A D V A N C E D T H E O R I E S O F P E R S O N A L I T Y

PROPONENT DEVELOPMENT MECHANISM APPLICATION

P S Y C H O D Y N A M I C T H E O R I E S
LEVELS OF MENTAL LIFE DYNAMICS OF PERSONALITY PSYCHOSEXUAL DEVELOPMENT DEFENSE MECHANISMS Dream Analysis
SIGMUND FREUD Unconscious early childhood *To Freud, people are motivated to seek According to Freud, dreams are the royal
PSYCHOANALYSIS experiences that create high levels of pleasure and to reduce tension and (1) Infantile stage is the first 4 or 5 years Repression- is a mechanism by road to the unconscious that dreams
anxiety are repressed here, where anxiety. of life or the most crucial for personality which the ego prevents anxiety- provide the id impulses with a stage for
Born: May 6, 1856, they may influence behavior, *Freud used the German word TRIEB to formation. provoking thoughts from being expression. They are a type of wish
Příbor, Czech Republic emotions, and attitudes for years. refer to a drive or a stimulus within the entertained at the conscious level. fulfillment, that is, a representation of
Preconscious events that are not person. It operates as a constant Three phases of the infantile stage: what the individual would like to have.
associated with anxiety but are motivational force. This includes sexual The oral phase is the first phase with the Sublimation- channeling or
Died: September 23,
merely forgotten make up the drive (libido) and aggressive mouth as the source of pleasure. substituting of negative id impulses Two Contents of Dream
1939, London, United
contents of the. (Thanatos) drive. The anal phase where the sexually into socially acceptable actions. Manifest Content- what the dreamer
Kingdom
Conscious images are those in 1. Sex - the aim of this drive is pleasure, pleasurable zone is the anus. sees and remembers.
awareness at any given time. but this pleasure is not limited to genital The phallic phase is where the genital Displacement- channeling or Latent Content- the meaning of the
satisfaction. Freud believed that the area becomes the leading erogenous substituting our impulses from an manifest content, what is the unconscious
PROVINCES OF THE MIND entire body is invested with libido. zone, at approximately 3 or 4 years of original target to another person or interpretation of the said dream.
Id–unconscious, chaotic, out of Primary Narcissism–Infants are age. It is accompanied by the Oedipus object.
contact with reality, and in service of primarily self-centered, with their libido complex. Projective test
the pleasure principle. invested almost exclusively on their ego. *Male Oedipus complex Denial- when we use denial, we The client is presented with ambiguous
–Operates through the primary (Universal) Castration anxiety – fear of losing the simply state that certain facts do not stimuli and asks to respond with a story,
process. Secondary Narcissism–adolescents penis; present in all boys exist. This is more than saying we do the identification of objects, or perhaps a
Ego–the executive of the personality, often redirect their libido back to the ego *Female Oedipus complex not remember, as in repression. drawing. Responses are individual and
in contact with the real world, and in and become preoccupied with personal Penis envy – may last for years in one Rather, we are insisting that indicative of something going on deep
service of the reality principle. appearance and other self-interests. (Not form or another; marks the start of the something is not true, despite all inside the mind, something the person
–Secondary process Universal) Oedipus complex evidence to the contrary. may not be aware of (Rorschach Inkblot
–Develops during the first 2 years of Love- develops when people invest their Test).
life. libido in an object or person other than Note: The three infantile stages overlap, Reaction Formation- is concealing a
Superego–serves the moral and themselves. with one another and each continues motive by giving strong expression to Free Association
idealistic principles and begins to Sadism- the need for sexual pleasure by after the onset of later stages. the opposite. The purpose is to arrive at the
form after the Oedipus complex is inflicting pain or humiliation on another unconscious by starting with a present
resolved. person. (2) Latency followed by a 6 or 7-year Projection- attributing an conscious idea and following it through a
–Formed when the child reaches the Masochism- the need for sexual period of latency, during which time little unconscious impulse to other people train of associations to wherever it leads.
age of 5 years. pleasure from suffering pain and or no sexual growth takes place. instead of to oneself. Allowing the client whatever comes into
Two Subsystems: humiliation inflicted either by themselves their mind to enter. Say whatever they
Ego-ideal = reward should do or by others. (3) Genital stage is ushered in at Rationalization- the process of feel like saying, even if it is not what is
Conscience = punishment, should 2. Aggression - this is considered as the puberty. The renaissance of sexual life or justifying one’s conduct by offering expected and even if they are a little
not do destructive drive, according to Freud the prompted by the reawakening of the socially acceptable reasons in place surprised or embarrassed by what comes
aim of this drive is to return the organism sexual aim. of real reasons. The excuses are out.
FEATURES OF DRIVES: to an inorganic state. The ultimate made up to hide or disguise the true
Source–stimulus or need, something inorganic condition is death, thus, the (4) Maturity is when psychosexual motive. Freudian Slips (Parapraxes)
in deficit final aim of the aggressive drive is self- development eventually culminates in. These are the commonly called slips of
Impetus–the amount of force it exerts destruction. This stage is attained by everyone who Rationalization may take two forms: the tongue or pen, misreading, incorrect
Aim–goal or purpose reaches physical maturity. Sour Grape- pretending to dislike hearing, misplacing objects, and
Object–person or thing that will Aggression is flexible and can take what one likes temporarily forgetting names or intentions
satisfy the aim several forms, such as teasing, gossip, Sweet-lemon- pretending to like what that are not chance accidents but reveal
sarcasm, humiliation, humor, and the one dislikes a person’s unconscious intentions.
ANXIETY is a felt, affective, enjoyment of other people suffering. The
unpleasant state accompanied by a aggressive tendency is present in Compensation- the process of Hypnosis
physical sensation that warns the everyone and is the explanation for wars, engaging in substitutive behavior to Early experiences with hypnosis helped
person against impending danger. violence, and religious persecution. cover up or make up social or physical Freud to understand that there was more
The unpleasantness is often vague frustration or a lack of ability in a to the human mind than what one can
and hard to pinpoint, but the anxiety certain area of personality. bring into awareness. He argued late in
itself is always felt. his career that hypnosis provided proof
Regression- is a mechanism in which for the existence of the unconscious.
Three Kinds of Anxiety a person turns to behavior that in
Neurotic anxiety – the apprehension earlier years reduced anxiety. Humor
about an unknown danger. People According to Freud, for a joke to be
 may experience neurotic anxiety in Introjection- whereby people funny, it must contain anxiety-provoking
the presence of a teacher, employer, incorporate positive qualities of material. According to Freud, if you want
or some other authority figure another person into their ego. to know what has been repressed in a
because they previously experienced person’s mind, examine what he or she
unconscious feelings of destruction Undoing- cancel out or make-up for a finds humorous.
against one or both parents. bad act by doing well. An example of
Moral anxiety - stems from the undoing would be excessively praising Symbolic Behavior
conflict between the ego and someone after having insulted. Just as our dreams are interpreted by
superego. After children establish a Freudian psychologists as symbolic
superego, they may experience representations of our unconscious
anxiety as an outgrowth of the conflict desires, so too can many of our daily
between real needs and the dictates behaviors be taken as symbolic gestures
of their superego. of these unconscious thoughts.
Realistic anxiety - this kind of
anxiety is defined as an unpleasant,
nonspecific feeling involving a
possible danger. It is closely related
to fear.

ALFRED ADLER Main tenets of Adlerian Theory External Factors in Maladjustment The three major problems of life— SAFEGUARDING TENDENCIES
INDIVIDUAL neighborly love, work, and sexual love
PSYCHOLOGY 1. The one dynamic force behind Exaggerated Physical Deficiencies —can only be solved through social (1) EXCUSES Expressed in the “Yes,
people’s behavior is the striving for People with exaggerated physical interest. but” or “If only” format. Excuses
Born: February 7, success or superiority. deficiencies sometimes develop protect a weak—but artificially inflated
1870, Rudolfsheim-  The Final Goal exaggerated feelings of inferiority The masculine protest—the belief that —a sense of self-worth and deceive
Fünfhaus, Vienna,  The Striving Force as because they overcompensate for their men are superior to women—is a fiction people into believing that they are
Austria Compensation inadequacy. They tend to be overly that lies at the root of many neuroses, more superior to they are.
 Striving for Personal Superiority concerned with themselves and lack both for men and women. (2) AGGRESSION Use to safeguard
 Striving for Success consideration for others. They feel as if their exaggerated superiority complex,
Died: May 28, 1937,
2. People’s subjective perceptions they are living in an enemy country, fear FAMILY CONSTELLATION that is, to protect their fragile self-
Aberdeen, United
shape their behavior and personality. defeat more than fear desire success, esteem.
Kingdom
 Fictionalism and are convinced that life’s major Oldest Child Depreciation is the tendency to
 Physical Inferiorities problems can be solved only in a selfish (+) Nurturing and protective of others undervalue other people’s
3. Personality is unified and self- manner. (+) Good organizer achievements and to overvalue one’s
consistent. Pampered Style of Life (-) Highly anxious own.
 Organ Dialect A pampered style of life lies at the heart (-) Exaggerated feelings of power The accusation is the tendency to
 Conscious and Unconscious of most neuroses. Pampered people (-) Unconscious hostility blame others for one’s failures and to
4. The value of all human activity have weak social interests but a strong (-) Fights for acceptance seek revenge, thereby safeguarding
must be seen from the viewpoint of desire to perpetuate the pampered, (-) Must always be “right,” whereas others one’s tenuous self-esteem.
social interest. parasitic relationship they originally had are always “wrong” Self-accusation is marked by self-
 Origins of Social Interest with one or both of their parents. They (-) Highly critical of others torture and guilt. People devalue
 Importance of Social Interest expect others to look after them, (-) Uncooperative themselves to inflict suffering on
5. The self-consistent personality overprotect them, and satisfy their needs. others while protecting their magnified
structure develops into a person’s They are characterized by extreme Second Child feelings of self-esteem.
style of life. – refers to the flavor of a discouragement, indecisiveness, (+) Highly motivated (3) WITHDRAWAL Can be halted
person’s life. It includes a person’s oversensitivity, impatience, and (+) Cooperative when people run away from
goal, self-concept, feelings for others, exaggerated emotion, especially anxiety. (+) Moderately competitive difficulties; or safeguarding through
and attitude toward the world. They see the world with a private vision (-) Highly competitive distance.
6. Style of life is molded by people’s and believe that they are entitled to be (-) Easily discouraged Moving backward is the tendency to
creative power. – is a dynamic first in everything. safeguard one’s fictional goal of
concept implying movement, and this Neglected Style of Life Youngest Child superiority by psychologically
movement is the most salient Abused and mistreated children develop (+) Realistically ambitious reverting to a more secure period of
characteristic of life. All psychic life little social interest and tend to create a (-) Pampered style of life life.
involves movement toward a goal, neglected style of life. They have little (-) Dependent on others Standing still people who stand still
movement with a direction. confidence in themselves and tend to (-) Wants to excel in everything simply do not move in any direction;
overestimate difficulties connected with (-) Unrealistically ambitious thus, they avoid all responsibility by
Social Interest – German term, life’s major problems. They are distrustful ensuring themselves against any
Gemeinschaftsgefühl, “social feeling” of other people and are unable to Only Child threat of failure.
 or “community feeling”, a feeling of cooperate for the common welfare. They (+) Socially mature Hesitating people hesitate or vacillate
oneness with all humanity; it implies see society as an enemy country; feel (-) Exaggerated feelings of superiority when faced with difficult problems.
membership in the social community alienated from all other people, and (-) Low feelings of cooperation Constructing obstacles some
of all people. A deep concern for the experience a strong sense of envy toward (-) Inflated sense of self people build a straw house to show
welfare of other people is the sole the success of others. (-) Pampered style of life that they can knock it down. By
criterion by which human actions overcoming the obstacle, they protect
should be judged. their self-esteem and their prestige. If
they fail to hurdle the barrier, they can
always resort to an excuse.
CARL GUSTAV JUNG LEVELS OF THE PSYCHE DYNAMICS OF PERSONALITY STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT PSYCHOLOGICAL TYPES Word Association Test
ANALYTICAL (1) Conscious images are those that Jung used the word association test early
PSYCHOLOGY are sensed by the ego Causality holds that present events have Childhood (The early morning sun) – full ATTITUDES in his career to uncovering complexes
Ego – the center of consciousness, their origin in previous experiences. of potential but still lacking in brilliance. (1) Introversion embedded in the personal unconscious.
Born: July 26, 1875, but not the core of personality. The Teleology holds that present events are The turning inward of psychic energy The technique requires a patient to utter
Kesswil, Switzerland ego must be completed by the more motivated by goals and aspirations for the Jung divided childhood into three sub- with an orientation toward the the first word that comes to mind after the
comprehensive self, the center of future that direct a person’s destiny. stages: (1) Anarchic phase is subjective. examiner reads a stimulus word. Unusual
personality that is largely characterized by chaotic and sporadic (2) Extraversion responses indicate a complex.
Died: June 6, 1961,
unconscious. Jung insisted that human behavior is consciousness. (2) Monarchic phase of The attitude is distinguished by the
Küsnacht, Switzerland
(2) Personal unconscious is formed shaped by both causal and teleological childhood is characterized by the turning outward of psychic energy. Dream Analysis
by the repressed experiences of one forces and that causal explanations must development of the ego and by the Jung believed that dreams may have
particular individual and is the be balanced with teleological ones. beginning of logical and verbal thinking, FUNCTIONS both a cause and a purpose and thus can
reservoir of the complexes. A and (3) the Dualistic phase of childhood (1) THINKING be useful in explaining past events and in
complex is an emotionally toned To achieve self-realization, people must when the ego is divided into the objective A logical intellectual activity that making decisions about the future. "Big
collection of associated ideas. adapt not only to their outside and subjective. produces a chain of ideas. dreams" and "typical dreams," both of
(3) Humans inherit a collective environment but to their inner world as Extraverted thinking relies heavily which come from the collective
unconscious that helps shape many well. on concrete thoughts. unconscious, have meanings that lie
of their attitudes, behaviors, and Youth (The morning sun) – Climbing Introverted thinking reacts to beyond the experiences of a single
dreams. Progression - adaptation to the outside toward the zenith, but unaware of the external stimuli, but the interpretation individual.
Archetypes are contents of the world involves the forward flow of psychic impending decline. of an event is colored more by the
collective unconscious. Typical energy internal meaning. Active Imagination
archetypes include persona, shadow, Regression - adaptation to the inner The period from puberty until middle life. (2) FEELING Jung also used active imagination to
anima, animus, great mother, wise world relies on a backward flow of The major difficulty facing youth is to The process of evaluating an idea or arrive at collective images. This
old man, hero, and self. psychic energy. overcome the natural tendency (found event. technique requires the patient to
also in middle and later years) to cling to In extraverted feelings, people use concentrate on a single image until that
*Persona represents the side of Both progression and regression are the narrow consciousness of childhood, objective data to make evaluations. image begins to appear in a different
personality that people show to the essential if people are to achieve thus avoiding problems pertinent to the Introverted feeling bases their value form. Eventually, the patient should see
rest of the world. Psychologically individual growth or self-realization. present time of life. This desire to live in judgments primarily on subjective figures that represent archetypes and
healthy people recognize their the past is called the conservative perceptions. other collective unconscious images.
persona but do not mistake it for the principle. (3) SENSING
whole of personality. The function that receives physical Psychotherapy
*Anima is the feminine side of men Middle life (The early afternoon sun) – stimuli and transmits them to The goal of Jungian therapy is to help
and is responsible for many of their brilliant like the late morning sun, but perceptual consciousness. neurotic patients become healthy and to
irrational moods and feelings. headed for the sunset. Extraverted sensing people perceive move healthy people in the direction of
*Animus, the masculine side of external stimuli objectively, in much self-realization. Jung was eclectic in his
women, is responsible for irrational Jung believed that middle life begins at the same way that these stimuli exist choice of therapeutic techniques and
thinking and illogical opinions in approximately age 35 or 40, by which in reality. treated old people differently than the
women. time the sun has passed its zenith and Introverted sensing people are young.
*Great mother is the archetype of begins its descent. Although this decline largely influenced by their subjective
fertility and destruction. can present middle-aged people with sensations of sight, sound, taste,
*Wise Old Man archetype is the increasing anxieties, middle life is also a touch, and so forth.
intelligent but deceptive voice of period of tremendous potential. (4) INTUITING
accumulated experience. Involves perception beyond the
*Hero is the unconscious image of a Old age (The evening sun) – it is once workings of consciousness.
person who conquers an evil foe but bright consciousness now markedly Extraverted intuitive people are
who also has a tragic flaw. dimmed. oriented toward facts in the external
*Self is the archetype of world.
completeness, wholeness, and Introverted intuitive people are
perfection. guided by the unconscious perception
 of subjective facts.

MELANIE KLEIN Klein stressed the importance of the Klein chose the term “position” rather Psychic Defense Mechanisms
OBJECT first 4 or 6 months. than “stage of development” to indicate
RELATIONS THEORY that positions alternate back and forth.
To her, infants do not begin life with a
blank slate but with Although she used psychiatric or
an inherited predisposition to reduce pathological labels, Klein intended these
the anxiety they experience as a positions to represent normal social
result of the conflict produced by the growth and development. The two basic
forces of the life instinct and the positions are the paranoid-schizoid
power of the death instinct. position and the depressive position.

The infant’s innate readiness to act or Paranoid-Schizoid Position

react presupposes the existence of Infants develop the paranoid-schizoid
phylogenetic endowment, a concept position during the first 3 or 4 months of
that Freud also accepted. life, during which time the ego’s
perception of the external world is
In their attempt to deal with this subjective and fantastic rather than
dichotomy of good and bad feelings, objective and real.
infants organize their experiences into
positions, or ways of dealing with Depressive Position
both internal and external objects. Beginning at about the 5th or 6th month,
an infant begins to view external objects
as a whole and to see that good and bad
can exist in the same person.

KAREN HORNEY Horney insisted that social and NEUROTIC TRENDS 10 NEUROTIC NEEDS 8. The neurotic need for ambition PSYCHOTHERAPY
PSYCHOANALYTIC cultural influences were more (1) Moving Toward People 1. The neurotic need for affection and and personal achievement. The goal of Horneyian therapy is to bring
SOCIAL THEORY important than biological ones. Does not mean moving toward them in approval. Neurotics attempt Neurotics often have a strong drive to about growth toward the actualization of
the spirit of genuine love. Rather, it refers indiscriminately to please others. They try be the best—the best salesperson, the real self.
Born: September 16, If parents do not satisfy the child’s to a neurotic need to protect oneself to live up to the expectations of others, the best bowler, the best lover. They
1885, Blankenese, needs for safety and satisfaction, the against feelings of helplessness. In their tend to dread self-assertion, and are quite must defeat other people to confirm HORNEYIAN THERAPY
Germany child develops feelings of basic attempts to protect themselves against uncomfortable with the hostility of others their superiority. The therapist’s task is to convince
hostility toward the parents. feelings of helplessness, compliant as well as the hostile feelings within 9. The neurotic need for self- patients that their present solutions are
However, children seldom overtly people employ either or both of the first themselves. sufficiency and independence. perpetuating rather than alleviating the
Died: December 4,
express this hostility as rage; instead, two neurotic needs; that is, they 2. The neurotic need for a powerful Many neurotics have a strong need to core neurosis, a task that takes much
1952, New York City,
they repress their hostility toward their desperately strive for the affection and partner. Lacking self-confidence, move away from people, thereby time and hard work. Patients may look for
New York, United
parents and have no awareness of it. approval of others, or they seek a neurotics try to attach themselves to a proving that they can get along quick cures or solutions, but only the
States
powerful partner who will take powerful partner. This need includes an without others. The playboy who long, laborious process of self-
Repressed hostility then leads to responsibility for their lives. overvaluation of love and a dread of cannot be tied down by any woman understanding can effect positive change.
profound feelings of insecurity and a (2) Moving Away From People being alone or deserted. exemplifies this neurotic need. Self-understanding must go beyond
vague sense of apprehension. This To solve the basic conflict of isolation, 3. The neurotic need to restrict one’s 10. The neurotic need for perfection information; it must be accompanied by
condition is called basic anxiety “a some people behave in a detached life within narrow borders. Neurotics and unassailability. By striving an emotional experience. Patients must
feeling of being isolated and helpless manner and adopt a neurotic trend of frequently strive to remain inconspicuous, relentlessly for perfection, neurotics understand their pride system, their
in a world conceived as potentially moving away from people. This strategy to take second place, and to be content receive “proof” of their self-esteem idealized image, their neurotic search for
hostile”, “a feeling of being small, is an expression of needs for privacy, with very little. They downgrade their and personal superiority. They dread glory, their self-hatred, their shoulds, their
insignificant, helpless, deserted, independence, and self-sufficiency. abilities and dread making demands on making mistakes and having personal alienation from self, and their conflicts.
endangered, in a world that is out to Again, each of these needs can lead to others. flaws, and they desperately attempt to Moreover, they must see how all these
abuse, cheat, attack, humiliate, positive behaviors, with some people 4. The neurotic need for power. The hide their weaknesses from others. factors are interrelated and operate to
betray, envy”. healthily satisfying these needs. need for power is usually combined with preserve their basic neurosis.
However, these needs become neurotic the need for prestige and possession; it
The inability of people to use different when people try to satisfy them by manifests itself as the need to control
tactics in their relationships with compulsively putting emotional distance others and to avoid feelings of weakness
others generates basic conflict: that between themselves and other people. or stupidity.
is, the incompatible tendency to move (3) Moving Against People 5. The neurotic need to exploit others.
toward, against, and away from Just as compliant people assume that Neurotics frequently evaluate others
 people. everyone is nice, aggressive people take based on how they can be used or
for granted that everyone is hostile. As a exploited, but at the same time, they fear
Both healthy and neurotic people result, they adopt the strategy of moving being exploited by others.
experience intrapsychic conflicts against people. Neurotically aggressive 6. The neurotic need for social
that have become part of their belief people are just as compulsive as recognition or prestige. Some people
systems. compliant people are, and their behavior combat basic anxiety by trying to be first,
The idealized self-image results in is just as much prompted by basic to be important, or to attract attention to
neurotics’ attempts to build a godlike anxiety. These people move against them.
picture of them. others by appearing tough or ruthless. 7. The neurotic need for personal
Self-hatred is the tendency for They are motivated by a strong need to admiration. Neurotics need to be
neurotics to hate and despise their exploit others and to use them for their admired for what they are rather than for
real self. benefit. They seldom admit their mistakes what they possess. Their inflated self-
and are compulsively driven to appear esteem must be continually fed by the
perfect, powerful, and superior. admiration and approval of others.

ERICH FROMM HUMAN NEEDS Character is defined as the relatively Productive Orientations Fromm believed that humans, unlike
HUMANISTIC Relatedness – the drive for union permanent system of all non-instinctual Healthy people value work not as an end other animals, have been “torn away”
PSYCHOANALYSIS with another person or other persons. strivings through which man relates to the in itself, but as a means of creative self- from their prehistoric union with
Fromm postulated three basic ways in human and natural world. expression. nature. They have no powerful
Born: March 23, 1900, which a person may relate to the They do not work to exploit others, to instincts to adapt to a changing world;
Frankfurt, Germany world: (1) submission, (2) power, and CHARACTER ORIENTATION market themselves, to withdraw from instead, they have acquired the facility
(3) love. Non-productive Orientations others, or to accumulate needless to reason—a condition called the
Died: March 18, 1980, Transcendence – defined as the Receptive characters feel that the material possessions. They are neither human dilemma
Muralto, Switzerland urge to rise above a passive and source of all good lies outside themselves lazy nor compulsively active but use work
accidental existence and into “the and that the only way they can relate to as a means of producing life’s MECHANISMS OF ESCAPE
realm of purposefulness and the world is to receive things, including necessities. (1) Authoritarianism is the tendency
freedom.” love, knowledge, and material to give up the independence of one’s
Rootedness – the need to establish possessions. Productive love is characterized by the self and to fuse one’s self with
roots or to feel at home again in the Exploitative characters believe that the four qualities of love discussed earlier— somebody or something outside
world. When humans evolved as a source of all good is outside themselves. care, responsibility, respect, and oneself, to acquire the strength, which
separate species, they lost their home They aggressively take what they desire knowledge. In addition to these four the individual is lacking.
in the natural world. At the same time, rather than passively receiving it. characteristics, healthy people possess (a)Masochism is the result of basic
their capacity for thought enabled On the negative side, exploitative biophilia: that is, passionate love of life feelings of powerlessness, weakness,
them to realize that they were without characters are egocentric, conceited, and all that is alive. and inferiority and is aimed at joining
a home, without roots. arrogant, and seducing. On the positive the self to a more powerful person or
Sense of identity – the capacity to side, they are impulsive, proud, charming, Productive thinking, which cannot be institution.
be aware of ourselves as a separate and self-confident. separated from productive work and love, (b)Sadism is more neurotic and more
entity. Because we have been torn Hoarding characters rather than valuing is motivated by a concerned interest in socially harmful. Sadism is aimed at
away from nature, we need to form a things outside themselves, seek to save another person or object. Healthy people reducing basic anxiety through
concept of ourselves, to be able to that which they have already obtained. see others as they are and not as they achieving unity with another person or
say, “I am I,” or “I am the subject of They hold everything inside and do not let would wish them to be. Similarly, they persons.
my actions.” go of anything. They keep money, know themselves for who they are and (2) Destructiveness is rooted in the
The frame of orientation – Being feelings, and thoughts to themselves. have no need for self-delusion. feelings of aloneness, isolation, and
split off from nature, humans need a Marketing character is an outgrowth of powerlessness. Destructiveness does
road map, a frame of orientation, to modern commerce in which trade is no Fromm believed that healthy people rely not depend on a continuous
make their way through the world. longer personal but carried out by large, on some combination of all five-character relationship with another person;
Without such a map, humans would faceless corporations. Consistent with the orientations. Their survival as healthy rather, it seeks to do away with other
be “confused and unable to act demands of modern commerce, individuals depends on their ability to people.
purposefully and consistently”. marketing characters see themselves as receive things from other people, to take (3) Conformity is when people who
commodities, with their value depending things when appropriate, to preserve conform try to escape from a sense of
Relatedness on their exchange value, that is, their things, to exchange things, and to work, aloneness and isolation by giving up
(-) Submission/domination (+) Love ability to sell themselves. love, and think productively. their individuality and becoming
Transcendence whatever other people desire them to
(-) Destructiveness (+) Creativeness Some extremely sick people are Psychologically healthy people acquire be. Thus, they become like robots,
Rootedness motivated by the syndrome of decay, the syndrome of growth, which includes reacting predictably and mechanically
(-) Fixation (+) Wholeness which includes (1) necrophilia, or the (1) positive freedom, or the to the whims of others. They seldom
Sense of identity love of death; (2) malignant narcissism, spontaneous activity of a whole, express their own opinion, cling to
 (-) Adjustment to a group or infatuation with self; and (3) integrated personality; (2) biophilia, or expected standards of behavior, and
(+) Individuality incestuous symbiosis, or the tendency passionate love of life; and (3) love for often appear stiff and automated.
Frame of orientation to remain bound to a mothering person or fellow humans.
(-) Irrational goals her equivalents.
(+) Rational goals

HARRY STACK People develop their personalities The second class is composed of three DEVELOPMENTAL STAGES With Sullivan’s psychotherapy, the
SULLIVAN through interpersonal relationships. categories—the disjunctive, the isolating, (1) The first developmental stage is therapist serves as a participant-observer
INTERPERSONAL and the conjunctive. infancy (from birth to the development of and attempts to improve patients’
THEORY The experience takes place on three syntaxic language), a time when an interpersonal relations.
levels—PROTOTAXIC (primitive, pre- Disjunctive dynamisms include those infant’s primary interpersonal relationship
Born: February 21, symbolic), PARATAXIC (not destructive patterns of behavior that is with the mothering one. Sullivanian therapy is aimed at
1892, Norwich, New accurately communicated to others), are related to the concept of uncovering patients’ difficulties in relating
York and SYNTAXIC (accurate malevolence; isolating dynamisms (2) During childhood (from syntaxic to others. To accomplish this goal, the
communication). include those behavior patterns (such as language to the need for playmates of therapist helps patients to give up some
lust) that are unrelated to interpersonal equal status), the mother continues as security in dealing with other people and
Two aspects of experience are relations; and conjunctive dynamisms the most important interpersonal to realize that they can achieve mental
Died: January 14, 1949
tensions (action potential) and include beneficial behavior patterns, such relationship, although children of this age health only through consensually
energy transformations (actions or as intimacy and the self-system. often have an imaginary playmate. validated personal relations. The
behaviors). therapeutic ingredient in this process is
Malevolence (a feeling of living in an (3) The third stage is the juvenile era the face-to-face relationship between
TWO KINDS OF TENSIONS enemy country) is the disjunctive (from the need for playmates of equal therapist and patients, which permits
dynamism of evil and hatred, status to the development of intimacy), a patients to reduce anxiety and to
Needs are conjunctive in that they characterized by the feeling of living time when children should learn communicate with others on the syntaxic
facilitate interpersonal development. among one’s enemies. (Around 2 to 3 competition, compromise, and level.
The most basic interpersonal need is years old). cooperation— skills that will enable them
tenderness. to move successfully through later stages Sullivanian therapists avoid getting
Intimacy (a close interpersonal of development. personally involved. They do not place
Anxiety is disjunctive in that it relationship with a peer of equal status) themselves on the same level as the
interferes with the satisfaction of grows out of the earlier need for (4) The most crucial stage of patient; on the contrary, they try to
needs and is the primary obstacle to tenderness but is more specific and development is preadolescence (from convince the patient of their expert
establishing healthy interpersonal involves a close interpersonal relationship intimacy with a best friend to the abilities. In other words, friendship is not
relationships. Anxiety postulated that between two people who are more or less beginning of puberty). Mistakes made a condition of psychotherapy—therapists
it is transferred from the parent to the of equal status. (Ideally during during this phase are difficult to overcome must be trained as experts in the difficult
infant through the process of preadolescence) later. business of making discerning
empathy. observations of the patient’s interpersonal
Lust (impersonal sexual desires) is an (5) During early adolescence young relations.
Energy transformations become isolating tendency, requiring no other people are motivated by both intimacy
organized into consistent traits or person for its satisfaction. (During (usually for someone of the same gender) Sullivan was primarily concerned with
behavior patterns called adolescence) and lust (ordinarily for a person of the understanding patients and helping them
dynamisms–a term that means opposite gender). improve foresight, discover difficulties in
about the same as traits or habit Self-system is a consistent pattern of interpersonal relations, and restore their
patterns. behaviors that maintains people’s (6) People reach late adolescence when ability to participate in consensually
interpersonal security by protecting them they can direct their intimacy and lust validated experiences. To accomplish
Dynamisms are of two major classes: from anxiety. (Develops at about 12 to 18 toward one other person. these goals, he concentrated his efforts
first, those related to specific zones of months) on answering three continuing questions:
the body, including the mouth, anus, (7) The successful completion of late
and genitals; and second, those adolescence culminates in adulthood, a Precisely what is the patient saying to
related to tensions. stage marked by a stable love me? How can I best put into words
relationship. what I wish to say to the patient? What
is the general pattern of
communication between us?

ERIK HOMBURGER INTERRELATED ASPECTS OF PSYCHOSOCIAL DEVELOPMENT Identity vs Role Confusion (Fidelity) Psychohistory
ERIKSON EGO Adolescence (12 – 20 years) The discipline called psychohistory is a
POST-FREUDIAN Trust vs Mistrust (Hope) -Develops a sense of self and identity. controversial field that combines
THEORY Body Ego Infancy (from birth to 18 months) Plans to actualize one’s abilities. psychoanalytic concepts with historical
 Refers to experiences with our body; -Being able to trust others when the Develops the ability to stay true to methods.
Born: June 15, 1902, a way of seeing our physical self as primary caregiver (usually the mother) oneself
Frankfurt, Germany different from other people. provides caring, attention and love -Feeling of confusion, indecisiveness, Erikson defined psychohistory as the
Ego Ideal -Mistrusting others, withdrawal or and anti-social behavior. Weak sense study of individual and collective life with
Represents the image we have of estrangement of self the combined methods of psychoanalysis
Died: May 12, 1994,
ourselves in comparison with an and history.
Harwich,
established ideal. Autonomy vs Shame & Doubt (Will) Intimacy vs Isolation (Love)
Massachusetts, United
Ego Identity Early Childhood (18 mos to 3 years) Young Adulthood (20 – 25 years) He used psychohistory to demonstrate
States
It is the image we have of ourselves -Develops self-control and physical skills -Develops a strong need to form his fundamental beliefs that each person
in the variety of social roles we play. and a sense of independence without intimate, loving relationships with a is a product of his or her historical time
losing self-esteem. Ability to cooperate group of people or with another and that those historical times are
Erikson’s stages of development rest and express oneself. person. Develops strong relationships. influenced by exceptional leaders
on an epigenetic principle, meaning -Develops a feeling of autonomy. Learns commitment to work and with experiencing a personal identity conflict.
that each component proceeds in a Compulsive self-restraint or compliance. another person or group
step-by-step fashion with later growth Willfulness and defiance. Failure will -Impersonal, weak relationships. Erikson described the difference between
building on earlier development. result in feelings of shame and doubt Avoidance of relationship, career, or conflicts in great people, and
lifestyle commitments. May result in psychologically disturbed people: “This,
In every stage of life, there is an Initiative vs Guilt (Purpose) isolation and loneliness then, is the difference between a case
interaction of opposites – that is, a Late Childhood (3 – 5 years) history and a life history: patients, great
conflict between a syntonic -Learns that being assertive, using Generativity vs Stagnation (Care) or small, are increasingly debilitated by
(harmonious) element and a power, and being purposeful can Adulthood (25 – 65 years) their inner conflicts, but in historical
dystonic (disruptive) element. influence their environment. Develops -Creates or nurtures things that will actuality, inner conflict only adds an
sense of purpose. Starts to evaluate outlast them, either by having children indispensable momentum to all
The conflict between the dystonic and one’s behavior or creating a positive change that superhuman effort”.
syntonic elements produces an ego -When using too much power and control, benefits others. Creativity,
quality of ego strength, which is might experience disapproval resulting in productivity, the feeling of usefulness
referred to as a basic strength. Each a lack of self-confidence and a sense of and accomplishment, and concern for
of the basic strengths has an guilt. Pessimism, fear of being wrongly others
underlying antipathy that becomes judged -Self-indulgence, self-concern, or lack
the core pathology of that stage. of interests and commitment. Shallow
Industry vs Inferiority (Competence) involvement in the world, pessimism
IDENTITY CRISIS – a turning point in School Age (6 – 12 years)
one’s life that may either strengthen -Learns how to cope with the school Integrity vs Despair (Wisdom)
or weaken personality. environment and its demands. Learns Maturity (65 years to death)
how to create, develop and manipulate. -Sense of fulfillment as one looks
Develops a sense of competence and back in one’s life and develops a
perseverance feeling of wisdom. Acceptance of
-Loss of hope, sense of being mediocre. worth and uniqueness of one’s own
Develops feelings of inferiority. life. Acceptance of the inevitability of
Withdrawal from school and peers death and transitioning
-Sense of loss, contempt for others.
May result in regret, bitterness, and
despair
H U M A N I S T I C – E X I S T E N T I A L T H E O R I E S

ABRAHAM HAROLD Maslow assumed that motivation THE FIVE CONATIVE NEEDS Acceptance of the B-values is the In his philosophy of science, Maslow
MASLOW affects the whole person; it is criterion that separates self- argued for a Taoistic attitude, one that is
HOLISTIC-DYNAMIC complete, often unconscious, Physiological is the most basic needs of actualizing people from those who are noninterfering, passive, receptive, and
THEORY continual, and applicable to all any person including food, water, oxygen, merely healthy but mired at the level subjective.
people. maintenance of body temperature, and so of esteem. The values of self-
Born: April 1, 1908, on. Physiological needs are the most pre- actualizing people include truth, The Personal Orientation Inventory
Brooklyn, New York, People are motivated by four potent of all. goodness, beauty, wholeness or the (POI) is a standardized test designed to
United States dimensions of needs: conative (wilful transcendence of dichotomies, measure self-actualizing values and
striving), aesthetic (the need for Safety is when people have partially aliveness or spontaneity, uniqueness, behavior.
order and beauty), cognitive (the satisfied their physiological needs, they perfection, completion, justice and
Died: June 8, 1970,
need for curiosity and knowledge), become motivated by safety needs, order, simplicity, richness or totality, The Jonah complex is the fear of being
Menlo Park, California,
and neurotic (an unproductive including physical security, stability, effortlessness, playfulness or humor, or doing one’s best.
United States
pattern of relating to others people). dependency, protection, and freedom and self-sufficiency or autonomy.
 from threatening forces such as war, Psychotherapy should be directed at the
Aesthetic needs are not universal, terrorism, illness, fear, anxiety, danger, Metamotivation is characterized by need level currently being thwarted, in
but at least some people in every chaos, and natural disasters. The needs expressive rather than coping most cases love and belongingness
culture seem to be motivated by the for law, order, and structure are also behavior and is associated with the B- needs.
need for beauty and aesthetically safety needs. values.
pleasing experiences. The aim of therapy would be for clients to
Cognitive needs are when most Love and belongingness are after Coping behavior is motivated and is embrace the Being values that are, to
people have a desire to know, solve people partially satisfy their physiological directed toward the satisfaction of value truth, justice, goodness, simplicity,
mysteries, understand, and be and safety needs, they become motivated basic needs. and so forth. To accomplish this aim,
curious. by love and belongingness needs, such clients must be free from their
Neurotic needs are when the as the desire for friendship; the wish for a Expressive behavior has a cause dependency on others so that their
satisfaction of conative, aesthetic, mate and children; the need to belong to but is not motivated; it is simply one’s natural impulse toward growth and self-
and cognitive needs is basic to one’s a family, a club, a neighborhood, or a way of expressing oneself. actualization could become active.
physical and psychological health, nation. Love and belongingness also Psychotherapy cannot be value-free but
and their frustration leads to some include some aspects of sex and human Conative needs, including self- must take into consideration the fact that
level of illness. contact as well as the need to both give actualization, are instinctoid; that is, everyone has an inherent tendency to
and receive love. their deprivation leads to pathology. move toward a better, more enriching
The characteristics of self- condition, namely self-actualization.
actualizes include (1) a more efficient Esteem is the extent that people satisfy The frustration of self-actualization
perception of reality; (2) acceptance their love and belongingness needs, they needs results in metapathology and
of self, others, and nature; (3) are free to pursue esteem needs, which a rejection of the B-values.
spontaneity, simplicity, and include self-respect, confidence,
naturalness; (4) a problem-centered competence, and the knowledge that
approach to life; (5) the need for others hold them in high esteem.
privacy; (6) autonomy; (7) freshness
of appreciation; (8) peak experiences; Self-actualization includes self-
(9) social interest; (10) profound fulfillment, the realization of all one’s
interpersonal relations; (11) a potential, and a desire to become
democratic attitude; (12) the ability to creative in the full sense of the word.
discriminate means from ends; (13) a
philosophical sense of humor; (14) Occasionally, needs on the hierarchy can
creativeness; and (15) resistance to be reversed, and they are frequently
enculturation. unconscious.

CARL RANSOM The formative tendency states that Awareness is defined as “the symbolic BARRIERS TO PSYCHOLOGICAL When vulnerable people meet a therapist
ROGERS all matter, both organic and inorganic, representation (not necessarily in verbal GROWTH who is congruent and who has
PERSON-CENTERED tends to evolve from simple to more symbols) of some portion of our unconditional positive regard and
THEORY complex forms. experience”. Conditions of worth is a condition of empathy, the process of personality
worth that arises when the positive change begins.
Born: January 8, 1902, Humans and other animals possess LEVELS OF AWARENESS regard of a significant other is
Oak Park, Illinois an actualization tendency: that is, First, some events are experienced below conditional when the individual feels This process of therapeutic personality
the predisposition to move toward the threshold of awareness and are either that in some respects, he/she is change ranges from extreme
Died: 1987 completion or fulfillment. ignored or denied. prized and in others not. defensiveness, or an unwillingness to talk
Second, some experiences are about self, to a final stage in which clients
The need for maintenance includes accurately symbolized and freely Incongruence develops when the become their therapists and can continue
such basic needs as food, air, and admitted to the self-structure. Such organismic self and the perceived self psychological growth outside the
safety; but it also includes the experiences are both non-threatening does not match. therapeutic setting.
tendency to resist change and to seek and consistent with the existing self-
the status quo. concept. The vulnerability the greater the The basic outcomes of client-centered
The third level of awareness involves incongruence between our perceived counseling are congruent clients who are
This need to become more, to experiences that are perceived in a self (self-concept) and our organismic open to experiences and who have no
develop, and to achieve growth is distorted form. When our experience is experience, the more vulnerable we need to be defensive.
called enhancement–expressed in a not consistent with our view of self, we are.
variety of forms; including curiosity, reshape or distort the experience so that Theoretically, successful clients will
playfulness, self-exploration, it can be assimilated into our existing self- Anxiety–a state of uneasiness or become persons of tomorrow, or fully
friendship, and confidence that one concept. tension whose cause is unknown functioning persons.
can achieve psychological growth. Threat–signals to us that our
 Becoming a Person organismic experience is inconsistent
Self-actualization develops after An individual becomes a person by with our self-concept
people evolve a self-system and making contact—positive or negative—
refers to the tendency to move toward with another person whose positive Defensiveness is the protection of
becoming a fully functional person. regard for that individual fosters positive the self-concept against anxiety and
self-regard. threat by the denial or distortion of
The self-concept includes all those experiences inconsistent with it
aspects of one’s being and one’s Positive regard–the person develops a
experiences that are perceived in need to be loved, liked, or accepted by TWO CHIEF DEFENSES
awareness (though not always another person. If we perceive that
accurately) by the individual. others, especially significant others, care Distortion is we misinterpret an
for, prize, or value us, then our need to experience to fit it into some aspect of
The ideal self is defined as one’s receive positive regard is at least partially our self-concept.
view of self as one wishes to be. The satisfied. Denial is we refuse to perceive an
ideal self contains all those attributes, experience in awareness, or at least
usually positive, that people aspire to Positive self-regard–defined as the we keep some aspect of it from
possess. experience of prizing or valuing one’s reaching symbolization.
self. Receiving positive regard from
others is necessary for positive self- People become disorganized
regard, but once positive self-regard is whenever distortion and denial are
established, it becomes independent of insufficient to block out incongruence.
the continual need to be loved.
Vulnerable people are unaware of
their incongruence and are likely to
become anxious, threatened, and
defensive.

ROLLO MAY Existence means to emerge or to Umwelt is the world of objects and things The theories of Sullivan and Rogers, with
EXISTENTIAL become; essence implies a static and would exist even if people had no their emphasis
PSYCHOLOGY immutable substance. Existence awareness. It is the world of nature and on interpersonal relations, deal mostly
suggests process; essence refers to a natural law and includes biological drives, with Mitwelt.
product. Existence is associated with such as hunger and sleep, and such
growth and change; essence signifies natural phenomena as birth and death.
stagnation and finality. We cannot
escape Umwelt; we must learn to live in
Two basic concepts of existentialism, the world around us and to adjust to
namely, being-in-the-world and changes within this world.
nonbeing.
Freud’s theory, with its emphasis on
The basic unity of person and biology and instincts, deals mostly with
environment is expressed in the Umwelt.
German word Dasein, meaning to
exist there. We also live in the world with people, that
is, Mitwelt. We must relate to people as
Dasein means to exist in the world people, not as things. If we treat people
and is generally written as being-in- as objects, then we are living solely in
the-world. The hyphens in this term Umwelt. The difference between Umwelt
imply the oneness of subject and and Mitwelt can be seen by contrasting
object, of person and world. sex with love. If a person uses another as
an instrument
Alienation is the illness of our time, for sexual gratification, then that person is
and it manifests itself in three areas: living in Umwelt, at least in his or her
(1) separation from nature, (2) lack of relationship with that other person.
meaningful interpersonal relations,
and (3) alienation from one’s
authentic self. Thus, people
experience three simultaneous
modes in their being-in-the-world:
 Umwelt, or the environment around
us; Mitwelt, or our relations with other
people; and Eigenwelt, or our
relationship with ourselves.

D I S P O S I T I O N A L T H E O R I E S

GORDON WILLARD 6 criteria for Mature Personality Realistic perception STRUCTURE OF PERSONALITY Personal dispositions that guide actions
ALLPORT They do not live in a fantasy world or Common traits are general are called stylistic traits.
Extension of the sense of self bend reality to fit their wishes. They are characteristics held in common by
Born: November 11, Mature people continually seek to problem-oriented rather than self- many people. Common traits provide Personal dispositions that initiate actions
1897, Montezuma, identify with and participate in events centered, and they are in touch with the how people within a given culture can are called motivational traits.
Indiana, United States outside themselves. They are not world as most others see it. be compared to one another.
self-centered but can become Personal disposition is “a PROPRIUM
involved in problems and activities Insight and humor generalized neuro-psychic structure The proprium refers to those behaviors
Died: October 9, 1967,
that are not centered on them. They Mature people know themselves and, (peculiar to the individual), with the and personal dispositions that are warm
Cambridge,
develop an unselfish interest in work, therefore, do not need to attribute their capacity to render many stimuli and central to our lives and that we
Massachusetts, United
play, and recreation. Social interest own mistakes and weaknesses to others. functionally equivalent, and to initiate regard as peculiarly our own.
States
(Gemeinschaftsgefühl), family, and They also have a non-hostile sense of and guide consistent (equivalent)
spiritual life are important to them. humor, which gives them the capacity to forms of adaptive and stylistic Reactive and Proactive
Eventually, these outside activities laugh at themselves rather than relying behavior”. Theories of Motivation
become part of one’s being. on sexual or aggressive themes to elicit
laughter from others. Allport believed that Levels of Personal Dispositions To Allport, people not only react to their
Warm relating of self to others insight and humor are closely related and Cardinal Dispositions. Some people environment, but they also shape their
They can love others intimately and maybe aspects of the same thing, namely possess an eminent characteristic or environment and cause it to react to
compassionately. Warm relating, of self-objectification. Healthy individuals ruling passion so outstanding that it them. His proactive approach
course, is dependent on people’s see themselves objectively. They can dominates their lives. They are so emphasized the idea that people often
ability to extend their sense of self. perceive the incongruities and absurdities obvious that they cannot be hidden; seek additional tension and that they
Only by looking beyond themselves in life and do not need to pretend or to nearly every action in a person’s life purposefully act on their environment in a
can mature people love others non- put on airs. revolves around this one cardinal way that fosters growth toward
possessively and unselfishly. disposition. Most people do not have psychological health.
Psychologically healthy individuals Unifying philosophy of life a cardinal disposition, but those few
treat other people with respect, and Healthy people have a clear view of the people who do are often known by Functional Autonomy refers to motives
they realize that the needs, desires, purpose of life. Without this view, their that single characteristic. that are self-sustaining and independent
and hopes of others are not insight would be empty and barren, and Central Dispositions. Few people from the motives that were originally
completely foreign to their own. In their humor would be trivial and cynical. have cardinal dispositions, but responsible for behavior.
addition, they have a healthy sexual everyone has several central
attitude and do not exploit others for Personality is the dynamic organization dispositions, which include the 5 to 10 Levels of Functional Autonomy
personal gratification. within the individual of those most outstanding characteristics
psychophysical systems that determine around which a person’s life focuses. Perseverative functional autonomy
Emotional security/self-acceptance his characteristic behavior and thought. Allport described central dispositions refers to those habits and behaviors that
Mature individuals accept themselves as those that would be listed in an are not part of one’s proprium.
for what they are, and they possess accurate letter of recommendation
what Allport called emotional poise. written by someone who knew the Propriate functional autonomy includes
These psychologically healthy people person quite well. all those self-sustaining motivations that
are not overly upset when things do Secondary Dispositions. Less are related to the proprium.
not go as planned or when they are conspicuous but far greater in number
simply “having a bad day.” They do than central dispositions are the
not dwell on minor irritations, and they secondary dispositions. Everyone has
recognize that frustrations and many secondary dispositions that are
inconveniences are a part of living. not central to the personality yet occur
with some regularity and are
responsible for much of one’s specific
behaviors.
HANS JURGEN PERSONALITY HIERARCHICAL STRUCTURE BIOLOGICAL UNDERPINNINGS PSYCHOPATHOLOGY AND
EYSENCK The sum-total of actual or potential Eysenck conceptualized each of these EYSENCK’S THEORY
FACTOR THEORY behavior patterns of the organism as three traits (E, N & P) as sitting on the top Eysenck’s personality system has a
determined by heredity and of their hierarchy. At the top level, there is biological foundation. It has two A theory of psychopathology emerges
Born: March 4, 1916, environment; originates and develops a super trait, e.g., psychoticism. In the aspects: HERITABILITY and from Eysenck’s physiological
Berlin, Germany through the functional interaction of second level, there are narrow traits to IDENTIFIABLE PHYSIOLOGICAL interpretation of personality. A person
four main sectors into which these each super trait, e.g., aggressive. In the SUBSTRATES. Personality who is high on neuroticism and
Died: September 4, behavior patterns are organized: the third level, there are habitual acts, e.g., dimensions should have reasonably introversion is at risk for anxiety
1997, London cognitive sector (intelligence), the attacking. At the base level, there are high heritability. Behavioral genetics disorders: fears, phobias, obsessions,
conative sector (character), the Specific acts, e.g., biting others. In his studies confirm this is moderate in the and compulsions. A person who is high
affective sector (temperament) and early research Eysenck found only two case of all three dimensions (E, N & on extraversion and neuroticism is a
somatic structure (constitution). factors, E and N. Later he added P. At P). Personality traits should have candidate for psychopathy (antisocial
last, he tried to include Intelligence as the identifiable physiological substrates personality). Disorders do not occur
EYSENCK’S MODEL OF fourth dimension of personality. i.e.; one can identify properties in the automatically. They befall a person with
PERSONALITY brain and CNS corresponding to the the appropriate predisposition and
HIERARCHICAL SYSTEM OF traits. environmental circumstances. People
Eysenck believed personality traits EXTRAVERSION learn their problems. One’s personality
are heritable and had a psycho- Sociable • Extraversion- Introversion is linked helps him to learn some things more
physiological foundation. The three Lively with chronic levels of excitation in easily than others and so, different
main traits, according to Eysenck Active the cortex. personalities are linked with different
were: Extraversion - Introversion (E); Assertive • Introverts are over-aroused problems.
Neuroticism - Emotional stability (N); Sensation-Seeking (ARAS) and easy to stimulate. So,
and Psychoticism (P). Carefree they avoid situations that are apt to Orthogonal factors are factors in a
Dominant overwhelm them. matrix in factor analysis where row
Extraversion can be defined in Surgent • Extraverts are under aroused stands for original factors and column
behavioral terms, as the various traits Venturesome (ARAS) and thus difficult to stands for new factors
that correlated together to define this stimulate. So, they seek out
factor are, traits such as sociability, HIERARCHICAL SYSTEM OF exciting situations. Oblique factors are factors in new axes
impulsiveness, activity, carelessness, NEUROTICISM • Neuroticism is thought to reflex the of factor space, but the degree of
liveliness, jocularity, and so forth. Anxious degree to which Autonomic correlation allowed among the factors is
Depressed Nervous System reacts to stimuli. small.
Neuroticism is conceived as strong, Guilt Feelings The more reactive a person, the
labile emotionality, predisposing a Low Self-Esteem more neurotic he is.
person to develop neurotic symptoms Irrational • Psychoticism is linked with a high
in case of excessive stress. Shy level of Testosterone and a low
Moody level of MAO, a neurotransmitter
Psychoticism is defined as being Emotional inhibitor.
solitary, not caring for people, often
troublesome not fitting in anywhere HIERARCHICAL SYSTEM OF
maybe cruel, lacking in feeling and PSYCHOTICISM
empathy and altogether insensitive, Aggressive
may hostile to others, even to his kith Cold
and kin and aggressive even to loved Egocentric
ones, liking for unusual things and Impersonal
disregard for danger. Impulsive
Antisocial
Un-empathetic
Creative
Tough-Minded

HENRY ALEXANDER TYPES OF NEEDS CHARACTERISTIC OF NEEDS STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT Thematic Apperception Test (TAT)
MURRAY CLAUSTERAL STAGE TAT consists of a set of ambiguous
Primary needs (viscerogenic) arise Needs differ in terms of the urgency with Simple Claustral Complex is pictures depicting simple scenes. The
Born: May 13, 1893, from internal bodily states and include which they impel behavior, a experienced as a desire to be in small, person taking the test is asked to
New York City, New those needs required for survival characteristic Murray called a need’s warm, dark places that are safe and compose a story that describes the
York, United States (such as food, water, and air), as well prepotency. secluded. people and objects in the picture,
 as such needs as sex and sentience. ORAL STAGE including what might have led up to the
Survival and related needs arise from Some needs are complementary and can The Oral Succorance complex features situation and what the people are thinking
Died: June 23, 1988,
internal bodily processes. be satisfied by one behavior or a set of a combination of mouth activities, passive and feeling.
Cambridge, United
behaviors. Murray called this a fusion of tendencies, and the need to be supported
Kingdom
Secondary needs (psychogenic) needs. and protected. Murray derived the TAT, which is a
arise indirectly from primary needs. Oral Aggression Complex combines projective technique, from Freud’s
Emotional and psychological needs, Subsidiation refers to a situation in oral and aggressive behaviors, including defense mechanism of projection.
such as achievement and affiliation. which one’s needs are activated to aid in biting, spitting, shouting, and verbal
satisfying another needs. aggression such as sarcasm In the TAT, the person projects those
Reactive needs involve a response The oral Rejection complex includes feelings onto the characters in the
to something specific in the Murray recognized that childhood events vomiting, being picky about food, eating pictures and thereby reveals his or her
environment and are aroused only can affect the development of specific little, fearing oral contamination (such as troubling thoughts to the researcher or
when that object appears. needs and, later in life, can activate those from kissing), desiring seclusion, and therapist. Thus, the TAT is a device for
needs. He called this influence press. avoiding dependence on others. assessing unconscious thoughts,
Proactive needs do not depend on Press is the influence of the environment ANAL STAGE feelings, and fears.
the presence of a particular object. and past events on the current activation Anal Rejection Complex there is a
They are spontaneous needs that of a need. preoccupation with defecation, anal Children’s Apperception Test (CAT)
elicit appropriate behavior whenever humor, and feces-like material such as designed for 3 to 10 year-olds.
they are aroused, independent of the Because of the possibility of interaction dirt, mud, plaster, and clay. Gerontological Apperception Test (GAT)
environment. between need and press, Murray Anal retention complex is manifested in and Senior Apperception Test (SAT)
introduced the concept of thema (or unity accumulating, saving, and collecting were designed for the elderly.
PSYCHOGENIC NEEDS thema). things, and in cleanliness, neatness, and
orderliness.
Abasement Achievement Thema URETHRAL STAGE is associated with
Affiliation Aggression Combines personal factors (needs) with excessive ambition, a distorted sense of
Autonomy Counteraction the environmental factors that pressure or self-esteem, exhibitionism, bedwetting,
Defendance Deference compel our behavior (presses). Formed sexual cravings, and self-love
Dominance Exhibition through early childhood experiences and GENITAL/CASTRATION STAGE
Harm avoidance Infavoidance becomes a powerful force in determining Murray disagreed with Freud’s contention
Nurturance Order personality. Largely unconscious and that fear of castration is the core of
Play Rejection gives coherence, unity, order, and anxiety in adult males.
Sentience Sex uniqueness to our behavior. He interpreted the castration complex in a
Succorance Understanding narrower and more literal fashion as a
boy’s fantasy that his penis might be cut
off. Murray believed such a fear grows
out of childhood masturbation and the
parental punishment that may have
accompanied it.

L E A R N I N G T H E O R I E S
BURRHUS F.
SKINNER
BEHAVIORAL
ANALYSIS

ALBERT BANDURA Observational learning allows Human functioning is a product of the Proxy agency occurs when people Dysfunctional behaviors, such as
SOCIAL COGNITIVE people to learn without performing a mutual interaction of environmental can rely on others for goods and depression, phobias, and aggression, are
THEORY behavior. events, behavior, and personal factors, a services. Proxy involves indirect acquired through the reciprocal
model called triadic reciprocal control over those social conditions interaction of environment, personal
Born: December 4, The core of observational learning is causation. that affect everyday living. factors, and behavior.
1925, Mundare, modeling. Learning through
Northern Alberta modeling involves adding and Chance encounters (an unintended Collective efficacy is defined as Social cognitive therapy emphasizes
subtracting from the observed meeting of persons unfamiliar to each people’s shared beliefs in their cognitive mediation, especially perceived
behavior and generalizing from one other) and fortuitous events (an collective power to produce desired self-efficacy.
observation to another. In other environmental experience that is results. This refers to the confidence
words, modeling involves cognitive unexpected and unintended) are two that groups of people have that their The ultimate goal of social cognitive
processes and is not simply mimicry important environmental factors that combined efforts will produce social therapy is self-regulation. To achieve this
or imitation. It is more than matching influence people’s lives in unplanned and change. end, the therapist introduces strategies
 the actions of another; it involves unexpected ways. designed to induce specific behavioral
symbolically representing information People have some capacity for self- changes, generalize those changes to
and storing it for use at a future time. Human agency means that people can regulation, and they use both other situations, and maintain those
and do exercise a measure of control external and internal factors to self- changes by preventing relapse.
Processes Governing over their lives. regulate.
Observational Learning Bandura has suggested several basic
Observational learning requires (1) Core Features of Human Agency External factors provide us with treatment approaches. The first includes
attention to a model, (2) (1) Intentionality refers to acts a person standards for evaluating our behavior overt or vicarious modeling. People
organization and retention of performs intentionally. (2) Forethought to as well as external reinforcement in who observe live or filmed models
observations, (3) behavioral set goals anticipate likely outcomes of the form of rewards received from performing threatening activities often
production, and (4) motivation to their actions and select behaviors that will others. feel less fear and anxiety and are then
perform the modeled behavior. produce desired outcomes and avoid able to perform those same activities. In a
undesirable ones. People do more than Internal factors in self-regulation second treatment mode, covert or
Enactive learning takes place when plan and contemplate future behaviors. include (1) self-observation, (2) cognitive modeling, the therapist trains
our responses produce They are also capable of (3) self- judgmental processes, and (3) self- patients to visualize models performing
consequences. reactiveness in the process of motivating reaction. fearsome behaviors. Overt and covert
and regulating their actions. People have modeling strategies are most effective,
The consequences of a response (4) self-reflectiveness. They are Through selective activation and however, when combined with
serve at least three functions. First, examiners of their functioning. disengagement of internal control, performance-oriented approaches. A third
response consequences inform us of people can separate themselves from procedure, called enactive mastery,
the effects of our actions. We can Self-efficacy refers to people’s belief that the injurious consequences of their requires patients to perform those
retain this information and use it as a they are capable of performing those actions. behaviors that previously produced
guide for future actions. Second, the behaviors that can produce desired incapacitating fears.
consequences of our responses outcomes in a particular situation. Four principal techniques of selective
motivate our anticipatory behavior; activation and disengagement of
that is, we are capable of symbolically Personal efficacy is acquired, enhanced, internal control are (1) redefining
representing future outcomes and or decreased through any one or behavior, (2) displacing or diffusing
acting accordingly. We not only combination of four sources: (1) mastery responsibility, (3) disregarding or
possess insight but also are capable experiences, (2) social modeling, (3) distorting the consequences of
of foresight. Third, the consequences social persuasion, and (4) physical and behavior, and (4) dehumanizing or
of responses serve to reinforce emotional states. blaming the victims for their injuries.
behavior.

JULIAN B. ROTTER SPECIFIC BEHAVIORS CATEGORIES OF NEEDS Internal and External Control of PSYCHOTHERAPY
Behavior potential (BP) refers to the (1) Recognition-Status Reinforcement or Locus of control is a Aims toward changing goals and
Born: October 22, likelihood that a given behavior will The need to be recognized by others and generalized expectancy that refers to eliminating low expectancies.
1916, Brooklyn occur in a particular situation. to achieve status in their eyes is a people’s belief that they can or cannot
Expectancy (E) is a person’s powerful need for most people. control their lives. Changing Goals
WALTER MISCHEL expectation of being reinforced. Recognition status includes the need to Interpersonal trust is a generalized Many patients are unable to solve life’s
Reinforcement value (RV) is the excel in those things that a person expectancy that the word of another is problems because they are pursuing
Born: February person’s preference for a particular regards as important. reliable. skewed or distorted goals. The role of the
22, 1930, Vienna reinforcement. (2) Dominance Maladaptive behavior refers to those therapist is to help these patients
Psychological situation (s) refers to The need to control the behavior of actions that fail to move a person closer understand the faulty nature of their goals
COGNITIVE SOCIAL a complex pattern of cues that a others is called dominance. This need to the desired goal. and to teach them constructive means of
LEARNING THEORY person perceives during a specific includes any set of behaviors directed at striving toward realistic goals.
period. gaining power over the lives of friends, Mischel’s cognitive-active personality
Basic Prediction Formula family, colleagues, superiors, and system (CAPS) suggests that people’s Eliminating Low Expectancies
BPx1,s1,ra = f (Ex1,ra,s1+RVa,s1) subordinates. behavior is largely shaped by an The therapist tries to eliminate patients’
(3) Independence interaction of stable personality traits and low expectancies of success and its
GENERAL BEHAVIORS The need to be free of the domination of the situation, which include several analog, low freedom of movement.
In many situations, people develop others. It includes those behaviors aimed personal variables. People may have low freedom of
generalized expectancies for at gaining the freedom to make decisions, movement for at least three reasons.
success because a similar set of to rely on one, and to attain goals without Personal dispositions have some
experiences has been previously the help of others. consistency over time but little Rotter believes that a therapist should be
reinforced. (4) Protection-Dependency consistency from one situation to another. an active participant in social interaction
A set of needs nearly opposite with the patient. An effective therapist
NEEDS is defined as any behavior or independence are those of protection and Relatively stable personality dispositions possesses the characteristics of warmth
 set of behaviors that people see as dependency. This category includes the interact with cognitive-affective units to and acceptance not only because these
moving them in the direction of a needs to be cared for by others, to be produce behavior. attitudes encourage the patient to
goal. Needs are not states of protected from frustration and harm, and verbalize problems but also because
deprivation or arousal but indicators to satisfy the other need categories. COGNITIVE-AFFECTIVE UNITS reinforcement from a warm, accepting
of the direction of behavior. The (5) Love and Affection include people’s encoding strategies, or therapist is more effective than
difference between needs and goals Most people have strong needs for love their way of construing and categorizing reinforcement from a cold, rejecting one.
is semantic only. and affection. That is the need for information; their competencies and
acceptance by others that go beyond self-regulatory plans, or what they can The therapist attempts to minimize the
NEED COMPONENTS recognition and status to include some do and their strategies for doing it; their discrepancy between need value and
(1) Need potential (NP) is the indications that other people have warm, expectancies and beliefs about the freedom of movement by helping patients
possible occurrence of a set of positive feelings for them. The needs for perceived consequences of their actions; alter their goals or by teaching effective
functionally related behaviors directed love and affection include those their goals and values; and their means of obtaining those goals. Even
toward the satisfaction of a goal or a behaviors aimed toward securing friendly affective responses. though the therapist is an active problem
similar set of goals. regard, interest, and devotion from solver, Rotter believes that eventually,
(2) Freedom of movement (FM) is others. patients must learn to solve their
the average expectancy that a set of (6) Physical Comfort problems.
related behaviors will be reinforced. Physical comfort is perhaps the most
(3) Need value (NV) is the degree to basic need because other needs are
which a person prefers one set of learned about it. This need includes those
reinforcements to another. behaviors aimed at securing food, good
General Prediction Formula health, and physical security. Other
NP = f (FM + NV) needs are learned as an outgrowth of
needs for pleasure, physical contact, and
well-being.

GEORGE KELLY
PSYCHOLOGY OF
PERSONAL
CONSTRUCTS

C O G N I T I V E T H E O R I E S

ALBERT ELLIS BASICS OF REBT RATIONALITY IS THE KEY Three REBT insights REBT Techniques
RATIONAL EMOTIVE
BEHAVIOR THERAPY Humanistic approach: -We all have the potential to think -Beliefs, not events, cause a Homework: Clients are asked to
Individuals can create their own self- rationally. disturbance. We remain disturbed by complete homework assignments,
Born: 1913, Pittsburgh, enhancing and self-defeating adhering to irrational beliefs. keeping track of ABC connections.
Pennsylvania emotions. -Emotional disturbances come from
irrational thinking. -We perpetuate these beliefs by using Emotive Techniques: try out techniques
Died: 2007 Happiness is the goal: them repeatedly. We make the same through role-playing, group sessions,
an individual’s belief system affects -REBT theory holds that, if you think more connections repeatedly, thereby using emotive imagery, laughter.
the level of happiness and self- rationally in the face of negative events, strengthening our irrational beliefs.
actualization you will have less emotional distress. Behavioral Techniques: relaxation
-We will have to work hard to exercise, distraction, rewards.
Source of unhappiness: -Rationality is the key to achieving restructure the beliefs that create
People inadvertently create happiness. unhappiness.
personality and emotional
disturbances through their irrational WAYS OF THINKING
beliefs.
RATIONAL
The ABC model to help us Empirically consistent with reality,
understand the meaning of our testable
reactions to adversity: Logical
Flexible
A is the adversity—the situation or Preferential: expresses a desire, not a
event. demand
B is our belief—our explanation
about why the situation happened. IRRATIONAL
 C is the consequence—the feelings Inconsistent with reality lacks empirical
and behaviors that our belief causes. validity
Illogical
THE ABC MODEL AT WORK Dogmatic, nonflexible
Demanding: states demand rather than
-ABC model helps people understand desire. Ellis calls this “musturbation”
the connection between belief and
consequence.

-Individuals are influenced by what

they tell themselves (what they
believe to be true).

-Most people begin only seeing that

the consequence stems from the
activating event.

AARON BECK Beliefs Cognitive distortions associated with FUNDAMENTAL CONCEPTS Counseling Session Four Steps
COGNITIVE -People are not passive victims of distress and maladaptive behaviors A. Review progress bringing counselor
BEHAVIOR THERAPY their inborn tendencies -Catastrophizing: expecting the Collaborative empiricism and client up to date. Homework
-People are actively creating and disastrous event The cooperative working relationship assignments checked for completion.
moving toward goals that are vital to -Mental filtering: seeing an entire situation of jointly determining goals and Four quadrants for last week
them based on one detail with all else ignored seeking feedback 1. List high points
-Distress occurs when people -Blame or assign internal responsibility Socratic dialogue 2. Low points
experience a threat to their interests entirely to external events A type of questioning designed to 3. How week could have been better
-The more crucial a person considers -All-or-nothing thinking: the person thinks promote new learning 4. Plans for next week
the goal to be, the greater the in terms of two opposite categories Guided discovery B. Set agenda for current session based
response. -Discounting the positive: person says When the counselor coaches the child on 4-point quadrant
positives do not count in a voyage of self-discovery in which C. Clarify and set specific behavioral
Four levels of cognition -Overgeneralization: a sweeping negative the child does his or her thinking and goals for next week
-automatic thoughts, conclusion that goes beyond facts draws his or her conclusions D. Have client summarize session as a
-intermediate beliefs, bridge to next week: review new
-core beliefs, and Counselor Session outline homework, anticipate obstacles, evaluate
-schemas Both are a guide to help the client Build an agenda that has meaning for session
understand how beliefs and attitudes the client
Cognitive distortions interact with emotions and behavior, and Ascertain and measure the intensity of Stress inoculation
-Distortions convert incoming a catalyst promoting corrective the person’s mood CBT technique that includes:
information to keep cognitive schema experiences, leading to cognitive change, Identify and review presenting Self-talk
intact. and building skills. problems Practice tests
-They use the assimilation process to Ask about the client’s expectation for Visualization
maintain homeostasis. Case formation counseling Relaxation training
-The information contrary to core Dynamic process Teach the person about cognitive Deep breathing exercises
belief is canceled out by the distortion Requires the counselor to generate and therapy and the client’s role in it
process, and the person cannot test their hypotheses Give information about the person’s Michenbaum’s 4 categories of self-talk
identify any disconfirming evidence Five parts: difficulties and diagnosis Preparation: what do you have to do
from his environment. 1. Problem list, Establish goals Confrontation: you can handle it
2. Diagnosis, Recommend homework Coping: keep stress manageable
Three assumptions 3. Working hypothesis, Summarize Reinforcing: I did it
1. Cognitive activity impacts behavior. 4. Strengths and assets, and Obtain the client’s feedback
2. Cognitive activity can be monitored 5. Treatment plan.
and changed.
3. A desired change in behavior can
be accomplished through changing
cognitions.