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 Journal of Affective Disorders 279 (2021) 701–710

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Journal of Affective Disorders

journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/jad

Research paper

Mobile phone addiction and psychological distress among Chinese

adolescents: The mediating role of rumination and moderating role of the
capacity to be alone
Shuai-Lei Lian a, b, 1, Xiao-Jun Sun b, c, 1, Geng-Feng Niu b, c, Xiu-Juan Yang b, c, Zong-Kui Zhou b, c, *,
Chen Yang b, c
a
College of Education and Sports Science, Yangtze University, Jingzhou 434023, China
b
Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior(CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan 430079, China
c
School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan 430079, China

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: Background: With the increasing incidence of mobile phone addiction, mobile phone addiction has been
mobile phone addiction considered to be related to adolescents’ psychological distress. However, the underlying mechanisms of this
rumination relation were still unclear. The present study tested the mediating role of rumination and the moderating role of
the capacity to be alone
the capacity to be alone in the relation between mobile phone addiction and psychological distress.
psychological distress
moderated mediation model
Methods: 754 middle school students were recruited to complete measures of mobile phone addiction, rumina­
tion, the capacity to be alone, psychological distress and demographic variables.
Results: Mobile phone addiction was significantly and positively associated with psychological distress, and this
link could be mediated by rumination. Moreover, the direct effect of mobile phone addiction on psychological
distress and the indirect effect of rumination in this link were moderated by the capacity to be alone. Both these
two effects were stronger for adolescents with lower capacity to be alone.
Limitations: The present study is limited in terms of its sample selection, cross-sectional design, and self-reported
instruments.
Conclusions: The present study advances our understanding of how and when or for whom mobile phone
addiction is related to serious psychological distress. Education professionals and parents should pay special
attention to the psychological distress of adolescents suffering from mobile phone addiction, particularly for
those with lower capacity to be alone.

Introduction increasing (CNNIC, 2019). Mobile phones not only change the ways of
social interaction, leisure and entertainment, and information acquisi­
With the popularity of mobile Internet devices, mobile Internet has tion for adolescents, but also shape their behavioral modes, such as
profoundly changed human thinking habits, and also influenced in­ mobile payment, online finance, and online shopping. The multiple
dividuals’ behavioral and psychosocial adaptation (Barr, Pennycook, functions of mobile phones bring various conveniences and benefits to
Stolz, & Fugelsang, 2015; Yang, Zhou, Liu, & Fan, 2019). As the most adolescents’ everyday life.
popular mobile Internet terminal, mobile phone has become an essential Under this background, more and more individuals spend most of
medium to reshape the way of human existence and live. Globally, 90% their spare time on mobile phones to satisfy their multiple needs (Han,
of people own mobile phones, of which 59% are smartphones (Pew Kim, & Kim, 2017; Weller, Shackleford, Dieckmann, & Slovic, 2013),
Research Center, 2018). In China, the number of mobile phone users has which greatly enhances the user stickiness of mobile phones. Namely,
reached 847 million, and the population of mobile phone users is still people form a habit of carrying or using mobile phones anytime and

* Corresponding author: Zong-Kui Zhou, School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, No.152, Luoyu Road, Hongshan District, Wuhan, Hubei Province,
430079, P.R.China, Tel: 8627-6786-8632, Fax: 8627-6786-8632. E-mail address:
E-mail address: [email protected] (Z.-K. Zhou).
1
These two authors contributed equally to the study. They should be regarded as joint first authors.

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jad.2020.10.005
Received 28 March 2020; Received in revised form 5 September 2020; Accepted 4 October 2020
Available online 7 October 2020
0165-0327/© 2020 Published by Elsevier B.V.
S.-L. Lian et al. Journal of Affective Disorders 279 (2021) 701–710

anywhere (Kwon et al., 2013), which further increases the risk for mo­ indirect effect of mobile phone addiction on psychological distress. In
bile phone addiction. Recent research also revealed that more and more summary, this study could improve our understanding of how mobile
adolescents cannot live without mobile phones (Han, Kim, & Kim, 2017; phone addiction causes psychological distress, and under what condi­
Volkmer & Lermer, 2019), and even become addicted to mobile phones tion or for whom the direct and indirect effects would be more
(Chen et al., 2016). These adolescents showed the similar symptoms of significant.
non-material addiction in their use of mobile phones (Al-Barashdi &
Jabur, 2015; Kwon et al., 2013; Min, Dai-Jin, Hyun, Soo, & Doo-Sup, Rumination as a mediator
2013; Leung, 2008). Data from multiple countries also showed that
the incidence of mobile phone addiction among adolescents was 30% As a style of coping with negative mood and other negative life
(He et al., 2012). Therefore, mobile phone addiction, as a significant risk events, rumination is characterized by repetitive and passive focus on
factor of adolescents’ mental health, has aroused the common concern of the causes and consequences of one’s symptoms of distress without
researchers and the public (Lian, Liu, Sun, & Zhou, 2018; Liu et al., engagement in active coping or problem solving to alleviate dysphoric
2017). mood (Nolen-Hoeksema, 1987; Treynor, Gonzalez, & Nolen-Hoeksema,
Mobile phone addiction has been considered as an important 2003). According to the response style theory, rumination may prolong
inducement for a variety of psychological and behavioral adaptation and exacerbate the negative effects of negative mood and other negative
problems (Lee et al., 2016; Seo et al., 2016; Soni et al., 2017; Yang, Zhou, experiences by increasing negative thinking, deteriorating coping be­
Liu, & Fan, 2019). For instance, Lepp et al. (2014) showed that mobile haviors, and interacting with pessimistic cognitive process (Nolen-­
phone users may experience great anxiety and poor academic perfor­ Hoeksema, 1991). Numerous studies suggest that rumination is
mance. Soni et al. (2017) demonstrated that adolescents were not only prospectively associated with depressive symptoms, anxiety, perceived
addicted to smartphone usage but were also developing significant sleep stress, and suicidal ideation (Feinstein, Bhatia, & Davila, 2014; Michl,
and behavior problems owing to excessive smartphone usage. Among McLaughlin, Shepherd, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2013; Tucker et al., 2013).
these unfavorable outcomes, psychological distress, as the most direct Given that depression, anxiety and stress are significant indicators of
psychological problem induced by excessive or uncontrolled use of psychological distress (Alfonsson, Wallin, & Maathz, 2017), rumination
mobile phones, has attracted more and more researchers’ attention may induce and exacerbate psychological distress. Studies on the direct
(Chen et al., 2016; Yang, Zhou, Liu, & Fan, 2019). Prior studies have link between rumination and psychological distress also verified that
shown that mobile phone addicts not only experience more sleep dis­ rumination was an important predictor of psychological distress (Geiger
orders, but also have more procrastination (Lian, Liu, Sun, & Zhou, & Kwon, 2010; Morrison & Rory, 2005). For instance, a longitudinal
2018; Liu et al., 2017). Poor sleep quality and procrastination have been study conducted by Morrison and Rory (2005) showed that rumination
proved to be associated with depression, anxiety and stress (Steel, 2007; could positively predict psychological distress over time.
Woods & Scott, 2016). Therefore, adolescents addicted to mobile phones Given that rumination is among the most robust risk factors for
may have more psychological distress owing to their poor sleep quality psychological distress (O’Connor, O’Connor, & Marshall, 2007), various
and high levels of procrastination induced by excessive or uncontrolled factors that may predict rumination have been concerned about. A large
use of mobile phones. Besides, addictive mobile phone users may have number of studies have revealed the predictive effects of stressful life
more interpersonal problems, which are associated with psychological events (Michl, McLaughlin, Shepherd, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2013), low
distress (Chen et al., 2016). In addition, Bandura’s concept of reciprocal self-esteem (Kuster, Orth, & Meier, 2012), cyber-victimization (Fein­
determinism in social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986) demonstrated stein, Bhatia, & Davila, 2014), and negative social comparison on
that individual’ behavioral problems can affect their emotions. The Facebook (Feinstein et al., 2013) on rumination. Although few studies
cognitive-behavioral model (Davis, 2001) also pointed that individuals’ pay attention to the direct relationship between mobile phone addiction
cognitions and emotions could be affected by their behavioral problems. and rumination, it is reasonable to demonstrate the influence of mobile
Empirical studies also showed that adolescents suffering from mobile phone addiction on rumination.
phone addiction have more psychological distress, especially depressive First, adolescents suffering from mobile phone addiction are more
symptoms and anxiety symptoms (Yang, Zhou, Liu, & Fan, 2019). likely to be engaged into academic and interpersonal problems, which in
Therefore, mobile phone addiction may be positively associated with turn causes rumination. Previous studies showed that mobile phone
psychological distress. addicts may experience more stressful life events, such as high levels of
Although the positive association between mobile phone addiction academic procrastination (Jung & Han, 2014), poor interpersonal
and psychological distress has been proved, few studies have focused on competence (Kwon & Paek, 2016), and more interpersonal problems
the underlying mediating and moderating mechanisms in this relation. (Chen et al., 2016). These stressful life events were associated with
In other words, the questions about how (or why), and when (i.e., under lower self-esteem (Samaha & Hawi, 2016; Sirois, 2013). According to
what conditions) mobile phone addiction is related to psychological stress reactive model and related empirical research, rumination could
distress remain unclear. Addressing these questions can provide efficient be induced by low self-esteem and stressful life events (Kuster, Orth, &
practical guidance for adolescents as well as for educators to develop Meier, 2012; Michl, McLaughlin, Shepherd, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2013;
intervention strategies. Therefore, the present study begins to open the Robinson & Alloy, 2003). Thus, rumination may be induced by negative
black boxes of how (or why) and when mobile phone addiction can be events or experience resulting from mobile phone addiction. Second,
related to psychological distress. Specifically, this study proposed a adolescents suffering from mobile phone addiction usually spend lots of
moderated mediation model to reveal the underlying mechanisms be­ time on social networking sites (Cha & Seo, 2018; Salehan & Negahban,
tween mobile phone addiction and psychological distress. Given that 2013). Excessive engagement in social networking sites may lead to
rumination has been considered as an effective role linking risk factors rumination. For instance, social networking sites use has been proved to
to individuals’ psychological problems (Feinstein, Bhatia, & Davila, trigger rumination (Feinstein et al., 2013; Shaw, Timpano, Tran, &
2014; Liu et al., 2017; Michl, McLaughlin, Shepherd, & Joormann, 2015). Therefore, mobile phone addicts may experience
Nolen-Hoeksema, 2013), this study will analyze rumination as a medi­ more rumination owing to the negative social comparison on Facebook
ator to clarify the mechanisms of mobile phone addiction resulting in they are involved in. Besides, the stress reactive model of rumination
psychological distress. Moreover, the capacity to be alone has been also illustrated that negative life event was an important inducing factor
proved to be a powerful buffer, which could mitigate the adverse effects of rumination (Robinson & Alloy, 2003). Therefore, mobile phone ad­
of risk factors on individuals’ psychological adaptation (Larson & Lee, dicts experiencing more negative life events may ruminate more about
1996; Wu & Chen, 2006). This study will shed light on the moderating their unsatisfactory state of life. In addition, a recent study further
role of the capacity to be alone to reveal the conditional direct and explored the direct relation between mobile phone addiction and

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S.-L. Lian et al. Journal of Affective Disorders 279 (2021) 701–710

rumination, and confirmed that adolescents suffering from mobile alone may also exert a moderating effect on both the link between
phone addiction may have more rumination after using cell phones over mobile phone addiction and psychological distress and the link between
time (Liu et al., 2017). mobile phone addiction and rumination.
Besides, previous studies also found that rumination could mediate First, the capacity to be alone may buffer the adverse effect of mobile
both the relation between perfectionism cognitions and psychological phone addiction on psychological distress. Individuals with a high level
distress (Flett, Madorsky, Hewitt, & Heisel, 2002) and the relation be­ of capacity to be alone may feel a higher sense of control, happiness,
tween negative social comparison on social networking sites and relaxation, freedom, and optimism. Also, they use their time to cope
depression (Feinstein et al., 2013). A prior study also demonstrated that with stress more effectively when they are alone (Larson & Lee, 1996).
rumination could play a mediating role in the link between mobile Instead, individuals with a low level of capacity to be alone may involve
phone addiction and sleep quality (Liu et al., 2017). As far as this study is in other activities to distract their attention when being alone, and fail in
concerned, mobile phone addicts may ruminate more about their releasing their negative emotions and deal with the problems they faced
negative mobile phone experience, which, in turn, makes them have (Larson & Lee, 1996). Thus, when suffering from mobile phone addic­
more psychological distress. Therefore, the present study hypothesized tion, individuals with a high level of capacity to be alone could benefit
that rumination may act as a mediator in linking mobile phone addiction more from being alone. They are good at using the time being alone to
to psychological distress (Hypothesis 1). renew their emotion in a short time and take measures to cope with the
adverse consequences of mobile phone addiction quickly. Whereas, in­
The capacity to be alone as a moderator dividuals with low capacity to be alone may be trapped in the adverse
consequences of mobile phone addiction and experience more depres­
The capacity to be alone is not only one of the most important in­ sion, anxiety, and stress since they could not use the time being alone to
dicators of emotional maturity, but also nearly synonymous with adjust their negative emotional state. Besides, according to displace­
emotional maturity (Winnicott, 1958). It was characterized by freedom ment theory (Kraut et al., 1998), adolescents with a compulsive need to
from distraction and the possibility of focused attention, which may use mobile phones may experience more social isolation and social
provide a unique opportunity to examine and clarify one’s current stress exclusion owing to the decline of both their face-to-face social
and life situation (Fiske, 1980). The concept of the capacity to be alone communication and their social circle size. Chen et al. (2016) also
was putted forward by Larson and Lee (1996) based on deliberately showed that interpersonal problems (such as social isolation) could be a
structured solitude. Larson and colleagues argued that solitude refers to psychological mechanism underlying the strong link between mobile
the absence of all of aspects of being with others, and divided solitude phone addiction and negative emotions, such as depression and social
into involuntary solitude and constructive solitude (Larson & Lee, anxiety. Suffering from the social isolation and other interpersonal
1996). Involuntary solitude refers to the situation in which individuals problems resulting from excessive or uncontrolled use of mobile phones,
yearned for company were forced to be alone; whereas constructive individuals with a high level of capacity to be alone will be more able to
solitude refers to the state of solitude with high autonomy accompanied accept the state of social isolation and enjoy their time to be alone,
by more positive experience. They also considered that structured soli­ resulting in less psychological distress than those with a low level of
tude, as the core connotation of the capacity to be alone, consists of two capacity to be alone. In addition, Larson and Lee (1996) also considered
parts: solitary comfort (the degree to which an individual feels that the capacity to be alone may play as a buffer, alleviating the adverse
comfortable when he or she is alone) and solitary coping (the ability to effect of stress on individuals’ mental health. Therefore, the capacity to
cope with stress by using one’s time being alone). The latest research be alone may serve as a buffer in the relation between mobile phone
suggested that solitude and alone were two different states (Nguyen, addiction and psychological distress.
Weinstei, Ryan, & Deci, in press). Alone refers to the state of a person Second, the capacity to be alone may also alleviate the influence of
without any other person around physically. Whereas solitude is a spe­ mobile phone addiction on rumination. Larson and Lee (1996) consid­
cific type of alone, one having the features of being both physically alone ered that some people prefer to spend their time alone in a more
and free of specific activities. In other words, solitude means the absence constructive and autonomous way, and thus have more positive expe­
of immediate social demands, constraints, and scrutiny, as well as the riences. Whereas, when the other people yearned for company are
absence of the opportunity for relating, social engagement, and mutual forced to be alone, they tend to have more negative experiences. In­
enjoyment. According these views, Larson and colleagues seemed to dividuals with a low level of the capacity to be alone may involve in
have ignored the connotation difference of alone and solitude, when more experience of being forced to be alone and have more negative
they used the phrase "the capacity to be alone" to describe the two states emotions. By contrast, individuals with a high level of the capacity to be
of solitude coping and solitude. But this does not affect our under­ alone may spend their time alone more constructively and autono­
standing of the meaning of the capacity to be alone. It refers to the ca­ mously and have more positive experiences (e.g., deepening
pacity of individuals handling stress and feeling emotional comfort self-knowledge and improving self-recovery). Given that negative
using the time being alone in daily life (Larson & Lee, 1996). Individuals experience is an effective booster for rumination (Michl, McLaughlin,
with high capacity to be alone may benefit more from their time being Shepherd, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2013), individuals with a low level of
alone and have good psychological adaptation (Detrixhe, 2011). capacity to be alone may ruminate more after perceiving adverse con­
Numerous studies have demonstrated that time being alone may serve as sequences of mobile phone addiction. Besides, according to stress
both cognitive function and emotional function, providing an opportu­ reactive model of rumination, individuals suffering more negative
nity for individuals to evaluate the adverse situation they faced and experience may ruminate more about their life status and emotional
reestablish emotional homeostasis (Cohen & Hoberman, 1983; Winni­ states (Robinson & Alloy, 2003). Therefore, the capacity to be alone may
cott, 1958). Considering that high capacity to be alone means more time act as an alleviator in the link between mobile phone addiction and
being alone, it is reasonable for us to infer that the capacity to be alone rumination.
can have a positive effect on individual’s psychological adaptation Above all, the present study supposed that the capacity to be alone
through both the cognitive and emotional processes. Empirical research may play a moderating role in the mediation model of mobile phone
has also proved that the capacity to be alone was positively associated addition, rumination and psychological distress (Hypothesis 2).
with adolescents’ mental health (Larson & Lee, 1996; Wu & Chen,
2006). Besides, a study conducted by Wu and Chen (2006) also showed The present study
that the capacity to be alone could moderate the adverse effect of sub­
jective life pressure on mental health, with this effect being stronger for Considering the prevalence of mobile phone addiction and the severe
individuals with low capacity to be alone. Therefore, the capacity to be consequences of psychological distress, it is imperative to examine the

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S.-L. Lian et al. Journal of Affective Disorders 279 (2021) 701–710

mechanisms underlying the link between mobile phone addiction and Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (never) to 5 (always). Responses were
psychological distress. Previous studies mainly focused on the effects of averaged to form a measure of students’ mobile phone addiction, with
mobile phone addiction on adolescents’ negative emotions and sleep higher scores indicating greater mobile phone addiction. The items also
quality (Chen et al., 2016; Liu et al., 2017; Yang, Zhou, Liu, & Fan, demonstrated high reliability in the present study (Cronbach’s α =
2019), however, limited attempts have been paid to how and when 0.88).
mobile phone addiction can affect adolescents’ psychological distress.
Given that rumination plays a bridge role in the relation between Psychological distress
problematic mobile devices use and individuals’ psychological adapta­ Psychological distress was assessed by the Chinese version of
tion (Feinstein et al., 2013; Liu et al., 2017), the current study would Depression Anxiety Stress Scale-21 (DASS-21; Wang, Shi, Geng, Zou, &
attempt to examine the mediating effect of rumination on the associa­ Chan, 2015), which has been widely used to measure individuals’ psy­
tion between mobile phone addiction and adolescents’ psychological chological distress (Alfonsson, Wallin, & Maathz, 2017). Twenty-one
distress. Besides, the capacity to be alone has been considered as an items measured the symptoms of depression, anxiety and stress (e.g.,
effective buffer to weaken the effects of stress and other risk factors on “I found it hard to wind down”) on a scale from 0 (did not apply to me at
individuals’ mental health (Larson & Lee, 1996; Wu & Chen, 2006). all) to 3 (applied to me very much or most of the time). Higher scores
Therefore, the capacity to be alone was tested as a moderator to reveal represent more serious psychological distress. Cronbach’s α for the
when the direct and indirect relations between mobile phone addiction DASS-21 was 0.90.
and adolescents’ psychological distress are stronger or weaker. The
proposed model was illustrated in Fig. 1. Rumination
The Chinese short version of Ruminative Response Scale (Lei et al.,
Method 2017) was used in this study. Participants responded to the 10 items on a
Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (never) to 4 (always) (e.g., “Go some­
Participants and Procedure place alone to think about your feelings’’). Higher scores reflect higher
tendency to respond to negative factors with a ruminative response
Convenience sampling was adopted to recruit 754 middle school style. This scale has been used in a sample of Chinese middle students
students (48.10% female), who have experiences of using mobile phone, with good reliability and validity (Lian, Sun, Niu, & Zhou, 2017). In the
to participate in this study. All the participants were recruited from two current study, the items demonstrated acceptable reliability (Cronbach’s
junior middles schools, which located in two cities (Shangqiu and α = 0.82).
Wuhan) in China. The mean age of the participants was 12.92 years old
(SD = 0.90), with an age range of 11-15 years old. Three hundred and The capacity to be alone scale
forty-nine (46.30%) of them were Grade 7 students; two hundred and The capacity to be alone was measured by the Chinese version of the
seventy-six (36.60%) of them were Grade 8 students; one hundred and capacity to be alone scale (Wu & Chen, 2006), which was revised from
twenty-nine (17.10%) of them were Grade 9 students. Participants were the original version developed by Larson (1990). The Chinese version of
informed of the requirements of this survey by using standard in­ the capacity to be alone scale has been used in Chinese students with
structions, emphasizing the authenticity, independence, and integrity of good reliability and validity (Jiang & Zhao, 2017). This scale consists of
all answers. All of the questionnaires were conducted in the form of two intercorrelated l0-item subscales, named as solitary coping scale
paper-and-pencil in different classrooms taking a class as a unit in 30 and solitary comfort scale. Participants responded on a Likert-type scale
minutes. A signed consent form was collected after the Ethical Com­ ranging from 1 (never) to 4 (always). The solitary coping scale concerns
mittee for Scientific Research of correspondence author approved this the specific use of solitude to handle stress (e.g., "Being alone is not
study. healing for me"). The solitary comfort scale concerns a person’s
emotional comfort or discomfort in being alone (e.g., "I can’t have fun
Measurements unless I’m with someone"). Cronbach’s α for the whole scale was 0.84.
The reliability coefficients were 0.74 for solitary coping and 0.74 for
Mobile phone Addiction solitary comfort. Given that there was a significant and positive high
Mobile phone addiction was assessed using Mobile Phone Addiction correlation between solitary coping and solitary comfort (r = 0.646, p <
Index (MPAI; Leung, 2008), which has been used in Chinese adolescents 0.001), we averaged the scores of all items from these two subscales to
and young adults with good reliability and validity (Chen et al., 2016; measure adolescents’ general capacity to be alone.
Liu et al., 2017). This scale includes seventeen items that assess four
factors related to mobile phone addiction including inability to control Control variables
cravings, anxiety and feeling lost, withdrawal and escape, as well as
productivity loss (e.g., “You have attempted to spend less time on your Gender, age and time spending on mobile phone per day were
mobile phone but are unable to”). Participants responded on a included as control variables in the present study, as previous studies

Fig 1. The proposed moderated mediation model.

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S.-L. Lian et al. Journal of Affective Disorders 279 (2021) 701–710

found that they were closely related to the main variables in this study distress and that this relation was mediated by rumination. Thus, Hy­
(Bayram & Bilgel, 2008; George, Russell, Piontak, & Odgers, 2018; pothesis 1 was supported.
Larson, 1997; Larson & Richards, 1991). In order to examine Hypothesis 2, two interaction effects were
analyzed with PROCESS macro (Model 8) by Hayes (2013). There was a
Statistical analyses significant mobile phone addiction × the capacity to be alone interac­
tion effect on rumination (B = -0.22, p < 0.001) in mediator variable
Firstly, we conducted descriptive statistics and Pearson correlations model. A significant mobile phone addiction × the capacity to be alone
to examine the means, standard deviations and bivariate associations for interaction effect on psychological distress (B = -0.12, p < 0.05) in the
all research variables. Secondly, we used the SPSS macro PROCESS dependent variable model. These findings indicated that both the asso­
(model 8) suggested by Hayes to test the proposed moderated mediation ciation between mobile phone addiction and psychological distress and
model (Hayes, 2013). This SPSS macro has been used to test mediating the association between mobile phone addiction and rumination were
and moderating models in several studies, in which this SPSS macro moderated by the capacity to be alone.
showed higher statistical testability (Lian et al., 2018; Liu et al., 2017; Additionally, simple slope analyses were conducted to illustrate
Zhou, Liu, Niu, Sun, & Fan, 2017). In addition, all the potential signif­ these significant interactions and explore whether slopes for the high-
icant interaction effects were decomposed by simple slopes analyses capacity to be alone group (1 SD above the mean) were different from
(Toothaker & Larry, 1994). slopes for the low-capacity to be alone group (1 SD below the mean) in
the two models. The results were plotted in Fig. 2 and Fig. 3. As shown in
Results Fig 2, the effect of mobile phone addiction on rumination was stronger
for students with lower capacity to be alone (B = 0.34, t = 9.23, p <
Preliminary analyses 0.001) than for those with higher capacity to be alone (B = 0.14, t =
3.73, p < 0.001). As shown in Fig 3, the effect of mobile phone addiction
Table 1 presented the means, standard deviations, and correlations on psychological distress was stronger for students with lower capacity
for all of the observed variables. As hypothesized, mobile phone to be alone (B = 0.33, t = 10.34, p < 0.001) than for those with higher
addiction was positively correlated with rumination and psychological capacity to be alone (B = 0.18, t = 5.22, p < 0.001). In other words,
distress and has no significant correlation with the capacity to be alone. mobile phone addiction interacted with the capacity to be alone, such
Rumination was positively correlated with psychological distress and that students with higher levels of capacity to be alone had fairly similar
the capacity to be alone. The capacity to be alone was positively rumination and psychological distress across low and high levels of
correlated with psychological distress. Gender was positively correlated mobile phone addiction. Students who had lower levels of capacity to be
with the capacity to be alone. Time spending on mobile phone per day alone, however, reported higher levels of rumination and psychological
was positively correlated with mobile phone addiction and psychologi­ distress when they suffering from mobile phone addiction. Likewise,
cal distress. Whereas, age showed no significant correlation with all of students with higher levels of capacity to be alone reported lower psy­
the core observed variables. chological distress regardless of their levels of rumination, while stu­
dents with lower levels of capacity to be alone reported strong
Testing for the proposed moderated mediation model psychological distress because of strong rumination.
Furthermore, the results of two conditional analyses showed that no
Hayes’s (2013) SPSS macro PROCESS was adopted to examine the matter what levels of capacity to be alone are, all of the direct and in­
proposed moderated mediation model. Table 2 presented the main direct effects were positively and significantly different from zero.
results. Namely, both the direct effect of mobile phone addiction on psycho­
As expected, the total effect model (F(3, 750) = 47.92, R2 = 0.16, p logical distress and the indirect effect of rumination in this link were
< 0.001), the mediator variable model (F(5, 748) = 24.79, R2 = 0.15, p stronger for students with lower capacity to be alone.
< 0.001) and dependent variable model (F(6, 747) = 35.86, R2 = 0.22, p
< 0.001) were all significant after controlling students’ gender, age and Discussion
time spending on mobile phone per day. In specific, mobile phone
addiction positively predicted rumination (β = 0.24, p < 0.001) and In current mobile Internet era, mobile phones have even been
psychological distress (β = 0.21, p < 0.001). Rumination positively regarded as an organic part of the everyday lives of adolescents (Oksman
predicted psychological distress (β = 0.17, p < 0.001). Furthermore, & Rautiainen, 2003), and more and more adolescents are walking on the
Sobel test was employed to examine the significance of the indirect ef­ edge of mobile phone addiction (Liu et al., 2017; Yang, Zhou, Liu, & Fan,
fect of mobile phone addiction on psychological distress via rumination. 2019). Therefore, the antecedents and potential adverse consequences
The results indicated that rumination significantly mediated the rela­ of mobile phone addiction have been explored in a large number of
tionship between mobile phone addiction and psychological distress (z domains. However, limited attention has been paid to the relation be­
= 3.75, p < 0.001). These results provided compelling evidence that tween mobile phone addiction and adolescents’ psychological distress
mobile phone addiction was associated with increasing in psychological and its underlying mechanisms. This study was designed to examine

Table 1
Descriptive statistics and interrelations among all of the observed variables.
Variables M SD 1 2 3 4 5 6 7

1. Gender 1.481 0.499 1

2. Age 12.920 0.902 -0.087* 1
3. Time spending on mobile phone per day 44.36 52.035 -0.044 0.008 1
4. Mobile phone addiction 2.303 0.755 -0.024 0.064 0.285** 1
5. Rumination 2.169 0.578 0.021 0.021 0.024 0.308** 1
6. psychological distress 0.759 0.497 0.042 -0.037 0.101* 0.396** 0.330** 1
7. The capacity to be alone 2.664 0.464 0.093* -0.024 -0.001 0.033 0.202** 0.157** 1

Note. N = 754.
**
p< 0.01,
*
p< 0.05.

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S.-L. Lian et al. Journal of Affective Disorders 279 (2021) 701–710

Table 2
Regression results for the conditional indirect effects (moderated mediation).
Model
Model 1: Total effect model
R R2 F df1 df2 p B SE t p

0.40 0.16 47.92 3 750 < 0.001

Constant 0.080 0.07 1.13 >0.05
Gender 0.051 0.03 1.53 >0.05
Time spending on mobile phone per day -0.0001 0.0004 -0.262 >0.05
Mobile phone addiction 0.264*** 0.02 11.45 < 0.001

Model 2: Mediator variable model

R R2 F df1 df2 p B SE t p
0.39 0.15 24.79 5 748 < 0.001
Constant 2.19*** 0.07 33.34 <0.001
Gender 0.01 0.04 0.26 >0.05
Time spending on mobile phone per day -0.0007 0.0004 -1.70 >0.05
Mobile phone addiction 0.24*** 0.03 8.71 <0.001
The capacity to be alone 0.24*** 0.05 5.34 <0.001
Mobile phone addiction × The capacity to be alone -0.22*** 0.05 -3.94 <0.001

Model 3: Dependent variable model

R R2 F df1 df2 p B SE t p
0.47 0.22 35.86 6 747 < 0.001
Constant 0.34*** 0.09 3.74 < 0.01
Gender 0.04 0.03 1.14 >0.05
Time spending on mobile phone per day 0.0001 0.0004 0.14 >0.05
Mobile phone addiction 0.21*** 0.02 9.05 < 0.001
Rumination 0.17*** 0.04 4.66 < 0.001
The capacity to be alone 0.12** 0.04 2.96 < 0.01
Mobile phone addiction × The capacity to be alone -0.12* 0.05 -2.29 < 0.05

Conditional direct effect analysis at values of the capacity to be alone (M ± SD)

B SE LLCI ULCI
M – 1SD (2.20) 0.27 0.03 0.21 0.34
M (2.66) 0.21 0.02 0.17 0.26
M + 1SD (3.13) 0.16 0.04 0.09 0.23

Conditional indirect effect analysis at values of the capacity to be alone (M ± SD)

B Boot SE BootLLCI BootULCI
M – 1SD (2.20) 0.06 0.01 0.03 0.09
M (2.66) 0.04 0.01 0.02 0.06
M + 1SD (3.13) 0.02 0.01 0.01 0.04

Note. N = 754. Unstandardized regression coefficients are reported. Bootstrap sample size = 5000. LL = low limit, CI = confidence interval, UL = upper limit.
*
p< 0.05.
**
p< 0.01.
***
p< 0.001.

Fig 3. The capacity to be alone moderates the relation between mobile phone
addiction and psychological distress.
Fig 2. The capacity to be alone moderates the relation between mobile phone
addiction and rumination.
experience induced by mobile phone addiction. In other words, ado­
lescents with higher levels of capacity to be alone could successfully
how (mediating mechanisms) and when or for whom (moderating
alleviate the adverse effects of mobile phone addiction on mental health.
mechanisms) mobile phone addiction influences psychological distress
Hypothesis 2 was supported. Findings enlightened us that we could
(anxiety, depression, and stress). The moderated mediation analyses
attenuate the potential adverse effects resulting from mobile phone
revealed that rumination mediated the association between mobile
addiction on our mental health by enhancing our capacity to be alone.
phone addiction and psychological distress. Hypothesis 1 was sup­
First, consistent with a previous study conducted by Yang, Zhou, Liu
ported. The direct and indirect effects of mobile phone addiction on
and Fan (2019), the present study indicated that mobile phone addiction
psychological distress would be exacerbated when adolescents cannot
could positively and significantly predict psychological distress among
bear being alone or fail to use their time being alone to handle negative

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S.-L. Lian et al. Journal of Affective Disorders 279 (2021) 701–710

adolescents. This finding illustrated that although mobile phone use effect that mobile phone addiction itself exerted on psychological
could satisfy various psychological needs of adolescents and promote distress and the indirect effect via rumination were moderated and
their psychological adaptation, excessive use of mobile phones may lead buffered by the capacity to be alone, with these effects being stronger for
to adverse outcomes. Previous studies considered that the symptoms of adolescents with lower level of capacity to be alone. These results
withdrawal and daily life disturbance experienced by mobile phone indicated that the capacity to be alone, as one of the signs of mental
addicts could induce psychological distress (Coyne, Stockdale, & Sum­ health and emotional maturity, could help us alleviate the potential
mers, 2019; Yang, Zhou, Liu, & Fan, 2019). Besides, the uncontrolled use adverse effects of mobile phone addiction on our response style and
of mobile phones accompanied by mobile phone addiction would take psychological distress.
up the time of face-to-face interpersonal interaction, resulting in poor Previous studies considered that we could turn the focus of attention
interpersonal and emotional adaptation (Coyne, Stockdale, & Summers, from the outside to the inside, and have the opportunity to listen to our
2019; David & Roberts, 2017; Roberts & David, 2016). Moreover, mo­ own hearts and make a deeper understanding and evaluation of our­
bile phone addiction has been proved to predict poor sleep quality, selves when we are alone (Larson, 1990). Thus, adolescents and adults
which was a significant predictor of emotional problems, such as will be more excited and alert when they enter the crowd after being
depressive symptoms, anxiety symptoms and stress symptoms (Demirci, alone. They could also choose to stay away from others actively to
Akgönül, & Akpinar, 2015; Liu et al., 2017; Sarchiapone et al., 2014). release their negative emotions, which was helpful for them to renew
Therefore, adolescents suffering from mobile phone addiction may have their emotion as soon as possible. Therefore, adolescents with the higher
more psychological distress. capacity to be alone could actively choose to be alone to adjust their
Second, rumination has been considered as an important factor response style to deal with the adverse effects of excessive use of mobile
leading to individual psychological distress (Morrison & Rory, 2005; phones. At the same time, they could also get rid of the psychological
Treynor, Gonzalez, & Nolen-Hoeksema, 2003). Our findings, consistent distress caused by mobile phone addiction through breaking away from
with and expanding previous studies, showed that rumination acted as a external stimulation and focusing on their current physiological,
mediating role that linked mobile phone addiction to adolescents’ psy­ emotional and cognitive changes (Roberts, 2011; Wu & Chen, 2006).
chological distress. This finding indicated that symptoms and mal­ Besides, according to mindfulness meditation (Brown, Ryan, & Creswell,
adaptive behaviors associated with mobile phone addiction lead to 2007), the capacity to be alone is a necessary condition for mindfulness
changes in adolescents’ responses to adverse life experience, further meditation, and it can promote individuals to enter the realm of mind­
resulting in plenty of negative mood and affects, such as depression, fulness meditation. Previous studies have found that mindfulness
anxiety and stress. At the same time, as a negative response style, meditation could help us to enhance our attention control and avoid
rumination has also been proved to be an important mediating mecha­ getting involved in rumination, regulate our negative emotions and
nism to link mobile phone addiction to psychological problems (Liu promote our positive emotions (Deyo, Wilson, Ong, & Koopman, 2009;
et al., 2017). Marchand, 2012; Ramel, Goldin, Carmona, & McQuaid, 2004). There­
Symptoms of mobile phone addiction, including craving, with­ fore, the capacity to be alone could buffer the priming effect of mobile
drawal, tolerance and preference for cyberspace-oriented relationship, phone addiction on rumination and psychological distress. Unfortu­
may lead to loads of daily-life disturbance (Pavia, Cavani, Di Blasi, & nately, adolescents with lower capacity to be alone cannot benefit from
Giordano, 2016). According to the response style theory (Nolen-Hoek­ being alone. They often spend more time on the distracting activities
sema, 1991), mobile phone addicts may engage in self-focused rumi­ when they are alone and describe the feeling of being alone as sadness,
nation as an attempt to reduce the daily-life disturbance caused by loneliness and depression (Long, Seburn, Averill, & More, 2003).
uncontrolled use of mobile phones. Unfortunately, rumination on Therefore, adolescents with lower capacity to be alone are more likely to
daily-life disturbance following excessive use of mobile phones may be involved in rumination and psychological distress when they suffer
persist if their rumination focuses on the causes and/or consequences of from mobile phone addiction.
excessive use of mobile phones rather than on measures aimed to reduce
their dependence on mobile phones. Therefore, rumination induced by Limitations and implications
mobile phone addiction often leads to psychological problems, espe­
cially psychological distress. Besides, surfing on social networking sites Although this study provides valuable findings for us to understand
is one of the most important motivations for mobile phone addicts to how and when mobile phone addiction influence adolescents’ rumina­
keep in touch with mobile phones (Elhai et al., 2018). Motivated by fear tion and psychological distress, this study is not without limitations.
of missing out, mobile phones were used to refresh social networking First, it was noteworthy that the capacity to be alone was positively
profiles in an automatic and impulsive fashion. This may increase the associated with rumination and psychological distress. Given that the
possibility for mobile phone addicts to experience upward social com­ capacity to be alone is endowed with different values and purposes by
parison, which was an important trigger of rumination (Feinstein et al., different cultures (Long, Seburn, Averill, & More, 2003), our findings
2013). Feinstein et al (2013) demonstrated that in the context of social cannot be generalized to adolescents in other cultural backgrounds.
networking, negatively comparing oneself with others may place in­ Compared with individualism, collectivism emphasizes the interdepen­
dividuals at risk for rumination and, in turn, lead to depressive symp­ dent relationship between individuals and regards the state of being
toms. Liu et al (2017) has also proved that rumination could be alone as a violation of collective interests, or even as a manifestation of
predicted by mobile phone addiction, and eventually lead to adoles­ selfishness or problematic behavior. Therefore, the capacity to be alone
cents’ poor sleep quality. In addition, according to the showed a positive association with rumination and psychological
cognitive-behavioral model (Davis, 2001), rumination is not only the distress among Chinese adolescents. Besides, different from the previous
antecedent of mobile phone addiction, but also the consequence of study (Larson & Lee, 1996), which took adults as subjects, this study
mobile phone addiction. After excessive or uncontrolled use of mobile took adolescents as subjects. This may also be the reason why the cor­
phones, mobile phone addicts may ruminate about problems associated relation between the capacity to be alone and psychological distress in
with their mobile phone use and regret for wasting time on mobile our study was significant positive. Adolescence is a transition period for
phones, which may lead to increasing in depression, anxiety and stress. an individual to mature from infancy. Adolescents have not yet learned
Overall, rumination was an underlying mechanism for us to understand effective emotional regulation strategies and could not deal with the
how mobile phone addiction influences psychological distress. various growth crises and stressful life events independently (Compas,
In addition, one most important finding in the present study was the Orosan, & Grant, 1993). It is difficult for them to renew their emotions
individual difference in the predictive effects of mobile phone addiction and reestablish their emotional harmony by using the time being alone.
on rumination and psychological distress. Specifically, both the direct Therefore, as an expected stress buffer, the effect of the capacity to be

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S.-L. Lian et al. Journal of Affective Disorders 279 (2021) 701–710

alone may backfire. However, this conjecture still needs further rumination level by changing their non-adaptive cognitive and
cross-culture empirical research support. It is necessary to carry out emotional response style (Cohen, Mor, & Henik, 2015). Cohen, Mor, and
cross-cultural research to validate the buffering effect of the capacity to Henik (2015) found that training individuals to exert executive control
be alone in the process of mobile phone addiction leading to rumination when processing negative stimuli can alleviate ruminative thinking and
and psychological distress among adolescents from different cultural rumination-related sad mood. Therefore, changing adolescents’
backgrounds. Second, limited by cross-sectional design, the present non-adaptive cognitive and emotional response style may also be an
study could not permit a strict causal relationship. Future studies could effective way to decrease the negative impacts of mobile phone addic­
adopt longitudinal design to examine the causal direction among mobile tion. Specifically, adolescents can reduce the possibility of excessive use
phone addiction, rumination and psychological distress. It is also of mobile phones leading to rumination. First, controlling the time they
necessary to conduct intervention research to examine the role of the spend on their mobile phone every day consciously. Second, trying to
capacity to be alone in the pathway of mobile phone addiction influ­ use the mobile phone as a tool for work and entertainment instead of
encing rumination and psychological distress by enhancing the capacity being kidnapped by the mobile phone. Third, turning their attention
to be alone of mobile phone addicts. Moreover, data were collected from away from the negative experience resulting from excessive or uncon­
junior middle school students using only self-reported questionnaires, trolled use of mobile phones. Fourth, avoid regret for excessive or un­
which might have caused social desirability bias and common method controlled use of mobile phones, do what should to do.
bias. Future studies should employ multidimensional scaling to collect
more objective data from multiple informants including their parents Conflict of Interest
and peers.
In spite of these limitations, the present study deepens previous All co-authors have expressed agreement with the order of author­
studies by revealing the mediating and moderating mechanisms un­ ship and contents of the manuscript. The authors have no conflicts of
derlying the link between mobile phone addiction and psychological interests that might be interpreted as influencing the research.
distress. Specifically, the present study is the first attempt to reveal the
mediating role of rumination and the protective effect of the capacity to Author identifying information
be alone to explain how and when mobile phone addiction leads to
psychological distress. Shuai-Lei Lian: Ph.D. in developmental psychology, College of Edu­
Besides, practical implications could also be drawn from this study. cation and Sports Science, Yangtze University; Xiao-Jun Sun: Professor,
Adolescents isolated at home during the COVID-19 pandemic have more School of psychology, Central China Normal University; Geng-feng Niu:
time to be alone. Unfortunately, more and more adolescents spend most Professor, School of psychology, Central China Normal University; Xiu-
of their time alone on their mobile phones and even are addicted to Juan Yang: Ph.D. candidate in developmental psychology, School of
mobile phones, which makes them fall into a variety of psychological psychology, Central China Normal University; Zong-Kui Zhou: Profes­
crises, such as conflicts in parent-child relationship, academic problems, sor, School of psychology, Central China Normal University. Chen Yang:
and all kinds of psychological distress (Sun et al., 2020). To prevent the postgraduates in developmental psychology, School of psychology,
deterioration of adolescents’ psychological problems, parents and edu­ Central China Normal University;
cators should guide adolescents to avoid excessive dependence on mo­
bile phones and enjoy the time to be alone. Adolescents should also be Author Statement Contribution
acknowledged that the sense of bondage and social and technology
overload accompanying the freedom and benefits brought by mobile Study design: Shuailei Lian, Xiaojun Sun, Zongkui Zhou
phone (Choi & Lim, 2016; David & Roberts, 2017; Lee, Son, & Kim, Data collection and analysis: Shuailei Lian, Xiaojun Sun, Xiujuan
2016). At the same time, it is necessary for people, especially adoles­ Yang, Chen Yang
cents, to enhance their capacity to be alone and extricate themselves Manuscript preparation: Shuailei Lian, Xiaojun Sun, Gengfeng Niu
from the predicament caused by excessive use of mobile phones.
Considering that the capacity to be alone is the first step to enter Funding
mindfulness meditation, measures to improve mindfulness may be
effective for individuals improving their capacity to be alone. Medita­ This work was supported by Project supported by social science
tion training, including body scan and yoga exercises, has been proved foundation of Hubei Province, China [Project No. 2019209], Major
to be effective intervention methods to promote mindfulness (Burke, Program of National Social Science Foundation of China [Project No.
2010). Therefore, adolescents with lower capacity to be alone could 11&ZD151] and General program of National Natural Science Founda­
improve their capacity to be alone by participating in mindfulness tion of China (Project No. 31872781). No competing financial interests
training, which ultimately mitigates the negative impact of mobile existed.
phone addiction. Specifically, when being alone, adolescents with lower
capacity to be alone need to try to do the following to improve their Acknowledgments
ability to be alone. First, be aware of but not judge their emotions,
thoughts, body feelings, etc. Second, they should learn to coexist with The authors gratefully acknowledge all the participants and schools
their physical and mental states patiently and peacefully. Third, keeping cooperated in this survey. Hereby thank all the postgraduates who
a beginner’s mind on their own state. Fourth, believing in the arrange­ cooperated with us in conducting this study.
ment of nature and let it be. Fifth, just be aware of all the physical and
mental phenomena that happen at the moment. Sixth, accepting the References
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