCITY AND ACCELERATION
Velocity
We begin our deliberations with the velocity of the material point. Let us consider the
movement of point M from point M1 to point M2. It can be seen that the path
covered by the point equals some s equal to the arc length M1M2.

We will assume that the point is at M1 at time t1 and at M2 at time t2, where:
𝑡2 = 𝑡1 + ∆𝑡

The position of the point in M1 and M2 can be described with the help of the vector 𝑟⃗1
and 𝑟⃗2 . It can be seen that the determination of the geometric increase of the vector
r will be of significant importance for determining the change in position.

This increase can be written as follows.

∆𝑟⃗ = 𝑟⃗2 (𝑡2 ) − 𝑟⃗1 (𝑡! )

The ratio of the vector 𝑟⃗ increase to the time in which this increase took place is
called the average speed.
∆𝑟⃗
⃗⃗𝑎𝑣 =
𝑉
∆𝑡

⃗⃗𝑎𝑣 has a chord direction. In all practical measurements

The average velocity vector 𝑉
we always determine the average value, which depends on the distance between
points M1 and M2. It depends on the point's movement and the choice of points on
the movement path.

Besides the average speed, there is the concept of instantaneous velocity 𝑉 ⃗⃗ . The
instantaneous velocity vector will exist if the radius 𝑟⃗ is differentiable. It is an abstract
concept, but it is of great importance and uniquely characterizes the movement at a
given moment.
If we assume that ∆𝑡 → 0 and ∆𝑠 → 𝑚𝑖𝑛, then the chord will go to the tangent.
Hence the velocity vector will also be tangent to the path of motion.
Instantaneous velocity
∆𝑟⃗ 𝑑𝑟⃗
⃗⃗ = lim
𝑉 = = 𝑟⃗̇(𝑡)
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
HODOGRAPH OF VELOCITY
Let us assume that the path l of a moving point M describes the end of the vector 𝑟⃗
which beginning is a point O. The velocities ⃗⃗⃗
𝑉𝑖 at successive points Mi are tangent to
this path of motion.

If we move the velocity vectors parallel to the common point O1, then the ends of
these vectors will lie on the line marked h, called the HODOGRAPH of the velocity of a
given point M.
Acceleration
⃗⃗1 at M1 and the
Let us assume that the point follows the curve l, with the velocity 𝑉
⃗⃗2 at M2.
velocity 𝑉

We will assume that the point is at M1 at time t1 and at M2 at time t2, where:

𝑡2 = 𝑡1 + ∆𝑡

Velocity increases between points M1 and M2.

⃗⃗ = 𝑉
∆𝑉 ⃗⃗2 − 𝑉
⃗⃗1

⃗⃗ increase to the time in which this increase took place is

The ratio of the vector 𝑉
called the average acceleration.
 ⃗⃗
∆𝑉
𝑎⃗𝑎𝑣 =
∆𝑡
⃗⃗, whereby its value and return depend
𝑎⃗𝑎𝑣 has the direction of velocity increase ∆𝑉
on the time interval of its determination ∆𝑡.

Besides the average acceleration, there is also an instantaneous acceleration 𝑎⃗.

In order to determine the instantaneous acceleration, we use the velocity hodograph

The instantaneous acceleration vector is directed along the tangent to the velocity
hodograph.
Instantaneous acceleration
⃗⃗ 𝑑𝑉
∆𝑉 ⃗⃗
𝑎⃗ = lim = ⃗⃗̇ (𝑡) = 𝑟⃗̈(𝑡)
=𝑉
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
CURVILINEAR MOVEMENT

When a point's path is a plane curve, its natural directions are tangent and normal.

𝜌 - radius of curvature lying on the line of the normal unit vector 𝑛̂.
⃗⃗ - velocity on the line of the tangential unit vector 𝜏̂
𝑉
1
𝜌=
𝐶
C – curvature,
Δ𝜙
𝐶𝑎𝑣 =
Δ𝑠
𝐶𝑎𝑣 – average curvature of MM1 curve
curvature at a point
Δ𝜙 d𝜙
𝐶 = lim =
∆𝑡→0 Δ𝑠 d𝑠
TANGENTIAL AND NORMAL ACCELERATION
The acceleration 𝑎⃗ of a point M moving along a spatial curve must lie in a strictly
⃗⃗ , it is tangent to the velocity
tangent plane, because as a derivative of the velocity 𝑉
hodograph of this point. Moreover, the velocity vector is always tangent to the curve
along which the point moves.

It is assumed that the point follows the curve from M to M1. It has a velocity 𝑉 ⃗⃗ at M
and a velocity 𝑉⃗⃗1at M1. Let us introduce two unit vectors into the system, a tangent 𝜏̂ ,
lying in the velocity direction 𝑉⃗⃗ , and a normal one 𝑛̂, directed to the center of the
curvature.

The velocity vector gain will be

⃗⃗ = 𝑉
∆𝑉 ⃗⃗1 − 𝑉
⃗⃗

transforming the expression we will get,

⃗⃗1 = 𝑉
𝑉 ⃗⃗ + ∆𝑉
⃗⃗

Further, we can see that the∆𝑉 ⃗⃗ vector can also be written as the sum of two vectors
⃗⃗⃗⃗and ∆𝑉"
∆𝑉′ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗, which will lie on the tangent and normal directions respectively.

⃗⃗⃗⃗ + ∆𝑉"
⃗⃗ = ∆𝑉′
∆𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗ = ∆𝑉′𝜏̂ + ∆𝑉"𝑛̂
Earlier we wrote that acceleration 𝑎⃗ is equal to:
⃗⃗
∆𝑉
𝑎⃗ = lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

We will now write this equation using the introduced vectors.

⃗⃗
∆𝑉 ⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑉′ ⃗⃗⃗⃗⃗
∆𝑉" ∆𝑉′ ∆𝑉"
𝑎⃗ = lim = lim + lim = 𝜏̂ lim + 𝑛̂ lim = 𝜏̂ 𝑎𝜏 + 𝑛̂𝑎𝑛
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

The above equation can generally be written as follows.

𝑎⃗ = 𝑎⃗𝜏 + 𝑎⃗𝑛
The total acceleration is then the sum of the tangential and normal acceleration.
Based on the above conclusion, let's try to write both components of acceleration
with the velocities as given in points M and M1.
∆𝑉 ′ = 𝑉1 cos Δ𝜙 − 𝑉
∆𝑉" = 𝑉1 sin Δ𝜙
Let's start with the component in the tangential direction
∆𝑉′ 𝑉1 cos Δ𝜙 − 𝑉 𝑉1 − 𝑉 𝑑𝑉
𝑎⃗𝜏 = 𝜏̂ lim = 𝜏̂ lim = 𝜏̂ lim = 𝜏̂
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝑑𝑡
if Δ𝜙 → 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 cos Δ𝜙 ≈ 1; 𝑉1 − 𝑉 = ∆𝑉
The final equation will be
𝑑𝑉
𝑎⃗𝜏 = 𝜏̂
𝑑𝑡

Once we know how we can find the tangential acceleration, let's do the same for the
normal component of the acceleration.
if Δ𝜙 → 0 𝑡ℎ𝑒𝑛 sin Δ𝜙 ≈ ∆𝜙;
∆𝑉" 𝑉1 sin Δ𝜙 𝑉1 Δ𝜙 Δ𝜙 Δ𝑠
𝑎⃗𝑛 = 𝑛̂ lim = 𝑛̂ lim = 𝑛̂ lim = 𝑛̂ lim 𝑉1 ∗
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 ∆𝑠
Δ𝜙 ∆𝑠
= 𝑛̂ lim 𝑉1 ∗ lim ∗ lim
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑠→0 ∆𝑠 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡

We can see that:

lim 𝑉1 = 𝑉;
∆𝑡→0

Δ𝜙 1
lim = ;
∆𝑠→0 ∆𝑠 𝜌
∆𝑠
lim = 𝑉;
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡
Then:

Δ𝜙 ∆𝑠 1 𝑉2
𝑎⃗𝑛 = 𝑛̂ lim 𝑉1 ∗ lim ∗ lim = 𝑛̂ ∗ 𝑉 ∗ ∗ 𝑉 = 𝑛̂
∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑠→0 ∆𝑠 ∆𝑡→0 ∆𝑡 𝜌 𝜌
Ultimately, taking both components of total acceleration into account, we get the
following formula
𝑑𝑉 𝑉2
𝑎⃗ = 𝑎⃗𝜏 + 𝑎⃗𝑛 = 𝜏̂ + 𝑛̂
𝑑𝑡 𝜌

𝑑𝑉 2 𝑉 4
𝑎= √𝑎 2 2 √
𝜏 + 𝑎𝑛 = ( ) + 2
𝑑𝑡 𝜌
𝑎𝑛
sin 𝛼 =
𝑎
𝑎𝜏
cos 𝛼 =
𝑎

ACCELERATION AND VELOCITY IN A RECTANGULAR COORDINATE SYSTEM

Parametric equations of motion will take the following form.

𝑥 = 𝑓1 (𝑡); 𝑦 = 𝑓2 (𝑡); 𝑧 = 𝑓3 (𝑡)

In order to obtain the velocity, one must differentiate once the above parametric equations
of motion. Then we get projections of the velocity vector on the appropriate axes of the
coordinate system.
𝑑𝑥
𝑥̇ = 𝑉𝑥 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑦
𝑦̇ = 𝑉𝑦 =
𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑧
𝑧̇ = 𝑉𝑧 =
𝑑𝑡
 ̂ = 𝑥̇ 𝑖̂ + 𝑦̇ 𝑗̂ + 𝑧̇ 𝑘
⃗⃗ = 𝑉𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑉𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑉𝑧 𝑘
𝑉 ̂
Then it is enough to calculate the velocity vector modulus according to the equation.

⃗⃗| = √𝑉𝑥2 + 𝑉𝑦2 + 𝑉𝑧2

𝑉 = |𝑉

Further, in order to determine the acceleration, one should differentiate the previously
obtained equations of the projections of velocity on individual axes. In this way, we will
obtain projections of the acceleration vector on the appropriate axes of the coordinate
system.

𝑑𝑉𝑥 𝑑 2 𝑥
𝑎𝑥 = = 2 = 𝑥̈
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉𝑦 𝑑 2 𝑦
𝑎𝑦 = = 2 = 𝑦̈
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑉𝑧 𝑑 2 𝑧
𝑎𝑧 = = 2 = 𝑧̈
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡

̂
𝑎⃗ = 𝑎𝑥 𝑖̂ + 𝑎𝑦 𝑗̂ + 𝑎𝑧 𝑘
Then it is enough to calculate the acceleration vector modulus according to the equation.

𝑎 = |𝑎
⃗⃗| = √𝑎𝑥2 + 𝑎𝑦2 + 𝑎𝑧2
To fully determine the acceleration of a point, one must also find the tangent and normal
values of the total acceleration. Below are the calculation of acceleration components for the
plane system.

|𝑑𝑉| 2𝑉𝑥̇ 𝑉𝑥 + 2𝑉𝑦̇ 𝑉𝑦 𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝑥 + 𝑎𝑦 𝑉𝑦

𝑎𝜏 = = 𝑉̇ = =
𝑑𝑡 2√𝑉𝑥2 + 𝑉𝑦2 𝑉

1
𝑎𝑛 = − (𝑎𝑦 𝑉𝑥 − 𝑎𝑥 𝑉𝑦 )
𝑉