materials

Article
Experimental Measurement of Emissivity of Polished Steel
Strips from a Continuous Annealing Line
Šimon Staško 1, *, Gustáv Jablonský 1 , Augustín Varga 1 , Róbert Dzurňák 1 and Jan Kizek 2

1 Institute of Metallurgy, Faculty of Materials, Metallurgy and Recycling, Technical University of Kosice,
Letna 1/9, 042 00 Kosice, Slovakia; [email protected] (G.J.); [email protected] (A.V.);
[email protected] (R.D.)
2 Department of Process Technique, Faculty of Manufacturing Technologies with a Seat in Presov,
Technical University of Kosice, Bayerova 1, 080 01 Presov, Slovakia; [email protected]
* Correspondence: [email protected]

Abstract: The long-term use of steel strip in various industries makes it an important semi-finished
product, which makes it necessary to improve its chemical composition and mechanical properties,
reduce its thickness and weight, expand the range of new types of steel strip and increase its
production. This entails a large number of technological operations dependent on precise temperature
measurement and control. In some industrial plants, the steel strip is in continuous motion, which
makes the use of contact measuring devices impossible. When using non-contact measuring devices
such as pyrometers or thermal imaging cameras, the emissivity of the materials being measured is
a problematic parameter, as setting an incorrect emissivity value to the measuring device results
in inaccurate temperature readings. The essence of this research was to establish a measurement
method and to perform experimental measurements of the emissivity of a polished steel strip used
in a continuous annealing line, the subsequent processing of the data from these measurements
and their evaluation. The emissivity measurements were carried out for 5 types of steel strip of
different parameters, while the measurement itself was carried out in the long wavelength range of
7.5–14 µm and at strip temperatures of 100–300 ◦ C. Depending on the type of steel strip, the mean
emissivity values ranged from 0.0835– to 0.1143. The emissivity of the steel strip increased with
increasing strip temperature, and it was not a linear dependence. The emissivity values determined
Citation: Staško, Š.; Jablonský, G.; in this research could be applied to measuring equipment in actual production, which could improve
Varga, A.; Dzurňák, R.; Kizek, J. the accuracy of temperature measurement in the heat treatment of polished steel strip. Thermal
Experimental Measurement of camera measurements in the long wavelength range, taking thermal images and their processing and
Emissivity of Polished Steel Strips determining the emissivity value of polished steel strips are the parts of this research that make it
from a Continuous Annealing Line. different from other already published research.
Materials 2024, 17, 3084. https://
doi.org/10.3390/ma17133084
Keywords: emissivity; temperature; steel strip; thermal image; experimental measurement; thermal
Academic Editor: Andrea Di Schino imaging camera

Received: 3 June 2024

Revised: 15 June 2024
Accepted: 19 June 2024
1. Introduction
Published: 23 June 2024
Steel strips or sheets have long been an important input semi-finished product for the
production of products in various industries. Depending on the industry, these strips have
different chemical compositions. Every year, there is a demand to increase the production
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors. of these strips, to extend the range with new types of strips, to improve their properties
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. and to reduce their thickness and weight [1]. In order to achieve these requirements, it is
This article is an open access article necessary to improve and innovate areas of technological and production processes. A
distributed under the terms and
large part of these processes takes place in industrial furnaces, which reach high outputs;
conditions of the Creative Commons
thus, their energy consumption is significant [2].
Attribution (CC BY) license (https://
Continuous annealing lines are among the important industrial furnaces designed
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/
for the heat treatment of cold-rolled steel strips. These annealing lines consist of several
4.0/).

Materials 2024, 17, 3084. https://doi.org/10.3390/ma17133084 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/materials

Materials 2024, 17, 3084 2 of 18

chambers in which the steel strip undergoes a significant temperature change in a short time.
The first step is the heating of the strip in the heating chamber, in which this heating takes
place mainly through heat transfer by radiation and partly by convection. In the next step,
the steel strip remains at the annealing temperature in the annealing chamber, followed
by its cooling in the cooling chambers [3,4]. In each chamber of the continuous annealing
line, a gaseous protective atmosphere flows to protect the steel strip from oxidation [5,6].
The velocity of the steel strip movement in all the furnace chambers is synchronized with
the heating and cooling rates of the strip. To ensure continuous operation, 2 unwinders
are used in the inlet section and 2 winders are used in the outlet section. Once the desired
length of strip has been wound, the strip is separated using the splitting shears. After
annealing in this line, the deformed grains of the steel strip are replaced with new ones and
thus its properties including ductility are improved [7].
To achieve the desired mechanical properties of the steel strip and to achieve higher en-
ergy and economic efficiency in the annealing process, precise control and the measurement
of the temperature in the furnace and on the steel strip throughout the annealing process
is necessary [8,9]. In most industries, contact measuring devices such as thermocouples
are used for accurate temperature measurement. Since in a continuous annealing line, the
steel strip is in continuous motion, it is problematic to measure its temperature by using
contact measuring devices. In this case, it is practical to use pyrometers or thermal imaging
cameras [10].
Infrared thermography is a branch of science dealing with the acquisition of thermal
data from non-contact measuring devices and their subsequent processing. The basis of
this thermography is infrared radiation, also referred to as thermal radiation, which is
a part of electromagnetic radiation in the wavelength range from 0.76 µm to 1000 µm.
The wavelengths of infrared radiation are longer than the wavelengths of visible light.
The field of infrared radiation also includes industrial heat sources such as iron or steel
production [11–13].
Infrared radiation is divided into several ranges according to the size of the wave-
lengths, and their exact values vary depending on the reference. Table 1 gives an overview
of the different wavelength ranges according to multiple references [11,13].

Table 1. Wavelength ranges by multiple references.

Value of Wavelengths by Reference (µm)

Wavelength Range Abbrevation Usamentiaga RP Photonics
InfraTec [14] ISO 20473 [16]
et al., 2014 [11] Encyclopedia [15]
Near-infrared NIR 0.8–1.7 0.78–1.4 0.75–1,4 0.78–3
Short-wavelength infrared SWIR 1–2.5 1.4–3 1,4–3 -
Mid-wavelength infrared MWIR 2–5 3–8 3–8 3–50
Long-wavelength infrared LWIR 8–14 8–15 8–15 -
Far-infrared FIR - 15–1000 15–1000 50–1000

There are other divisions; for example, according to the International Commission on
Illumination (CIE) and the German Institute for Standardisation (DIN), infrared radiation
is divided into 3 ranges [13,14]:
• IR-A—range from 0.78 µm to 1.4 µm
• IR-B—range from 1.4 µm to 3 µm
• IR-C—range from 3 µm to 1000 µm
There is a dependence between the radiated power and the temperature of the object,
with a higher temperature resulting in a higher radiated power. Pyrometers and thermal
imaging cameras are used for the non-destructive and non-contact measurement of the
temperature or temperature field on the surface of an object emitting infrared radiation [11].
However, in the case of these non-contact measuring devices, for proper temperature
measurement, it is necessary to know several parameters affecting the measurement,
Materials 2024, 17, 3084 3 of 18

among which is the exact value of emissivity, which is an important parameter of heat
transfer via the radiation of real objects [17].
Emissivity is a dimensionless parameter determining the ability of an object to emit
thermal radiation. It is defined as the ratio between the radiated power of a real object and
the radiated power of an absolute blackbody at the same temperature. The emissivity value
ranges from 0 to 1 or rather 0 to 100% [18,19]. Based on Kirchhoff’s law, the emissivity of a
material is equal to the absorptivity of the material, which is shown by Equation (1) [20]:

ε=α (1)

where ε represents emissivity and α represents absorptivity, which represents the ratio of
radiation absorbed by the surface of the object.
For the absorptivity of non-transparent materials, Equation (2) is as follows:

α=1−ρ (2)

where ρ represents reflectivity, which represents the ratio of radiation reflected from the
surface of the object [20].
The blackbody is an ideal emitter and represents 100% of the radiated power or
intensity of thermal radiation [21]. The emissivity of the blackbody is equal to 1, which
represents the maximum achievable value. In the case of a blackbody, it is assumed that at
a steady temperature, all the absorbed radiation is emitted [11].
Emissivity has a significant impact on non-contact measurements by pyrometers or
thermal imaging cameras. If the emissivity value set into the pyrometer or thermal imaging
camera is different from that of the real measured object, then such a measurement would
be accompanied by significant errors, which would distort, for example, the temperature
measurement [22,23]. The correct emissivity value is also important for thermal engineering
calculations and for creating mathematical models and process simulations. The current
literature, scientific publications and other available resources provide emissivity values for
various materials, including steel, with different types of steel having different emissivity
values. In some cases, the emissivity value is different even for the same type of steel, or
the emissivity value varies from steel strip to steel strip. As a result, there is a problem in
selecting a suitable emissivity value and consequently, deviations arise in thermographic
measurements and also in thermal engineering calculations and simulations. The emissivity
of steel is affected by temperature, measurement wavelength range, chemical composition,
surface roughness, oxidation, steel surface contamination, measurement angle and surface
shape [24,25]. Another problem is that a large number of sources reporting the emissivity
value for steel do not indicate under which conditions this value is valid, or the wavelength
range and even the temperature are not specified. Steels with high chromium content
mostly have a lower emissivity value than other types of steel; this is due to the protective
chromium oxide layer [26].
The determination of emissivity using numerical simulations is very problematic and
experimental measurement appears to be the most appropriate method for its determi-
nation [27]. The emissivity value of steel increases with increasing temperature, while
the dependence in this case is not linear; this is evident from the results of experimental
measurements reported in the scientific publications of the authors Roger et al., 1979 [28];
Wen, 2010 [26]; Wen, 2011 [10]; Woods et al., 2014 [29]; Zhang et al., 2015 [23]; Zareba et al.,
2016 [30]; Deus et al., 2020 [31]; and Zhao et al., 2023 [32]. The emissivity of steel decreases
with increasing wavelengths, and even in this case, it is not a linear dependence, as shown
by the data in the scientific publications of the authors Wen, 2010 [26]; Wen, 2011 [10]; Xing
et al., 2015 [33]; Fukuyama et al., 2019 [34]; Suleiman et al., 2021 [8]; Li et al., 2022 [35]; and
Li et al., 2023 [36].
Table 2 shows the emissivity values of stainless steel at different wavelengths
and temperatures.
Materials 2024, 17, 3084 4 of 18

Table 2. Emissivity of stainless steel.

Wavelength (µm) Temperature (◦ C) Emissivity Reference

1 - 0.350 [37]
1 500 0.436 [23]
1 700 0.651 [23]
1.6 - 0.250 [37]
2 500 0.424 [23]
2 700 0.605 [23]
8 −60 0.131 [38]
10 −60 0.149 [38]
12 −60 0.125 [38]
14 −60 0.112 [38]
8–14 - 0.100 [37]

The aim of this research is as follows:

• Determination of the method of measuring the emissivity of steel strips;
• Experimental measurement of the emissivity of steel strips, subsequent processing
and evaluation of the measurement data.

2. Materials and Methods

The material for this experimental measurement was a polished steel strip used in
continuous annealing. The surface of the polished steel strip has greater reflectivity than
ordinary steel strips. Five types of this steel strip were selected for the experimental
measurement, and the differences in the parameters of each type of strip were in thickness
and quality. The parameters of the selected steel strip types are written in Table 3.

Table 3. Parameters of polished steel strip.

Variable Steel Strip 1 Steel Strip 2 Steel Strip 3 Steel Strip 4 Steel Strip 5
Steel strip grade 581 589 582 549 549
Steel strip thickness (mm) 0.48 0.47 1.38 0.52 0.80

Equipment and software used during the experimental measurements:

• Electric laboratory muffle furnace VEB Elektro Bad Frankenhausen LM 212.11: AREKO
s.r.o., Bratislava, Slovakia, temperature range of operation 0 to 1200 ◦ C, dimensions
170 × 270 × 90 mm;
• Thermal imaging camera Testo 868: K-Test s.r.o., Košice, Slovakia, infrared resolution
160 × 120 pixels, spectral range 7.5 to 14 µm, measuring range 0 to +650 ◦ C, accuracy
±2 ◦ C, ±2% of measured value, emissivity 0.01 to 1;
• Thermocouple type K: Meratex s.r.o., Košice, Slovakia, 3 thermocouples for measuring
the surface temperature of the polished steel strip, 1 thermocouple for measuring the
temperature inside the furnace;
• Data logger Ahlborn ALMEMO 5690-1: AREKO s.r.o., Bratislava, Slovakia, for mea-
sured data acquisition;
• Thermo Hygrometer Beurer HM 16: NAY a.s., Bratislava, Slovakia, for measuring the
ambient temperature and relative humidity around the laboratory furnace;
• Software ALMEMO control: version 5.20, for the read-out of the data logger;
• Software testo IRSoft: version 5.0, for processing thermal images.
The experimental measurement method was based on heating a polished steel strip
to the required temperature of 100–300 ◦ C and measuring the temperature of this strip
using thermocouples and a thermal imaging camera. On both measuring devices, it was
necessary to reach the same temperature value of the steel strip. The thermocouples
were attached to the steel strip or touched it during the whole measurement and were
 The experimental measurement method was based on heating a polished steel strip
to the required temperature of 100–300 °C and measuring the temperature of this strip
using thermocouples and a thermal imaging camera. On both measuring devices, it was
Materials 2024, 17, 3084
necessary to reach the same temperature value of the steel strip. The thermocouples5were of 18

attached to the steel strip or touched it during the whole measurement and were therefore
considered as an objective indication of the temperature of the steel strip. On the other
therefore considered as an objective indication of the temperature of the steel strip. On
hand, when the temperature was measured using a thermal imaging camera, it was pos-
the other hand, when the temperature was measured using a thermal imaging camera, it
sible to measure different temperature values of the steel strip. In order for the thermal
was possible to measure different temperature values of the steel strip. In order for the
imaging camera to be able to measure the same temperature of the steel strip as the ther-
thermal imaging camera to be able to measure the same temperature of the steel strip as
mocouples measured, it was necessary to set the correct emissivity value on the thermal
the thermocouples measured, it was necessary to set the correct emissivity value on the
imaging camera. The procedure of this measurement methodology was described in sci-
thermal imaging camera. The procedure of this measurement methodology was described
entific publications by Rakrueangdet et al. 2016 [39] and Zhu et al. 2017 [40]. Since the
in scientific publications by Rakrueangdet et al. 2016 [39] and Zhu et al. 2017 [40]. Since the
adjustment of the emissivity to the thermal imaging camera in the real-time measurement
adjustment of the emissivity to the thermal imaging camera in the real-time measurement
was time-consuming, the last part of the measurement methodology was modified. Dur-
was time-consuming, the last part of the measurement methodology was modified. During
ing the experimental measurements, thermal images were taken of the steel strip and the
the experimental measurements, thermal images were taken of the steel strip and the
emissivitydetermination
emissivity determinationwas wasperformed
performedwhenwhen these
these thermal
thermal images
images were
were processed
processed us-
using
ing the software. In this way, the emissivity value for each type of steel strip was
the software. In this way, the emissivity value for each type of steel strip was determined. deter-
mined.
This wasThis was followed
followed by data processing
by data processing and evaluation.
and evaluation.
A steel strip temperature of 300 °C was
A steel strip temperature of 300 ◦ C was chosen chosen because
because the emissivity
the emissivity of steelofincreases
steel in-
creases
with with oxidation
oxidation and the experimental
and the experimental measurementmeasurement
conditionsconditions
did not havedidthe
notprotective
have the
protective atmosphere normally found in a continuous annealing line.
atmosphere normally found in a continuous annealing line. At higher temperatures, At higher temper-
the
atures, the strip measurement would have been affected just by the oxidation of
strip measurement would have been affected just by the oxidation of the steel strip surface, the steel
strip surface,
which which was
was undesirable forundesirable for thismeasurement.
this experimental experimental measurement.

2.1.Procedure
2.1. ProcedureofofExperimental
ExperimentalMeasurement
Measurement
In the
In the first
first step
step of
ofeach
eachof ofthetheexperimental
experimental measurements
measurements of of this
this research,
research, aa datadata
loggerwith
logger withaacomputer
computerwas wasrunrunandandthe
the temperatures
temperaturesin inthe
thefurnace
furnaceand andthe
the temperatures
temperatures
onthe
on thesurface
surfaceof ofthe
thesteel
steelstrip
stripwere
weremeasured
measuredbefore beforethe theactual
actualheating.
heating. Since
Sinceno noother
other
measurements
measurementswere weremade
madeon onthis
thisfurnace
furnaceoutside
outsideof ofthe
theexperimental
experimentalmeasurements,
measurements,this this
first
first temperature
temperature measurement
measurement took took approximately
approximately the the same
same temperature
temperature value value on on all
all
thermocouples,
thermocouples, which which represented
represented the the ambient
ambient temperature.
temperature. The The next
next step
step was
was to toclose
close
the
the furnace
furnace doordoor andand start
start the
the electric
electric laboratory
laboratory furnace
furnace andand set
set the
the heating
heating to 130 ◦°C.
to 130 C.
Thermocouples
Thermocouplesmeasured measuredand andrecorded
recordedthe thechange
changein intemperature
temperatureinsideinsidethethefurnace
furnaceand and
on
on the
the surface
surface of ofthe
thestrip
stripthe
theentire
entiretime,
time,and andthese
thesetemperature
temperaturechanges
changesshowed
showed that that
shortly
shortlyafter
afterthe
theheating
heatingwaswasstarted,
started,thethetemperature
temperatureinsideinsidethethefurnace
furnacebegan
beganto torise,
rise,asas
did the temperature on the steel strip. After the time required for
did the temperature on the steel strip. After the time required for heating had elapsed, theheating had elapsed,
the furnace
furnace automatically
automatically stopped
stopped heating
heating the spirals,
the spirals, andand these
these spirals,
spirals, heated
heated to a high
to a high tem-
temperature,
perature, continued to transfer heat to the furnace space, the steel strip, and the furnace
continued to transfer heat to the furnace space, the steel strip, and the furnace
walls. ◦C
walls. The
Thetemperature
temperatureof ofthe
thefurnace
furnacespace
spacereached
reachedits itsmaximum
maximumtemperature
temperatureof of130130 °C
and
andthereafter
thereafterthermal
thermalexchange
exchangetook tookplace
placebetween
betweenthe thefurnace
furnacespace,
space,the
thesteel
steelstrip
stripandand
the furnace walls until the temperatures were
the furnace walls until the temperatures were equalized. equalized.
This
Thisfirst
firstpart
partofofthe
themeasurement
measurementprocedureprocedureisisillustrated
illustratedininFigure
Figure1.1.

Figure1.1.Schematic
Figure Schematicofofthe
thefirst
firstpart
partof
ofthe
theexperimental
experimentalmeasurement.
measurement. (1) (1) thermal
thermal imaging
imaging camera;
camera;
(2) closed laboratory furnace; (3) polished steel strip; (4) bracket; (5) thermocouples; (6) data logger;
(2) closed laboratory furnace; (3) polished steel strip; (4) bracket; (5) thermocouples; (6) data logger;
(7) computer with temperature measurement software.
(7) computer with temperature measurement software.

After the temperatures were equalized, or after the heat exchange between the furnace
space, the steel strip and the furnace walls was completed, their temperature began to
slowly decrease. When the temperature of the steel strip reached a value close to 100 ◦ C,
the furnace door was opened, and thermal images of the steel strip were taken with a
 Materials 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 6 of 18
After the temperatures were equalized, or after the heat exchange between the fur
nace space, the steel strip and the furnace walls was completed, their temperature bega
to slowly
After the decrease. Whenwere
temperatures the temperature
equalized, or of afterthethesteel
heatstrip reached
exchange a value
between the close
fur- to 10
Materials 2024, 17, 3084 °C, the
nace furnace
space, door
the steel was
strip opened,
and and thermal
the furnace walls wasimages
completed, of the steel
their strip werebegan
temperature 6 taken
of 18 with
thermal imaging camera; at the same time, the humidity
to slowly decrease. When the temperature of the steel strip reached a value close to 100 and ambient temperature wer
recorded.
°C, the furnaceThe door
thermal
was imaging
opened, and camerathermalwasimages
placedofon theasteel
tripod at were
strip a distance of 32acm from
taken with
thermal
thermal imaging
the polishedimaging camera;
strip.atatthe
camera;
steel thesame
sametime,time,the thehumidity
humidityand andambient
ambienttemperature
temperaturewere were
recorded.
recorded. The
The thermal
thermal imaging
imaging camera
camera was
was placed
placed onon aatripod
tripod
After the 100 °C thermal images were taken, two more heating periods followed, at
ataa distance
distance of
of 32
32cm
cm from
from an
the
the polished
polished steel
steelstrip.
strip.
thermal images ◦of the steel strip were also taken at 200 °C and 300 °C. For each of thes
After thethe100 C thermal
thermalimages
imageswere weretaken,
taken,two more
moreheating
heatingperiods
periodsfollowed,
followed,and
threeAfter 100 °C
temperatures, 3–5 thermal images weretwotaken, ◦ Cwhich took
◦ C.15–60
and
s to capture. At th
thermal
thermal images of the steel strip were also taken at 200 °C and 300 °C. For eachof
images of the steel strip were also taken at 200 and 300 For each ofthese
these
end
three of the whole measurement, all the thermal images were transferred to the compute
threetemperatures,
temperatures,3–5 3–5thermal
thermalimages
imageswere weretaken,
taken,which
whichtooktook15–60
15–60s stotocapture.
capture.At Atthe
the
for
end processing.
endofofthethewhole The measured
wholemeasurement,
measurement, temperatures
allall
thethe
thermal
thermal from
images
images the
wereweredata logger
transferred
transferred and
to the the ambient
to computer
the computer for temper
atures
processing.
for were
processing.Thealso
Thestored.
measured
measuredtemperatures
temperatures from from
the data
thelogger and the
data logger andambient temperatures
the ambient temper-
were Figure
also 2
stored. shows
atures were also stored. a schematic of the second part of the measurement procedure.
Figure
Figure22shows
showsaaschematic
schematicofofthe
thesecond
secondpart
partofofthe
themeasurement
measurementprocedure.
procedure.

Figure2.2.2.
Figure
Figure Schematic
Schematic
Schematic of
ofofthe the second
thesecond
second part
part part
ofof of
thethe the experimental
experimental
experimental measurement.
measurement.
measurement. (1) (1) (1)
thermal
thermal thermal
imaging
imaging imaging
cam-
camera; cam
era;
era;
(2)
(2)open
(2)
open
openlaboratory
laboratory
laboratory furnace;
furnace;
furnace; (3) polished
(3) polished
(3) polished steelsteel
steel strip; strip;strip; (4) bracket;
(4) bracket;
(4) bracket;
(5) thermocouples;
(5) thermocouples;
(5) thermocouples;
(6) compute
(6) computer
(6) computer with
with
with software
software for
for processing
processing of thermal
of thermal
software for processing of thermal images.
images.
images.

Figure
Figure
Figure 33shows
3shows
shows thethe
the time
time dependence
time dependence
dependence ofthe
of the temperature
oftemperature
the temperaturemeasured by the
measured
measured by the thermocou-
thermocou-
by the thermocou
ples
ples inside
plesinside the
the
inside the furnace
furnace
furnace and
andand on the
on the surface
on surface of the steel
of theofsteel
the surface strip
the strip throughout
steelthroughout the measurement.
the measurement.
strip throughout the measuremen
This
This figure is also divided into sections according to the points indicatedprocedure
This figure
figure is
is also
also divided
divided into
into sections
sections according
according to
to the
the points
points indicated
indicated in
in the
the procedure
in the procedur
of
of experimentalmeasurement.
measurement.
ofexperimental
experimental measurement.

Figure 3. Temperatures in the furnace and on the steel strip throughout the measurement. 1. Switch-
ing on the data logger—recording the temperatures before heating; 2. closing the furnace door—
starting the heating in the furnace; 3. switching off the furnace—transferring the heat to the temper-
Figure
Figure
ature 3. 3. Temperatures
Temperatures
equilibration; 4. in infurnace
the
opening thethe
furnace
and onand
the on the
steel
furnace—taking steel
strip strip throughout
throughout
thermal images; the the measurement.
5. measurement.
leaving the open and1. Switch
1. Switching
door
ing
on theon theoff
data
switching data logger—recording
logger—recording
the data the temperatures
logger. the temperatures before heating;before heating;
2. closing 2. closing
the furnace the furnace door—
door—starting
starting
the heatingtheinheating in the
the furnace; 3. furnace;
switching 3.off
switching off the furnace—transferring
the furnace—transferring the heat to thethe heat to the temper
temperature
ature equilibration; 4. opening the furnace—taking thermal images; 5. leaving
equilibration; 4. opening the furnace—taking thermal images; 5. leaving the door open and switching the door open an
switching off the
off the data logger. data logger.
Materials 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 1

Materials 2024, 17, 3084 7 of 18

Materials 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 7 of 18
From Figure 3, it can be seen that the entire run of one of the measurements took 6
min,From
withFigure
the most time-consuming
3, it can be seen that the entireof therunindividual
of one of thesections being the
measurements tooksections
69 min, marke
with
with the
themost time-consuming
number 3, which of the individual
shows the heat sectionsinside
transfer being the
the sections
furnace. marked
At the with
beginning o
From Figure 3, it can be seen that the entire run of one of the measurements took 69
the number
these 3, which shows the heat transfer inside the furnace. At the beginning of these
min, withsections, there is a significant
the most time-consuming temperature
of the individual difference
sections being the between
sections the thermocoupl
marked
sections, there is a significant temperature difference between the thermocouple measuring
measuring
with the temperature inside the furnace and the thermocouples beginning ofon the tem
measuring
the the number 3,inside
temperature whichthe shows the and
furnace heatthetransfer inside the measuring
thermocouples furnace. Atthe thetemperature
perature
these sections, onthere
the surface
is a strip. of the steel
significant strip. The
temperature difference
difference in these
between the temperatures
thermocouple graduall
the surface of the steel The difference in these temperatures gradually decreases,
decreases,
measuring the but by
temperaturethe end of
inside Section
the 3,
furnace these
and temperatures
the thermocouples have
but by the end of Section 3, these temperatures have ceased to equalize and all begin to and a ceased
measuring to
theequalize
tem-
perature
begin on
decrease. toOnthe surface
decrease.
this basis,ofitthe
On was steel
this strip.itThe
basis,
considered was difference
that considered
there was inathese
that temperatures
steady there
state was gradually
in theafurnace
steadyand state in th
decreases,
furnace
the thermalbut
and by the end
the thermal
images of Section
were taken. 3, these
images were taken. temperatures have ceased to equalize and all
begin to decrease.
Figure
Figure 4 shows Onthe
4 shows thisdimensions
basis,
the it was
dimensionsof theconsidered
of the
steel that
steel
strip, there
strip,
which wasdetermined
which
were a steady state
basedinon
were determined the
thebased o
furnace and
dimensions the
of thermal
the images
laboratory were
furnace. taken.
the dimensions of the laboratory furnace.
Figure 4 shows the dimensions of the steel strip, which were determined based on
the dimensions of the laboratory furnace.

Figure
Figure
Figure 4. 4. 4.Dimensions
Dimensions
Dimensions of of of polished
polished
polished steel
steel steel
strip.strip.
strip.

Figure
Figure 5 5shows
Figure shows
5 shows theactual
the actual
the shape
actual
shape ofofthe
shape theofpolished
the polished
polished steelstrip
steel strip
steeland
and thelocation
strip
the location
and ofthethe of th
theoflocation
thermocouples
thermocouples
thermocouples measuring
measuring
measuring the temperature
the temperature
the temperature of this strip.
of this strip.
of this TheThe dimensions
dimensions
strip. of the actual
of the actual
The dimensions steel
of steel
the actual stee
strip
strip correspond
correspond toto those
those shown
shown inin Figure
Figure 4 4 with
with an an error
error ofof1–21–2mmmm due
due toto
thethe machining
machining
strip correspond to those shown in Figure 4 with an error of 1–2 mm due to the machinin
ofof the
the
of the
strip.
strip. The
The
strip. The
thermocouples
thermocouples
thermocouples
were
were attached
attached
were attachedtoto
thethe strip
strip
tothe
using
using
the
screws
screws
strip using
placed
placed
screws inin holes
holes
placed inin
in holes i
the edges of the steel strip, and the thermocouple in center of
the edges of the steel strip, and the thermocouple in the center of the strip was attachedthe strip was attached
the edges
using of the steel strip, and the thermocouple in the center of the strip was attache
a bracket.
using a bracket.
using a bracket.

(a) (b)
Figure 5. 5.
Figure Polished steel
Polished strip.
steel (a)(a)
strip. Actual shape;
Actual (b)(b)
shape; thermocouple location.
thermocouple location.
(a) (b)
Thermocouples attached to the steel strip had no protection and thus could be af-
Figure 5. Polished steel strip. (a) Actual shape; (b) thermocouple location.
fected by the temperature of the hot air in the furnace. However, since a steady state

Thermocouples attached to the steel strip had no protection and thus could be af
fected by the temperature of the hot air in the furnace. However, since a steady stat
 Materials 2024, 17, 3084 8 of 18
Materials 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18

Thermocouples attached to the steel strip had no protection and thus could be affected
Materials 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 8 of 18
by the temperature of the hot air in the furnace. However, since a steady state condition was
condition was considered
considered in the furnaceinjust
thebefore
furnace thejust before
thermal the thermal
images were taken,images
thesewere taken, these
thermocouple
thermocouple
inaccuraciesinaccuracies were neglected.
were neglected.
condition
Figure was
6 considered
shows the in the furnace
placement
Figure 6 shows the placement just before
ofofaapolished
polished steelthe
steel thermal
strip
strip images were
ininaalaboratory taken,
furnace
laboratory these
and
furnace the the
and
thermocouple
process of inaccuracies
taking thermal were
images neglected.
of this strip using a thermal
process of taking thermal images of this strip using a thermal imaging camera.imaging camera.
Figure 6 shows the placement of a polished steel strip in a laboratory furnace and the
process of taking thermal images of this strip using a thermal imaging camera.

(a) (a) (b)

(b)
Figure 6. Taking
Figure thermal
6. Taking
Takingthermalimages
thermal ofof
images
images the
ofthesteel
thesteelstrip.
strip.
steel (a)
strip. Placement
(a)(a)
Placement ofofthe
Placement ofthe strip
strip
the in in
strip inthe
the furnace
furnace
the area;
area;
furnace (b) (b)
area;
thermal
(b) imaging
thermal
thermal camera.
imaging camera.
imaging camera.

2.2. Data
2.2. Data
2.2. Data Processing
Processing
Processing
One part of
of the data processing was to calculate
calculate the mean temperature of
of the steel
OneOnepartpart
of the the
datadata processingwas
processing wasto
to calculate the
themean
meantemperature
temperature the steelsteel
of the
strip
strip as
as measured
measured by
bythe
thethree
threethermocouples.
thermocouples. The
TheIRSoft
IRSoft software
softwareversion 5.0
version was
5.0 used
was to
used
stripprocess
as measured
thethe
by
thermal
the three
images,
thermocouples.
a screenshot
The
of which
IRSoft
is shown
software
in Figure
version
7. 7.
5.0 was used
to process thermal images, a screenshot of which is shown in Figure
to process the thermal images, a screenshot of which is shown in Figure 7.

Figure 7. IRSoft software for processing thermal images from a thermal imaging camera.
Figure 7. IRSoft software for processing thermal images from a thermal imaging camera.

In this software, two diagonals were drawn across the steel strip surface showing the
Figure 7. IRSoft software
temperature for processing
progression thermal
of the steel images
strip along thefrom a thermal
length imaging camera.
of the diagonals, and the tem-
perature values from these diagonals were displayed on a graph in a side window of the
In thissoftware.
IRSoft software,This
twograph
diagonals
showedwere
the drawn across
minimum, the steel
maximum strip
and surface
average showing the
temperature
temperature progression of the steel strip along the length of the diagonals, and the tem-
Materials 2024, 17, 3084 9 of 18

In this software, two diagonals were drawn across the steel strip surface showing
the temperature progression of the steel strip along the length of the diagonals, and the
temperature values from these diagonals were displayed on a graph in a side window
of the IRSoft software. This graph showed the minimum, maximum and average tem-
perature values of the steel strip. The average temperature of the steel strip in the IRSoft
software was compared to the mean temperature measured by the thermocouples at the
corresponding date and time when the thermal image was taken. The emissivity value
was then determined via the emissivity window so that the average temperatures from the
software and the thermocouples were the same or the difference was as small as possible.
In most cases, it happened to be that two emissivity values were assigned to the average
temperature of the steel strip. When adjusting the emissivity value in the software, the
average temperature displayed in the software graph was in one case lower and in another
case higher than the mean temperature measured by the thermocouples, and in both cases,
the deviation was of a similar value.
During the imaging of a polished steel strip with a thermal imaging camera, it was
possible to observe traces of infrared radiation on the surface of this strip from surrounding
objects in the room with the door of the electric laboratory furnace open. These traces of
infrared radiation were therefore also transferred to the thermal images, thus creating a
temperature distortion on the steel strip. Corrections of such distorted temperatures were
made just with the IRSoft software through the determination of the temperature value
in the window reflected temperature. At the time of the experimental measurement, no
activities were performed on the surrounding objects in the room and thus these objects
had a temperature close to the ambient temperature value, so that in the processing of the
thermal images, the ambient temperature was also considered as the reflected temperature
at the same time.
In Figure 7, a weak temperature homogeneity of the steel strip can be observed. In
the middle of the strip, the temperatures are lower and, on the other hand, at the edges of
the steel strip, the temperatures reach the maximum values. It is assumed that this is the
reflected temperature, while in the middle of the steel strip, the temperature from the room
is reflected, and at the edges of the strip, the temperature from the front of the furnace walls
is reflected. Since the exact value of the temperature reflected from the front of the furnace
was not known, the diagonals were drawn mainly in the middle part of the strip where the
reflected ambient temperature was considered in the processing of the thermal images.
During the continuous processing of the thermal images using IRSoft software, it
was found that the measured humidity had no effect on the temperature change of the
steel strip and therefore the humidity change was neglected when further thermal images
were processed.

3. Results
The emissivity values from IRSoft software, the average temperatures of the steel
strip measured by thermocouples and the ambient temperature values were processed by
descriptive statistics. Specifically, the number of measurements, mean, standard deviation,
minimum value, maximum value, and median were determined. These results from
descriptive statistics are written in Tables 4–8.
The following figures show the time dependence of the temperature or the temperature
decrease of the steel strip during the thermal image capture with an open furnace door. For
each type of strip, the temperature dependences of four measurements are shown, which
deal with the temperature decrease from the opening of the furnace door or from the taking
of the first thermal image to the taking of the last thermal image of that measurement. The
duration of these dependencies is in the range of 15–60 s, with the resulting time value
depending on the specific measurement, as different numbers of thermal images were
taken for each measurement. The first of these figures is Figure 8.
The following figures marked with “a” show the dependence between the emissivity
values from IRSoft software and the mean temperatures of the steel strip as measured by
 Materials 2024, 17, 3084 10 of 18

Materials 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 10 of 18

the thermocouples. The following figures marked with “b” show the dependence of the
mean emissivity value and the grand average, or rather the mean of several means, of the
steel strip temperature measured by the thermocouples. The first of these is Figure 9.
Figure 8 shows
Figure the
8 shows thetemperature dropofof
temperature drop steel
steel strip
strip 1 during
1 during thermal
thermal imaging.
imaging.

Figure 8. Temperature decrease of the steel strip during thermal image capture with the furnace door
Figure 8. Temperature decrease of the steel strip during thermal image capture with the furnace
open for four measurements of the steel strip 1. (a) t ~ 100 ◦ C; (b) t ~ 200 ◦ C; (c) t ~ 300 ◦ C.
door open for four measurements of the steel strip 1. (a) t ~ 100 °C; (b) t ~ 200 °C; (c) t ~ 300 °C.
Table 4. Descriptive statistics of measured data of steel strip 1. t1 ~ 100 ◦ C; t2 ~ 200 ◦ C; t3 ~ 300 ◦ C.
Table 4. Descriptive statistics of measured data of steel strip 1. t1 ~ 100 °C; t2 ~ 200 °C; t3 ~ 300 °C.
Standard
Variable n Mean Min Max Median
Variable n Mean Standard
Deviation Deviation Min Max Median
Steel strip
Steel emissivity t1 t1
strip emissivity 8585 0.094
0.094 0.015 0.015 0.07 0.07
0.13 0.13 0.09 0.09
Steel strip temperature t1 (◦ C) 85 102.900 2.560 99.30 109.10 102.50
SteelAmbient/reflected
strip temperature t1 (°C)
temperature t1 (◦ C)
8585
102.900
17.480 1.589
2.560 13.80 99.30
18.80
109.1018.00 102.50
Ambient/reflected temperature
Steel strip emissivity t2t1 (°C) 8585 17.480
0.098 0.009 1.589 0.08 13.80
0.12 18.800.10 18.00
Steel strip temperature t2 ( ◦ C) 85 195.297 6.372 178.70 203.95
Steel strip emissivity t2 85 0.098 0.009 0.08 0.12196.90 0.10
Ambient/reflected temperature t2 (◦ C) 85 17.032 1.804 13.80 18.80 18.00
Steel strip Steel
temperature t2 (°C)
strip emissivity t3 8585 195.297
0.102 0.007 6.372 0.09 178.70
0.12 203.950.10 196.90
Steel striptemperature
temperature t3 (t2 ◦ C) 85 296.677 3.998 1.804 285.20 303.60
Ambient/reflected (°C) 85 17.032 13.80 18.80296.95 18.00
Ambient/reflected temperature t3 (◦ C) 85 17.103 1.756 13.80 18.80 18.00
Steel strip emissivity t3 85 0.102 0.007 0.09 0.12 0.10
Steel strip temperature t3 (°C) 85 296.677 3.998 285.20 303.60 296.95
Figure 9 shows the dependence of emissivity and temperature of steel strip 1.
Ambient/reflected temperature t3 (°C) 85 17.103 1.756 13.80 18.80 18.00
In the graph, or rather in Figure 9a, a large range of measured emissivity values of
0.07–0.13 can be observed at 100 ◦ C. This range decreases as the steel strip temperature
Figure 9 and
increases, showsat athe dependence
strip temperature of
of emissivity and temperature
300 ◦ C, the measured emissivityofvalue
steelisstrip 1.
in the
range of 0.09–0.12. The lower limit of the measured emissivity value increased with increas-
ing temperature, and conversely, the higher limit of the measured emissivity decreased.
Based on the literature review, it is assumed that this measurement instability at lower
temperatures is due to the lower radiated power at which the thermal imaging camera was
unable to measure with the necessary accuracy. As the temperature increased, the radiated
power increased and thus the ability of the thermal imaging camera to measure a more
 Ambient/reflected temperature t1 (°C) 85 17.480 1.589 13.80 18.80 18.00
Steel strip emissivity t2 85 0.098 0.009 0.08 0.12 0.10
Steel strip temperature t2 (°C) 85 195.297 6.372 178.70 203.95 196.90
Ambient/reflected temperature t2 (°C) 85 17.032 1.804 13.80 18.80 18.00
Materials 2024, 17, 3084
Steel strip emissivity t3 85 0.102 0.007 0.09 0.12 0.10
11 of 18
Steel strip temperature t3 (°C) 85 296.677 3.998 285.20 303.60 296.95
Ambient/reflected temperature t3 (°C) 85 17.103 1.756 13.80 18.80 18.00
accurate emissivity value increased. A similar trend in the measured emissivity values can
erials 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW be observed in the other graphs or figures marked with “a”. 11 of
Figure 9 shows the dependence of emissivity and temperature of steel strip 1.

In the graph, or rather in Figure 9a, a large range of measured emissivity values
0.07–0.13 can be observed at 100 °C. This range decreases as the steel strip temperatu
increases, and at a strip temperature of 300 °C, the measured emissivity value is in t
range of 0.09–0.12. The lower limit of the measured emissivity value increased with
creasing temperature, and conversely, the higher limit of the measured emissivity d
creased. Based on the literature review, it is assumed that this measurement instability
lower temperatures is due to the lower radiated power at which the thermal imaging ca
era was unable to measure with the necessary accuracy. As the temperature increased, t
radiated power increased and thus the ability of the thermal imaging camera to measu
Figure 9. (a) Dependence of emissivity values from IRSoft software and mean temperature of steel
Figure 9. (a) Dependence
a more of emissivityincreased.
values from IRSoft softwaretrend
and mean
in temperature of steelemissiv
stripaccurate emissivity
1; (b) dependence of meanvalue
emissivity value and A similar
grand mean temperature the measured
of steel strip 1.
strip 1; (b) dependence of mean emissivity value and grand mean temperature of steel strip 1.
values can be observed in the other graphs or figures marked with “a”.
Figure 10 shows
Figure 10 showsthe
thetemperature
temperature dropdrop of steel
of steel stripstrip 2 during
2 during thermalthermal
imaging. imaging.

Figure 10. Temperature decrease of the steel strip during thermal image capture with the furnace
Figure 10. Temperature decrease of the steel strip during ◦thermal image capture with the furn
door open for four measurements of the steel strip 2. (a) t ~ 100 C; (b) t ~ 200 ◦ C; (c) t ~ 300 ◦ C.
door open for four measurements of the steel strip 2. (a) t ~ 100 °C; (b) t ~ 200 °C; (c) t ~ 300 °C.

Table 5. Descriptive statistics of measured data of steel strip 2. t1 ~ 100 °C; t2 ~ 200 °C; t3 ~ 300 °C

Variable n Mean Standard Deviation Min Max Median

Steel strip emissivity t1 75 0.086 0.013 0.06 0.11 0.09
Steel strip temperature t1 (°C) 75 102.230 2.679 97.15 107.00 102.10
Ambient/reflected temperature t1 (°C) 75 17.966 1.195 14.30 18.90 17.90
Steel strip emissivity t2 75 0.088 0.008 0.07 0.11 0.09
Steel strip temperature t2 (°C) 75 197.614 3.567 189.55 202.75 198.15
Ambient/reflected temperature t2 (°C) 75 18.009 1.172 14.40 18.90 18.60
Materials 2024, 17, 3084 12 of 18

Table 5. Descriptive statistics of measured data of steel strip 2. t1 ~ 100 ◦ C; t2 ~ 200 ◦ C; t3 ~ 300 ◦ C.

Standard
Variable n Mean Min Max Median
Deviation
Steel strip emissivity t1 75 0.086 0.013 0.06 0.11 0.09
Steel strip temperature t1 (◦ C) 75 102.230 2.679 97.15 107.00 102.10
Ambient/reflected temperature t1 (◦ C) 75 17.966 1.195 14.30 18.90 17.90
Steel strip emissivity t2 75 0.088 0.008 0.07 0.11 0.09
Steel strip temperature t2 (◦ C) 75 197.614 3.567 189.55 202.75 198.15
Ambient/reflected temperature t2 (◦ C) 75 18.009 1.172 14.40 18.90 18.60
Steel strip emissivity t3 75 0.092 0.007 0.08 0.11 0.09
Steel strip temperature t3 (◦ C) 75 298.262 2.244 294.05 302.65 297.95
Materials 2024, 17, x FOR
Ambient/reflected temperature t3 (◦ C)
PEER REVIEW 75 17.860 1.323 14.30 18.90 12 of 18
17.90
Materials 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 12 of 18

Figure 11 shows the dependence of emissivity and temperature of steel strip 2.

Figure 11 shows the dependence of emissivity and temperature of steel strip 2.
Figure 11 shows the dependence of emissivity and temperature of steel strip 2.

Figure 11. (a) Dependence of emissivity values from IRSoft software and mean temperature of steel
Figure
Figure
strip
11.
2; 11.
(a)
(b) (a)
Dependence
Dependence
dependence
of
of emissivity
emissivity
of mean
values
values
emissivity
from
from
value
IRSoftmean
andIRSoft
software
grandsoftware
and
and mean
mean
temperature
temperature
temperature
of steel strip of
of steel
2. steel
strip
strip2;2;(b)
(b)dependence
dependenceof
ofmean
mean emissivity valueand
emissivity value andgrand
grandmean
meantemperature
temperature
of of steel
steel strip
strip 2. 2.
Figure 12 shows the temperature drop of steel strip 3 during thermal imaging.
Figure
Figure12
12shows
showsthe
the temperature drop of
temperature drop ofsteel
steelstrip
strip33during
duringthermal
thermal imaging.
imaging.

Figure 12. Temperature decrease of the steel strip during thermal image capture with the furnace
Figure
Figure 12.Temperature
12.
door open Temperature
for decrease
decrease of
four measurements of the
of the steelstrip
the steel
steel strip3.
during
during thermal
(a) t ~thermal
100 image
image
°C; (b) capture
capture
t ~ 200 twith
with
°C; (c) thethe
~ 300 furnace
furnace
°C.
door open for four measurements
door open for four measurements of the steel strip 3. (a) t ~ 100 C; (b) t ~ 200 C; (c) t ~ 300 ◦ C.
steel strip 3. (a) t ~ 100 ◦
°C; (b) t ~ 200 °C;◦(c) t ~ 300 °C.
Table 6. Descriptive statistics of measured data of steel strip 3. t1 ~ 100 °C; t2 ~ 200 °C; t3 ~ 300 °C.
Table 6. Descriptive statistics of measured data of steel strip 3. t1 ~ 100 °C; t2 ~ 200 °C; t3 ~ 300 °C.
Variable n Mean Standard Deviation Min Max Median
Variable
Steel strip emissivity t1 n
80 Mean
0.100 Standard Deviation
0.013 Min
0.08 Max
0.13 Median
0.10
Steel strip temperature t1t1(°C)
Steel strip emissivity 80
80 0.100
103.353 0.013
2.536 0.08
98.10 0.13
106.85 0.10
103.30
Steel strip temperature
Ambient/reflected t1 (°C)
temperature t1 (°C) 80
80 103.353
19.711 2.536
0.356 98.10
18.90 106.85
20.00 103.30
19.90
Materials 2024, 17, 3084 13 of 18

Table 6. Descriptive statistics of measured data of steel strip 3. t1 ~ 100 ◦ C; t2 ~ 200 ◦ C; t3 ~ 300 ◦ C.

Standard
Variable n Mean Min Max Median
Deviation
Steel strip emissivity t1 80 0.100 0.013 0.08 0.13 0.10
Steel strip temperature t1 (◦ C) 80 103.353 2.536 98.10 106.85 103.30
Ambient/reflected temperature t1 (◦ C) 80 19.711 0.356 18.90 20.00 19.90
Steel strip emissivity t2 80 0.108 0.010 0.09 0.13 0.11
Steel strip temperature t2 (◦ C) 80 201.400 2.411 197.30 206.45 200.57
Ambient/reflected temperature t2 (◦ C) 80 19.742 0.331 18.90 20.00 19.90
Steel strip emissivity t3 80 0.114 0.008 0.09 0.13 0.11
Steel strip temperature t3 (◦ C) 80 300.365 5.194 287.95 306.15 301.50
Materials 2024, 17, x FOR
Ambient/reflected temperature t3 (◦ C)
PEER REVIEW 80 19.707 0.355 18.90 20.00 13 of 18
19.90
Materials 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW 13 of 18

Figure 13 shows the dependence of emissivity and temperature of steel strip 3.

Figure 13 shows the dependence of emissivity and temperature of steel strip 3.
Figure 13 shows the dependence of emissivity and temperature of steel strip 3.

Figure 13. (a) Dependence of emissivity values from IRSoft software and mean temperature of steel
Figure
Figure 13. (a) Dependence of emissivityvalues
valuesfrom
fromIRSoft
IRSoft software and mean temperaturesteel
of steel
strip 3; 13.
(b) (a) Dependence
dependence of emissivity
of mean emissivity value and grandsoftware and mean
mean temperature temperature
of steel strip of
3.
strip 3; (b) dependence of mean emissivity value and grand mean temperature of steel strip
strip 3; (b) dependence of mean emissivity value and grand mean temperature of steel strip 3. 3.
Figure 14 shows the temperature drop of steel strip 4 during thermal imaging.
Figure
Figure14
14shows
shows the
the temperature dropof
temperature drop ofsteel
steelstrip
strip4 4during
duringthermal
thermal imaging.
imaging.

Figure 14. Temperature decrease of the steel strip during thermal image capture with the furnace
Figure
Figure 14.Temperature
14.
door open Temperature decrease
decrease of
for four measurements of the
ofthe steelstrip
the steel
steel stripduring
strip 4.during thermal
(a) t ~thermal
100 (b)image
°C; image capture
capture
t ~ 200 with
°C; (c) twith
thethe
~ 300 furnace
furnace
°C.
dooropen
door openfor
forfour
fourmeasurements
measurements of thethe steel
steelstrip
strip4.4.(a)
(a)t t~ ~100 ◦ C;
°C;
100 (b)(b)
t ~t200 °C;◦(c)
~ 200 C; t(c)
~ 300 °C. ◦ C.
t ~ 300
Table 7. Descriptive statistics of measured data of steel strip 4. t1 ~ 100 °C; t2 ~ 200 °C; t3 ~ 300 °C.
Table 7. Descriptive statistics of measured data of steel strip 4. t1 ~ 100 °C; t2 ~ 200 °C; t3 ~ 300 °C.
Variable n Mean Standard Deviation Min Max Median
Variable
Steel strip emissivity t1 n
65 Mean
0.083 Standard Deviation
0.011 Min
0.06 Max
0.11 Median
0.08
Steel strip temperature t1t1(°C)
Steel strip emissivity 65
65 0.083
103.934 0.011
2.122 0.06
99.10 0.11
107.65 0.08
104.20
Steel strip temperature
Ambient/reflected t1 (°C)
temperature t1 (°C) 65
65 103.934
16.661 2.122
1.053 99.10
14.90 107.65
18.70 104.20
17.30
Materials 2024, 17, 3084 14 of 18

Table 7. Descriptive statistics of measured data of steel strip 4. t1 ~ 100 ◦ C; t2 ~ 200 ◦ C; t3 ~ 300 ◦ C.

Standard
Variable n Mean Min Max Median
Deviation
Steel strip emissivity t1 65 0.083 0.011 0.06 0.11 0.08
Steel strip temperature t1 (◦ C) 65 103.934 2.122 99.10 107.65 104.20
Ambient/reflected temperature t1 (◦ C) 65 16.661 1.053 14.90 18.70 17.30
Steel strip emissivity t2 65 0.087 0.008 0.07 0.10 0.09
Steel strip temperature t2 (◦ C) 65 202.150 2.201 197.00 206.45 201.95
Ambient/reflected temperature t2 (◦ C) 65 16.967 1.037 14.90 18.70 17.30
Steel strip emissivity t3 65 0.090 0.007 0.08 0.11 0.09
Steel
Materials strip
2024, 17, xx temperature
Materials 2024, 17, FOR PEER
FOR
t3 (◦ C)
PEER REVIEW
REVIEW 65 299.816 2.484 294.90 303.40 299.70
14 of
14 of 18
18
Ambient/reflected temperature t3 (◦ C) 65 16.967 1.070 14.90 18.70 17.30

Figure 15
Figure 15 shows the
shows the dependence
dependence of
the dependence of emissivity
emissivity and
and temperature
temperature of
of steel
steel strip
strip 4.
4.
Figure 15 shows of emissivity and temperature of steel strip 4.

Figure 15.
Figure 15. (a) Dependence
Dependence of emissivity
emissivity values from
from IRSoft software
software and mean
mean temperature of of steel
Figure 15. (a)
(a) Dependence of
of emissivity values
values from IRSoft
IRSoft software and
and mean temperature
temperature of steel
steel
strip 4;
strip 4; (b)
(b) dependence
dependence of
of mean
mean emissivity
emissivity value
value and
and grand
grand mean
mean temperature
temperature of
of steel
steel strip
strip 4.
4.
strip 4; (b) dependence of mean emissivity value and grand mean temperature of steel strip 4.
Figure 16
Figure 16 shows
shows the
the temperature
temperature drop
drop of
of steel
steel strip
strip 55 during
during thermal
thermal imaging.
imaging.
imaging.

Figure 16.
Figure 16. Temperature
Temperature decrease
Temperature decrease of
decrease of the steel
of the steel strip
strip during
during thermal
thermal image
image capture
capture with
with the
the furnace
furnace
door open for four measurements
door open for four measurements of the steel strip 5.

Table 8.
Table 8. Descriptive
Descriptive statistics
statistics of
of measured
measured data
data of
of steel
steel strip
strip 5.
5. t1
t1 ~~ 100
100 °C;
°C; t2
t2 ~~ 200
200 °C;
°C; t3
t3 ~~ 300
300 °C.
°C.

Variable
Variable nn Mean
Mean Standard Deviation
Standard Deviation Min
Min Max
Max Median
Median
Steel strip emissivity t1
Steel strip emissivity t1 60
60 0.086
0.086 0.012
0.012 0.06
0.06 0.11
0.11 0.09
0.09
Materials 2024, 17, 3084 15 of 18

Table 8. Descriptive statistics of measured data of steel strip 5. t1 ~ 100 ◦ C; t2 ~ 200 ◦ C; t3 ~ 300 ◦ C.

Standard
Variable n Mean Min Max Median
Deviation
Steel strip emissivity t1 60 0.086 0.012 0.06 0.11 0.09
Steel strip temperature t1 (◦ C) 60 103.315 2.309 98.10 107.60 103.42
Ambient/reflected temperature t1 (◦ C) 60 18.850 0.508 18.20 19.50 19.10
Steel strip emissivity t2 60 0.089 0.009 0.07 0.11 0.09
Steel strip temperature t2 (◦ C) 60 199.380 2.557 194.45 204.00 199.70
Ambient/reflected temperature t2 (◦ C) 60 18.820 0.505 18.20 19.50 19.10
Steel strip emissivity t3 60 0.094 0.005 0.08 0.11 0.09
Steel strip temperature t3 (◦ C)
Materials 2024, 17, x FOR PEER REVIEW ◦
60 296.976 2.092 292.85 300.15 297.05
15 of 18
Ambient/reflected temperature t3 ( C) 60 18.826 0.487 18.20 19.50 19.10

Figure
Figure 17
17 shows
shows the
the dependence
dependence of
of emissivity
emissivity and
and temperature
temperature of
of steel
steel strip
strip 5.
5.

Figure 17. (a) Dependence of emissivity values from IRSoft software and mean temperature of steel
Figure 17. (a) Dependence of emissivity values from IRSoft software and mean temperature of steel
strip 5; (b) dependence of mean emissivity value and grand mean temperature of steel strip 5.
strip 5; (b) dependence of mean emissivity value and grand mean temperature of steel strip 5.

4. Discussion
4. Discussion
The measured
The measuredemissivity
emissivity values
values from
from this this experimental
experimental measurement
measurement are con-
are constrained
strained
to thermaltoimaging
thermalcamera
imaging camera wavelengths
wavelengths in the rangein7.5–14
the range 7.5–14 corresponds
µm, which µm, which corre-
to the
sponds
long to the longrange.
wavelength wavelength range. The
The processing ofprocessing
the measuredof the measured
data data usingstatistics
using descriptive descrip-
tive statistics
yielded yielded the
the following following results:
results:
• The mean
The meantemperature
temperatureofof thethe steel
steel strip
strip measured
measured by thermocouples
by the the thermocouples is in
is in the the
range
102.23–300.36 ◦ C.
range 102.23–300.36 °C.
• The range of the mean mean ambient
ambient temperature
temperature is 16.66–19.74 ◦°C.
is 16.66–19.74 C.
• mean emissivity
The mean emissivity value
value of the five steel strip types is in the range 0.083–0.114, with
the lowest
lowest mean
meanemissivity
emissivityvalue
valueofof0.083
0.083with
witha astandard
standard deviation
deviation ofof
0.011
0.011belonging
belong-
to
ingsteel strip strip
to steel 4 and4theandhighest mean emissivity
the highest value ofvalue
mean emissivity 0.114 with a standard
of 0.114 with a deviation
standard
of 0.008 from
deviation of the measurements
0.008 of steel strip 3.ofInsteel
from the measurements terms of the
strip 3. general
In termsemissivity range
of the general
of 0–1, or the
emissivity range
range of0–100%, the range
0–1, or the emissivity results
0–100%, theofemissivity
the steel strip in this
results experimental
of the steel strip
measurement are near
in this experimental its lower limit,
measurement arewhich represents
near its a significantly
lower limit, low value.
which represents a signif-
icantly
In low value.
the figures showing the dependence of emissivity and temperature it is possible
to seeInthe
theincrease in emissivity
figures showing value with increasing
the dependence of emissivity temperature of the steel
and temperature strip. This
it is possible to
dependence between emissivity and steel strip temperature is not linear
see the increase in emissivity value with increasing temperature of the steel strip. This but polynomial.
These resultsbetween
dependence correspond to the results
emissivity and steelof the scientific
strip publications
temperature presented
is not linear in the intro-
but polynomial.
duction chapter
These results of this article.
correspond to the results of the scientific publications presented in the intro-
duction chapter of this article.

4.1. Emissivity Difference of the Same Grade of Steel

In Tables 4–8, different emissivity values can be observed between all types of steel
strip. This is mainly due to the different steel grades of these strips, and the thickness of
the strips also has some influence.
Steel strip 4 and steel strip 5 have the same grade value, so that in their case, the
difference in emissivity is only due to the thickness of the strip. The difference in their
emissivity at 100 °C is 0.003, at 200 °C it is 0.0016 and at 300 °C the difference in their
Materials 2024, 17, 3084 16 of 18

4.1. Emissivity Difference of the Same Grade of Steel

In Tables 4–8, different emissivity values can be observed between all types of steel
strip. This is mainly due to the different steel grades of these strips, and the thickness of
the strips also has some influence.
Steel strip 4 and steel strip 5 have the same grade value, so that in their case, the
difference in emissivity is only due to the thickness of the strip. The difference in their
emissivity at 100 ◦ C is 0.003, at 200 ◦ C it is 0.0016 and at 300 ◦ C the difference in their
emissivity is 0.0043. In all three cases, the higher emissivity value belongs to steel strip
5, which is 0.028 mm thicker than steel strip 4. From this comparison, it is clear that the
strip with the greater thickness achieves a higher emissivity value than the thinner strip at
the same grade and temperature. It is assumed that for the thicker strip to reach the same
temperature as the thinner strip, it must accept a greater amount of heat. The same must
also be true in reverse, so that when the furnace door was opened, the thicker strip cooled
slower, and at the time when the thermal images were taken, it may have been at a slightly
higher temperature than the thinner strip. However, in this case, there is no significant
difference in emissivity.

4.2. Comparison of References and This Research

A common feature of the references and this research is the same basis of measurement
methodology. Specifically, this research conducted the search for the same temperature
of the object under investigation by using thermocouples and at the same time using a
thermal imaging camera, whereby the same temperature can be achieved just by setting
the appropriate emissivity value in the thermal imaging camera.
The difference is, for example, that in the case of the sources investigated, the emissivity
measurements were in most cases made in the short wavelength range, whereas under
the conditions of this research, the emissivity was measured in the long wavelength range.
Another difference is that some sources measured the emissivity during the oxidation of
the steel, but in this research, the oxidation of the steel strip was unacceptable, and the
measurement was performed without oxidation. Under the conditions of this research,
thermal images were taken during the measurement and processed as follows; this method
was not presented in the sources reviewed. At the same time, during the search for sources,
it was found that not many scientific sources deal with the issue of polished steel strips,
and this is where the contribution of this research lies, as the results of the emissivity values
of these strips are presented in this article.

5. Conclusions
Steel strips have long been an important input semi-finished product for several
industrial areas; therefore, it is necessary to improve their chemical and mechanical proper-
ties, reduce their thickness and weight, expand the range of new types of steel strips and
increase their production. In order to meet these requirements, the steel strip has to go
through a large number of technological operations in which the accuracy of temperature
measurement and control is crucial. In industrial plants where the steel strip is in constant
motion, it is practically impossible to measure temperature using contact measuring de-
vices. When using non-contact measuring devices such as pyrometers or thermal imaging
cameras, the unknown emissivity value of the materials being measured is a problem, as
setting the wrong emissivity value to the measuring device results in distorted temperature
measurement data. Under the conditions of this research, the method of measurement was
established and subsequently experimental measurements of the emissivity of a polished
steel strip used in a continuous annealing line were carried out. This was followed by
the processing of the data from these measurements and their evaluation. The experimen-
tal measurement of emissivity was carried out for five types of steel strips of different
grades and thicknesses, the measurement itself being carried out in the temperature range
100–300 ◦ C. Thermal images for emissivity determination were captured by a thermal
imaging camera operating in the spectral range 7.5–14 µm, which represents the long
Materials 2024, 17, 3084 17 of 18

wavelength range. After processing the measured data using descriptive statistics, the
mean emissivity values ranged from 0.0835 to 0.1143 depending on the type of steel strip.
The experimental results showed that the emissivity value of the steel strip increased as
the temperature measured on the surface of this strip increased. The dependence between
emissivity and strip temperature was not linear. In the case of actual production, the result-
ing emissivity values from this research could be applied to measuring equipment of the
appropriate wavelength, which could improve the accuracy of temperature measurement
of polished steel strips.

Author Contributions: Conceptualization, G.J., A.V. and J.K.; supervision, G.J., A.V. and J.K.; re-
sources, G.J., R.D. and J.K.; methodology, Š.S. and G.J.; investigation, Š.S. and R.D.; formal anal-
ysis, Š.S., A.V. and R.D.; validation, Š.S., A.V. and R.D.; writing—original draft preparation, Š.S.;
writing—review and editing, G.J. and J.K. All authors have read and agreed to the published version
of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Institutional Review Board Statement: Not applicable.
Informed Consent Statement: Not applicable.
Data Availability Statement: The original contributions presented in the study are included in the
article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.

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