1 Types of Mixtures (continued)

3. Identify the various types of solutions. Describe the characteristics of each type of
solution.
Liquid solutions can be:Liquid-liquid solutions and solid-liquid soluions, these solutions are most important. Gas-liquid solutions-gases are
slightly soluble in water, exceptions are gases that reactwith water
Gas solutions:Gas-gas solutions-all gases are soluble in one another. An example is air. Solid solutions:
1)Gas-solid solutions
2)Solid-solid solutions-these solutions are rare.
Examples of solid-solid solutions are alloys. All types of solutions are homogeneous mixtures and are composed of solute and solvent.
4. Explain Use the Tyndall effect to explain why it is more difficult to drive through fog
using high beams than using low beams.

The Tyndall effect is responsible for the increased difficulty of driving through fog using high beams as compared
to low beams. High beams produce intense, focused light that causes more light scattering by fog's water
droplets due to the Tyndall effect, impairing visibility. Conversely, low beams generate less intense, diffused light
aimed slightly downward, which results in less light scattering and improved visibility in foggy conditions.

5. Describe different types of colloids.

Colloids can be classified based on their physical states and the nature of the interaction between the dispersed phase and the
dispersion medium. Based on physical states, there are seven types: (1) Sol, solids dispersed in liquids; (2) Emulsion, liquids
dispersed in liquids; (3) Foam, gases dispersed in liquids; (4) Solid foam, gases dispersed in solids; (5) Gel, liquids dispersed in
solids; (6) Solid sol, solids dispersed in solids; and (7) Aerosol, gases dispersed in gases. Based on the interaction nature, there are
two types: (1) Lyophilic colloids, with a strong affinity between the dispersed phase and dispersion medium; and (2) Lyophobic
colloids, with no strong affinity between the dispersed phase and dispersion medium.

6. Explain how the electrical forces between atoms affect the dispersion of colloid particles.

7. Summarize What causes Brownian motion?

Brownian motion is caused by the continuous random collisions between suspended microscopic particles and
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the molecules of the fluid they are in, due to the thermal motion of the latter. The temperature of the fluid, as well
as the size and density of the particles, influence the degree of this erratic movement.

8. Compare and Contrast Make a table that compares the properties of suspensions,
colloids, and solutions.

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2 Solution Concentration (continued)
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
31. Compare and contrast five quantitative ways to describe the composition of
solutions.

The five quantitative ways to describe the composition of solutions are mass percent (w/w), volume percent (v/
v), mass/volume percent (w/v), molarity (M), and molality (m). Mass percent refers to the mass of solute per
mass of solution and is expressed as a percentage. Volume percent describes the volume of solute per volume
of solution, also expressed as a percentage. Mass/volume percent indicates the mass of solute per volume of
solution. Molarity describes the moles of solute per liter of solution, while molality represents the moles of
solute per kilogram of solvent. Each of these methods is used in different contexts, depending on the nature of
the solute and solvent and the specific requirements of a given experiment or calculation.

32. E
 xplain the similarities and differences between a 1M solution of NaOH and a 1m
solution of NaOH.

Both a 1 M (molar) and 1 m (molal) solution of NaOH contain the same amount of NaOH (40 grams). The main
difference lies in how their concentrations are expressed: molarity is based on moles of solute per liter of
solution, while molality is based on moles of solute per kilogram of solvent. Molarity is affected by temperature
changes due to volume change, while molality remains unaffected by temperature. This difference can
influence the behavior of the solutions, particularly in temperature-sensitive reactions.

33. C
 alculate A can of chicken broth contains 450 mg of sodium chloride in 240.0 g
of broth. What is the percent by mass of sodium chloride in the broth?

The percent by mass of sodium chloride in the broth is approximately 0.188%.

34. S
 olve How much ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), in grams, is needed to produce
2.5 L of a 0.5M aqueous solution?

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To produce a 2.5 L of a 0.5 M aqueous solution of ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), 66.86 grams of NH4Cl are
needed.

35. O
 utline the laboratory procedure for preparing a specific volume of a dilute
solution from a concentrated stock solution.
To prepare a specific volume of a dilute solution from a concentrated stock solution, follow these steps: (1)
Gather necessary materials, such as a pipette, volumetric flask, and distilled water. (2) Use the dilution
equation and given concentrations to calculate the volume of stock solution required. (3) Measure the
calculated volume of stock solution. (4) Transfer the stock solution to a volumetric flask, rinsing the pipette with
distilled water. (5) Slowly add distilled water to the flask, mixing the solution well. (6) Fill the volumetric flask to
the desired final volume. (7) Mix the solution thoroughly by inverting and shaking the flask. (8) Label the
volumetric flask with the prepared dilute solution's concentration and volume, then store or use it as required.

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 3 Factors Affecting Solvation (continued)
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
39. Summarize what molecular structures and properties are important in determining
whether a solvent and solute will form a solution.

solutes typically will dissolve best in solvents that have the most molecular similarities: polar solutes will
dissolve better in polar solvents, and nonpolar solutes will dissolve better in nonpolar solvents

40. Define solubility.

Solubility is the ability of a substance (solute) to dissolve in a solvent, typically measured as the concentration
of dissolved solute at a specific temperature, such as grams of solute per 100 grams of solvent. Factors
affecting solubility include temperature, pressure, and the types of solute and solvent involved, with the principle
"like dissolves like" meaning that polar solutes are more likely to dissolve in polar solvents, and nonpolar
solutes in nonpolar solvents.

41. Describe how electrical charges at the atomic scale explain the effect of solvation.

42. E
 xplain why a saturated solution containing solid precipitates is an example of a
dynamic equilibrium.

Solute particles present at the surface of solvent prevent that from escaping into the gaseous state, therefore
vapor pressure of a solution is lower than a pure solvent.

43. S
 ummarize If a seed crystal is added to a supersaturated solution, how would you
characterize the resulting solution?
The supersaturated solution is a solution that contains more dissolved solute than a saturated solution, and this
can be formed at a high temperature then slowly cooling. If a seed crystal was added to the supersaturated
solution, the excess solute particles will form a crystalline precipitate.
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44. M
 ake and Use Graphs Use the information in Table 4 to graph the solubilities of
aluminum sulfate, lithium sulfate, and potassium chloride at 0°C, 20°C, 60°C, and
100°C. Which substance’s solubility is most affected by increasing temperature?

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 4 Colligative Properties of Solutions (continued)
CHECK YOUR PROGRESS
48. Explain the nature of colligative properties.

Colligative properties are properties of a solution that depend solely on the ratio of solute to solvent particles,
not on their specific nature. There are four main colligative properties: vapor pressure lowering, boiling point
elevation, freezing point depression, and osmotic pressure. These properties play significant roles in various
applications such as chemistry, biology, and engineering, allowing us to predict and control the behavior of
solutions in different fields.

49. Describe four colligative properties of solutions.

The four colligative properties of solutions are: 1. Vapor Pressure Lowering: The vapor pressure of a solution is
lower than that of the pure solvent due to the presence of solute particles. This can be described by Raoult's
Law. 2. Freezing Point Depression: The freezing point of a solution is lower than that of the pure solvent
because solute particles interfere with the crystallization process. 3. Boiling Point Elevation: The boiling point of
a solution is higher than that of the pure solvent due to the presence of solute particles, which increases the
energy required for phase transition. 4. Osmotic Pressure: The pressure required to prevent the flow of solvent
across a semipermeable membrane.

50. D
 escribe a cause and effect relationship on a particle scale that can be used to
understand and predict the difference between boiling points for a pure solvent
and a nonvolatile solution.

The boiling point of a pure solvent is determined by the strength of these intermolecular forces. When a non-
volatile solute is added to a solvent, the solute particles interfere with the intermolecular forces between the
solvent particles, making it more difficult for the solvent particles to escape the liquid phase.
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51. S
 olve An aqueous solution of calcium chloride (CaCl2) boils at 101.3ºC. How many
kilograms of calcium chloride were dissolved in 1000.0 g of the solvent?

The mass of calcium chloride is 0.0936 kg which dissolved in 1000 g of solvent which boils at 101.3°C.

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4 Colligative Properties of Solutions (continued)
52. C
 alculate the boiling point elevation of a solution containing 50.0 g of glucose
(C6H12O6) dissolved in 500.0 g of water. Calculate the freezing point depression
for the same solution.

53. Investigate A lab technician determines the boiling point elevation of an aqueous
solution of a nonvolatile, nonelectrolyte to be 1.12ºC. What is the solution’s molality?

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