1

At the end of the topic, you should be able to:

⦁ Outline reasons for housing livestock
⦁ Describe types of housing needed for one type of livestock (broiler layers, rabbits, dairy
animals or pigs)
⦁ Describe qualities of a good livestock house
⦁ Define stockmanship
⦁ Explain stockmanship in the following areas for one off the following livestock (broilers
or layers or rabbits or dairy animals or pigs):
a. Animal handling
b. Record keeping
c. Rearing of young stock
d. Nutrition and feeding practices

⦁ To protect animals from bad weather conditions such as heat, wind, cold, and rain.
⦁ To protect animals against predators such as lions and hyenas.
⦁ To facilitate easy handling of livestock when carrying out management practices
⦁ To facilitate separation of animals according to sex to control breeding.
⦁ To enable separating calves from their mothers if the mothers are to be milked.
⦁ To control movement of animals and prevent them from going astray.
⦁ To protect animals from thieves
⦁ For general monitoring and observation in situations where animals may need assistance

Chicks are raised in a brooding unit while older birds are kept in a chicken house.
Brooding-care provided to day old chicks from time they hatch until they grow
their own feathers
Brooding unit- place where day old chicks are provided with care from
The house should: hatching until they grow their own feathers
⦁ Protect chickens from adverse weather condition
⦁ Protect chickens from predators and thieves
⦁ Provide chicken with adequate ventilation
⦁ Provide adequate lighting
⦁ Provide adequate floor space
⦁ Allow easy cleaning, have a concrete floor
⦁ Provide livestock with comfort
⦁ Have rough floor made of concrete space- 10 birds/1m*

The features of a good broiler house should be as follows:

⦁ should be rough to prevent birds from slipping, durable, and vermin or rodent proof.
It should be made of concrete for easy cleaning and disinfecting. It should be 8-10cm thick
and placed 15cm above the ground
⦁ should be solid up to 1m, and made up of bricks, stones or concrete blocks
⦁ should be made up of 18 to 25mm wire mesh to ensure proper ventilation
while screening out birds and rodents. It should be supported on treated gum poles set
 2

50cm into concrete

⦁ should be tight fitting and lockable to ensure security of chickens
⦁ should not exceed 9m wide to ensure efficient cross ventilation
⦁ - the house can be of any convenient length
⦁ - should be 2-2.4m high from foundation to roof
⦁ - can be made of corrugated iron sheets, with roof overhang of greater than 50cm to
provide adequate protection from sun and rain
⦁ - should have minimum depth of 40cm, made of termite proof materials such
as concrete

⦁ It is the art and science of taking good care to animals.

The types of feeds given to broilers depend on the age of the birds.

⦁ This is the ration given to Day-Old Chicks to 5 weeks of age. It contains

high amount of protein (21 – 24%), minerals and vitamins needed for building their bodies.
Growth promoters may be added for quick growth and the feed is finely ground.

⦁ This is the ration given chicks between 3 to 5 weeks and contains about 20%
protein. This feed is moderately ground and it enables the chicks to grow and at the same time
gain some weight because of its increased carbohydrates content.

⦁ it is given to broilers from 5 weeks to age of slaughter (usually 6 – 8

weeks of age). The feed contains less protein (about 18%) and is rich in carbohydrates, which
 3

promote rapid weight gain in preparation for slaughter. The Finisher mash is usually coarser
than the starter mash.

⦁ Optional feed given to broilers just a week before slaughter or sale

It is rich in energy and proteins needed to produce substantial table or kill weight.

⦁ Never surprise chickens, alert them that you are coming when you approach the chicken
house ( whistles)
⦁ Do not alarm the chickens. Open the door slowly, move slowly inside the chicken house,
never flap empty meal sacks, and carry buckets low down. They easily get scared
⦁ Catch the birds in the evening when they are roosting. If you have to catch them during the
day keep your hands low and grab the legs quickly. Never chase after chickens. Use a
catching hook to catch them by the shanks.
⦁ Hold the bird firmly by both wings or by its legs with the head facing down so that it
cannot struggle and hurt itself.
⦁ To examine the chicken one hand holds the legs firmly by the hocks with the other hand
holding the wings so that the bird stays calm and does not struggle.
⦁ Keep a regular routine in terms of feeding, cleaning water troughs.
⦁ Do not overcrowd the in crates or carrying cages during transportation. Protect them from
heat or cold. Arrive at a new place before dark to make them get used to the surrounds

⦁ To help business to check whether it is making profit or loss

⦁ To enable farmers to determine the financial position of the farm.
⦁ To enable the farmer to compare enterprises
⦁
Production- info on amount financial on the money and earned/
To enable farmer to monitor farm operations returns
⦁ To enable farmer obtain loans from lending institutions amount of feeds
no of birds

Records, which should be kept, include:

⦁ : They show the quantities of feeds available and used for a specific enterprise.
⦁ show the date and cause of death if it is known
⦁ Record the date of birth, sex etc. of chick
⦁ They show the dates when the animals were vaccinated,
dosed or treated
⦁ : Record the number of sales, costs, name of buyer
⦁

Before the chicks are brought into the farm the following preparations have to be made:
⦁ Repair, clean and disinfect the chicken house using Formalin, insecticides or acaricides.
⦁ Place litter on the floor one/two days before the arrival of chicks
⦁ Prepare a brooding unit
⦁ Buy enough feed purchased to last the whole rearing periods.
⦁ Order adequate medical supplies and vaccines
⦁ Clean the footbath and fill it with fresh disinfectant
⦁ Make all record books ready
⦁ Instruct the poultry attendant well on the daily activities of the enterprise.
 4

⦁ Place the feeder and drinking troughs for chicks in position

⦁ Switch on heaters 24 hours before arrival of chicks to prevent death of chicks due to
chilling.

⦁ Chicks are raised in a brooding unit from time

they hatch until they grow enough feathers and
survive on their own.
⦁ This is usually from day old until 5 weeks of age.

⦁ Correct temperature regulation promotes good

feathering, normal growth and avoids chilling and
heat prostration.
heat exhaution

⦁ Maintain temperatures at about 35oC in the first week. Gradually reduce it to about 26oC
by the fourth week. Do not let the temperatures to go below 18oC. Observe the chicks
regularly. If it is too cold they huddle together under the heating unit. If it is too hot they
are far away from the heating unit. If the temperature is right, chicks will be evenly spaced
in the brooding unit.
⦁ Feed chicks with starter mash. Spread feed on the newspapers or chick trays for the first
2-days, to encourage chicks to start eating. Later, place feed in oval-hole chick feeders.
⦁ Provide clean, fresh water to chicks daily, in chick drinkers. Allow water space of 2.5 cm
per chick for the first 2-weeks and 5.0cm for the remaining period. Introduce the adult
drinkers as early as possible.
⦁ Allow chicks adequate floor space (20 chicks per m2 in the first 4-weeks and then, increase
to 12 birds per m2) to ensure good feathering, evenness of growth, stamina, and reduce
incidence of lice.
⦁ Provide adequate ventilation to prevent the occurrence of respiratory diseases, and
build-up of ammonia and fumes from the brooder lamps to harmful levels
⦁ Maintain relative humidity at about 65% for optimum development of chicks.
⦁ Provide litter of the floor to absorb moisture from droppings. Remove any wet litter
immediately.
⦁ Vaccinate chicks against diseases like Newcastle, Marek’s, Fowl pox, Gumboro, Fowl
Typhoid, and Cholera.
⦁ Disinfect the house before the arrival of chicks to kill parasites and pathogens
⦁ Make the chicken house predator proof to protect chicks from predators such as snakes
⦁ Give chicks the stress pack (a tranquilizer) which contains digestible sugar solution to
increase their energy and enable them to settle easily in the new environment.
 5

1. Which is not a reason for housing livestock?

A. to make a breeding programmes easy

B.***to maximise variation among animals
C. to prevent animals from going astray
D. to protect animals from predators

2. Which statement defines stockmanship?

A. The ability to keep many animals.

B. The ability to restock the farm.
C. The art of locating stray animals.
D.***The art of taking care of livestock.

3. A deep litter house for raising broilers can be designed up to 9 metres in width and any
length that is required. The recommended density for floor space is 5 birds per m2.

What is the recommended number of birds that cam be raised in a floor space of 90 m2?

A. 5
B. 18
C. 90
D.** 450

4. In which record should a stockman keep details of animals that die during rearing
period?
Stockman-somebody who takes care of livestock(modisa yo molemo)
A.***Mortality (good stockman)
B. Health
C. Sales
D. Birth

5. Which material is used in making the floor of livestock houses to ensure easy cleaning?

A. carpet
B.***concentrate
C. earth
D. wood

1. Figure shows house for farm animals.

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(a) Name feature and feature .

Feature P……………………………………………………………………………….
Roof

Feature S……………………………………………………………………………….
Door [2]
(b) State the significance of feature Q
…………………………………………………………………………………………
It ensures proper ventilation

………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]
(c) Describe feature R.
Should be solid made up of bricks
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
………………………………………………………………………………………… [2]
(d) Explain how feature T promotes healthy growth of animals.
Its a disinfect which help to kill pathogens that may be carried by humans that can cause
…………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………
diseases [2]

1. Discuss stockmanship of a farm animal with reference to the following:

(a) feeding practices [4]
(b) handling of stock [6]

At the end of the topic, you should be able to:

 7

⦁ Describe the digestion in ruminant and non-ruminant animals including enzymatic actions.
⦁ Describe structure and functions of the male and female reproductive system of cattle and
chickens
⦁ State at least four signs of heat in a cow
⦁ State the relevance of signs of heat for breeding
⦁ Describe oestrous cycle of a cow
⦁ State the relationship between oestrous cycle and pregnancy
⦁ State the role of oestrogen, progesterone, follicle stimulating hormone, corpus luteum,
luteinising hormone and testosterone in the reproductive system of a ruminant.

⦁ Ingests food and chews it into smaller particles.

⦁ Food is mixed with saliva making it soft for easy swallowing.
⦁ Salivary amylase chemically digests starch into maltose.

wallows food into the stomach by peristalsis.

⦁ Secretes gastric juice which contains pepsin, rennin, and hydrochloric acid.
⦁ Pepsin digests protein into peptides
⦁ Hydrochloric acid provides optimum acidic pH for the activity of pepsin.
⦁ In young suckling animal, the enzyme rennin which coagulates milk protein.
⦁ Constant movement of stomach walls churns (mix up) food (chime) with gastric juice..

⦁ It is the first part of the small intestine.

⦁ Pancreas produces pancreatic juice which contains trypsin, lipase and the pancreatic
amylase.
⚪ Amylase which converts starches into maltose
⚪ Lipase which converts fats into fatty acids and glycerol
⚪ Trypsin which converts proteins and proteoses into peptones and peptides
⦁ Bile is produced by the liver
⚪ Bile contains sodium bicarbonate which neutralizes the acid chyme
⚪ Bile salts emulsify fats so that lipase (fat splitting enzyme) can work well
⚪ The salts also activate lipase
 8

⦁ The walls of the duodenum secrets intestinal juices which contain the following enzymes:
⚪ maltase which digests maltose into glucose,
⚪ peptidase which digests peptides into amino-acids,
⚪ sucrase which digest sucrose into fructose,
⚪ lactase which digests lactose into glucose and galactose.

⦁ End products of digestion are absorbed through the villi which have a network of
capillaries into which the end products of digestion diffuse and get into the blood stream.

⦁ This forms the small bag at the junction of the small intestines and the large intestines.
⦁ The bacteria break down cellulose producing vitamins which are absorbed in the colon
along with water.

⦁ The large intestines are also called the colon.

⦁ As watery and undigested food material passes through the colon, most of water is
re-absorbed from the waste material back into the body system.

stores waste material before being passed out through the anus.

expels waste materials out of the body.

Part of the Enzyme Functions Produced by

digestive
system
Mouth Salivary amylase Converts starch into maltose Salivary glands
Abomasum Rennin Converts milk protein to insoluble Gastric glands
(True stomach) Para-casein (curdled milk)
Pepsin converts proteins into proteases,
peptones and polypeptides
Duodenum Lipase converts lipids into fatty acids and Pancreas
glycerol
Amylase converts starches into maltose
Trypsin Converts proteins to polypeptides.
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⦁ Ingests grass, partially chews it and mixes it with large quantities of saliva.
⦁ Saliva does not have any enzymes hence no chemical digestion in the mouth

⦁ The oesophagus is a muscular tube that connects the mouth with the fore-stomach.
⦁ Food passes down the oesophagus by peristalsis.
⦁ The ruminant oesophagus is also capable of reverse peristalsis or antiperistalsis which allows
regurgitation of food from the rumen

A ruminant has a stomach with four compartments (polygastric): the reticulum, rumen, omasum
and the abomasum.

⦁ This looks more like a honey comb hence commonly referred to as the honey comb.
⦁ It sieves and traps foreign materials (wires or nails) that may be swallowed accidentally.
⦁ Separates finely ground material from coarse ones
⦁ Initiates regurgitation of coarse food back to the mouth for re-chewing (re-mastication)

⦁ It is the largest component of the ruminant stomach.

⦁ Stores roughage temporarily before being regurgitated
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⦁ Churns food and mixes it with rumen fluid to make it soft

⦁ Contains microbes which secrete cellulose enzyme that breakdown cellulose (ferments) into
volatile fatty acids, vitamin K, and vitamin B complex.

(bible /Manyplies/ book stomach)

⦁ It grinds food to a fine consistency
⦁ Its wall is highly folded, giving a large surface area for efficient straining and absorption of
water and salts from the food.
⦁ It also acts as a type of pump, moving the food from the reticulo-rumen to the abomasum

(true stomach or a 'secretory stomach)

⦁ it secretes gastric juices which contains enzymes and hydrochloric acid
⦁ Enzymatic digestion takes place in the abomasum.
• Pepsin converts proteins into proteoses, peptones and polypeptides).
• Rennin helps to coagulate milk (acts on milk protein).
⦁ Hydrochloric acid modifies pH for the action of pepsin and kills harmful bacteria in abomasum

After the abomasum, the rest of the parts of the digestive system and their functions are similar
to that of non-ruminant animals.

● The beak is used for eating and drinking

● It does not have teeth to chew feed.
● Little saliva and digestive enzymes are added as food moves from mouth into the
esophagus.

● Flexible tube like structure that extends from mouth to Proventriculus.

● It helps carry feed from mouth towards Proventriculus.
● Secrets mucous for lubrication.
 11

⦁ Crop is the extension of oesophagus located in the neck region.

⦁ It is used to store food temporarily before moving it on to the stomach. Feed can remain
for up to 12 hours. When the proventriculus or gizzard is empty the feed by pass the crop.
⦁ Starch is hydrolysed by salivary amylase, then either be absorbed or converted to alcohol,
lactic or other acids
Hydrolysis-a chemical reaction that uses water to break down a compound
glandular stomach or true stomach)
⦁ It produces gastric juice which consists of pepsinogen and hydrochloric acid.
⦁ Pepsinogen digests protein, gastric juice produced in response to protein content in diet.
⦁ Acid secretion of chickens is high relative to mammals.

⦁ It is a muscular part of the stomach The chief function of the grit-is to

⦁ It uses grit to physically grind grains and fibre into smaller particles. aid the gizzard in crushing and
grinding the food
⦁ Grit is the stone or rock particles present in the gizzard.

⦁ Composed of the duodenum, jejunum and ileum.

⦁ Aids in digestion and nutrient absorption.
⦁ Intestinal juice is secreted and contains enzymes such as:
⚪ Amylase for carbohydrates digestion.
⚪ Invertase for carbohydrates digestion.
⚪ Trypsin for proteins digestion.
⦁ Pancreatic juice contains enzymes that digest carbohydrates, protein and fat.
⦁ Bile emulsifies fat which is then digested by the enzymes.
⦁ After completion of digestion, glucose, amino acid, and fatty acids are absorbed by the
ileum.

⦁ These are two blind pouches located between the small intestine and large intestine.
⦁ Bacteria in the ceca break down cellulose to produce B vitamins and organic acids.
⦁ There is minimal absorption of the nutrients released because the caeca are located near the
end of the digestive tract
⦁ Caeca produce pasty and smelly droppings often mustard to dark brown in colour.

absorbs water, dry out indigestible foods and eliminates waste products.

is where the digestive, urinary and reproductive systems meet. It is the

bulbous/enlarged area located at the end of large intestine.

is the external opening of the cloaca that passes waste to the outside.
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It is the “entranceway” of the female reproductive tract and only part visible from the
outside
● Swells and becomes reddish-pink during estrus response due to estrogen
● It prevents foreign matter from entering the reproductive tract

It is a flattened tube; passage between the cervix and the vulva

● Site of semen deposition during natural insemination (receives the penis during mating)
● Used as passageway for instruments during AI
● Produces mucus (lubricant) that flushes out irritants and infectious agents
● It is also a birth canal
● Common site of infection

It is muscular folds between the uterus and the vagina that that trap foreign substances.
It is completely closed except during estrus and parturition (calving)
● During pregnancy, hard mucus plug shuts it to prevent the developing embryo from being
expelled.
● It also prevents the entry of disease causing organisms (pathogens) in the uterus.

It is muscular and capable of “vast extension” because it has uterine horns

● This is where the zygote is implanted and developed into foetus (womb).
● It has omnion fluid that provides nutrients and protects the calf.
● Contraction of the uterus muscles aids in the birth process (parturition).

● These are tubes that carry eggs from ovaries to uterus

● They are usually kept tight except during ovulation and insemination
● This is where fertilization occurs. Sperm meet the egg in the upper part of the oviduct, the
which funnels eggs from ovaries into oviduct.
● Newly formed zygote stays in oviduct 3-4 days, while the uterus to prepare itself

● A cow has two small, walnut-shaped ovaries that contain infinite supply of ova (or egg
 13

cell).
● Produce a mature ovum (egg) every 21 days.
● Eggs mature in follicles- Start as cavities (holes) on the ovary. An egg moves to this
cavity. It is surrounded by support cells and nutritive substances, making a follicle
● Produce female sex hormone, oestrogen

● Female gamete (reproductive cell) and half the number of normal chromosomes
● Present prior to birth, but maturation occurs at puberty
● Multiple eggs develop during a cycle, but only one matures

Located outside the body cavity which is critical for normal sperm formation which
occurs at 4 to 5 degrees below body temperature.
● Produces the spermatozoa, they form and begin to mature in the seminiferous tubules
● Producing the male hormone, testosterone. Produced in the interstitial cells of Leydig

The testicle is located outside the body cavity in the scrotum

⦁ Scrotum provides physical protection to the testicle
⦁ It helps to regulate the temperature for optimum spermatozoa development.
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It is a compact, flat, elongated structure closely attached to one side of the testicle.
⦁ It transports the developing sperm cells from the testicle to the vas deferens;
⦁ It regulates the concentration of the sperm by absorbing surplus fluids;
⦁ maturation of the developing spermatozoa;
⦁ it stores of viable sperm cells in the epididymis tail.
⦁ If sexual activity is slowed, sperm cells are reabsorbed from the epididymis tail.
⦁ The epididymis serves as an outlet for all the sperm produced in the testicle and any
blockage of this tube will cause sterility.

or
⦁ ransport spermatozoa to the pelvic region during ejaculation.

The two vas deferens unite into a single tube, the urethra, which is the channel passing
through the penis.
⦁ In males, urethra serves as a common passageway for semen and urine

They include seminal vesicles, prostate gland and cowper's glands

⦁ They secret the liquid portion of the semen (seminal fluids), which activate the sperm to
become motile. They are produced prior to service to flush and cleanse the urethra of any
urine residue that may be harmful to spermatozoa.

The penis is held inside the sheath by the sigmoid flexure, strong retractor muscles hold
the penis in the "S" shaped alignment.
⦁ This is the organ of insemination.
covers and protects the penis from any physical damage.

⦁ It is the period from one estrus (heat period) to the next estrus.

⦁ It averages 21 days, with a typical range of 18 to 24 days in length.

● Four stages of the oestrus cycle are proestrus, oestrus, metaoestrus and dioestrus
 15

Signs of oestrus (heat) are due to the influence of oestrogen and are as follows:
⦁ Being very excited and restless
⦁ A loss of appetite
⦁ Frequent bellowing and urination
⦁ A swollen , red vulva
⦁ Front mounting- cow mounts other cows and being mounted.
⦁ A slight rise in body temperature
⦁ A slimy , clear mucous discharge from the vulva
⦁ A slight drop in milk production in animals.
⦁ Restlessness, bellowing and swelling of the vulva
⦁ Standing when mounted by a bull or other animals

⦁ A good understanding of the heat signs ensures accuracy in a heat detection program, and
hence a successful reproductive program
⦁ Accurate heat detection programs lead to higher pregnancy rates.
⦁ Higher pregnancy rates result in more pregnant cows
⦁ Detection of estrus is the key to successful use of artificial insemination (A.I.).
⦁ Failure to detect heat and errors in heat detection cause poor reproductive performance and
low reproductive efficiency.
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⦁ Undetected heats result in longer calving intervals and fewer calves.

⦁ Breeding cows unsuitable for insemination leads to lower conception rates, waste of semen
and time.
⦁ Unrecognized estrus and low conception rates may lead to culling of normal cows.
⦁ Insemination of pregnant cows mistakenly identified in heat may cause abortion

⦁ Oestrus cycle occurs when fertilisation does not occur

⦁ If fertilisation results in pregnancy oestrus cycle stops.
⦁ Presence of embryo blocks uterus to produce PG late in the estrous cycle which causes
maintenance of corpus luteum and production of progesterone for pregnancy
⦁ Oestrus cycle will then resume a few weeks after parturition (birth).

A hormone is a substance produced in animals in one part of the body which has a particular
effect in another part of the body. Hormones are usually transported around the body through
the blood.

Oestrogen Ovary ⦁ Induces oestrus (heat period)

⦁ Increases the size of reproductive organs
⦁ Keeps oestrus cycle working
⦁ Develops female secondary sex characteristics
⦁ Inhibits secretion of LH
⦁ Induces opening of the cervix
⦁ Induces mucous production in the vagina
⦁ Thickens uterine lining
Follicle pituitary gland ● Stimulates development of follicles
stimulating ● Stimulates secretion of oestrogen
hormone (FSH) ● Stimulates maturation of ova
● Stimulates growth of testes
● Induces production of sperms
Leutinising pituitary gland ● Induces ovulation (causes rapture of the graffian follicles)
hormone ● Causes growth of the corpus luteum in the cavity
(LH) left after ovulation
Progesterone corpus luteum ● It inhibits production of LH
● Maintains pregnancy
● Causes uterine and mammary glands to grow
● Facilitate secretion of uterine milk on which the
fetus feeds
● Causes growth of the alveoli (which make milk) in
the udder
Testosterone Testes ● Produces secondary sexual characteristics
e.g. manufacture of spermatozoa

The reproductive anatomy of poultry differs when compared to that of other animal species.
 17

⦁ produce Androgen – the male sex

hormone that
⚪ Directs sexual activity and the production of
sperm,
⚪ Controls male secondary sexual
characteristics (comb growth, crowing or
gobbling, spur development, and male
feathering)
⚪ Influences social rank or “peck order.”
⦁ functions in sperm storage.
⦁ The transports of sperm and
sperm reservoirs.
⦁ Cloaca –provides a passageway for products
the urinary, digestive, and reproductive tracts.
⦁ Papillae – located at the end of the vas defere
and on the floor of the cloaca, the papillae em
semen into the cloaca of the female.

Mature female poultry have one functional ovary; the right ovary and oviduct
degenerate and stop functioning before the bird reaches sexual maturity.
⦁ It produces yolks and releases them into the infundibulum.
⦁ It also produces the female sex hormone, estrogen, and the hormone androgen. The
androgen hormone stimulates comb growth and works with other hormones in egg
production

consists of five parts: the infundibulum, the magnum, the isthmus, the uterus, and the
vagina.
Infundibulum
⦁ funnel-like part of the oviduct that receives the yolk
⦁ is the site of fertilization.
⦁ The chalazae are added to hold the yolk.
Magnum secretes the thick white or albumen.
Isthmus adds the two shell membranes.
⦁ Water, mineral salts and
vitamins are added to the
developing egg.
⦁ The egg shape is
determined here.
Uterus
⦁ secretes the thin white,
the shell, and the shell
 18

pigment.
⦁ Some water and mineral
salts are added.

Vagina
⦁ receives the sperms
during mating and passes
them on to the
infundibulum.
⦁ site where cuticles are
added to the eggshell
⦁ stores egg temporarily
before being laid.
Cloaca Site for sperms
deposition and removes
(lays) eggs.
Vent Exit through which egg
passes to the outside and site
for sperm entrance.

1. Which is the correct route followed by a sperm to fertilise the egg in a hen?

A. cloaca →vagina →magnum →uterus →isthmus →funnel

B.** cloaca →vagina →uterus →isthmus →magnum →funnel
C. vagina →cloaca →isthmus →magnum →funnel →uterus
D. vagina →cloaca→ magnum →isthmus →funnel→ uterus

2. Which pair of statements is true about oestrus cycle and pregnancy?

oestrus cycle pregnancy

A. no ovulation ovulation occurs
B.*** oestrogen level varies progesterone level maintained
C. corpus luteum maintained corpus luteum degenerates
D. oxytocin produced oestrus occurs

3. The diagram shows a cow mounting another. This is a sign that she is on heat.

Cow mounting cow

Which other sign of heat can be displayed by the animal labelled B?

A. dry vagina
B. high appetite
C. restlessness
D. shrinking vulva
 19

4. Why should a farmer detect should signs of heat in livestock?

A. to decide when to feed breeding cows

B. to isolate unproductive cows from the herd
C. to decide on when to mate the breeding cows
D. to provide appropriate vaccination for the cows

5. When approximately does ovulation occur in a cow after the heat begin?

A. 12 hours
B. 24 days
C. 21 days
D. 280 days

1. (a) State the difference between chemical digestion and microbial digestion.
…………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………. [1]
(b) Describe digestion of food in the proventriculus of a chicken.
…………………………………………………………………………………….
…………………………………………………………………………………….
……………………………………………………………………………………. [3]
(c)Complete the table by stating enzymes and products of digestion in the following parts
of the digestive system.

part of digestive system enzyme product

Abomasum Proteins Peptides
Duodenum Amylase Maltose
Lipase
Trypsin Peptides
Ileum Maltase simple sugars
Peptidase Amino acids
[6]
2. For a ruminant digestive system:
a) Name an enzyme that digests protein.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
Trypsin [1]
b) Explain how the digestion of cellulose takes place.
……………………………………………………………………………………………
……………………………………………………………………………………………
…………………………………………………………………………………………… [3]
3. Complete the table by stating enzymes and products of digestion in the following parts of
the digestive system.

Site of production Hormone Function

Ovary Osetrogen Stimulates onset of heat

Ovary Progesterone Maintains pregnancy

 20

Pituitary gland Follicle stimulating hormone Stimulates oestrogen secretion

Stimulate development of graffian follicle
Testes testosterone Develops male secondary sex
characteristics
[4]
4. (a) Complete the table by selecting and writing the hormone level in the given stage of the
reproductive cycle in a ruminant.

increased level of progesterone reduced level of progesterone

increased level of oestrogen reduced level of oestrogen
increased level of testosterone reduced level of testosterone
increased level of luteinising hormone reduced level of luteinising hormone

stage of reproductive cycle hormone level

Ovulation
Oestrus
Spermatogenesis
Pregnancy

(b) State the significance of increased level of oestrogen towards the heat period in a cow.
………………………………………………………………………………………… [1]

5. (a) State the meaning of oestrus cycle [1]

(b) Discuss the stages of oestrus cycle in a cow [8]
(c) Outline the significance of knowing oestrus cycle of a cow [1]

6. (a) Outline stages/phases of oestrus cycle in a cow. [4]

(b) Describe hormonal changes that occur in each stage of the cycle. [6]

At the end of the topic, you should be able to:

⦁ Describe the characteristics of healthy animals
⦁ Outline general methods of prevention of livestock diseases
⦁ Classify livestock diseases on the basis of causative agent and host animal (s) affected
⦁ Choose one disease and describe the etiology, symptoms, prevention and control of the
disease.
⦁ Classify round worms, tape worms, liver fluke, ticks, flies, mites, lice and tsetse fly into
internal or external parasites.
⦁ Describe the host, life cycle and control of one internal and one external parasite.

An animal is healthy if all its organ systems perform their physiological functions effectively. A
 21

disease is any harmful deviation from normal state of health.

⦁ Has a normal posture either when standing or laying down.

⦁ Has glossy, smooth, and clean coat that show complete cover (without patches).
⦁ Has a normal appetite, its digestive system functions properly, and feed to satisfaction.
⦁ It is alert and responsive to the surroundings
⦁ Its droppings are normal, neither be too hard or too watery with any blood stains.
⦁ Eyes are clear and bright.
⦁ Has normal pulse rate, respiration rate, and temperature (e.g.38.5 – 39.5oC for cattle and 40.5
– 43.0oC for chicken)

⦁ Provide suitable housing to provide enough space, light, and ventilation.

⦁ Provide suitable balanced diet that is fresh and clean.
⦁ Separation of young and old stock to avoid older carriers transmitting diseases to young
animals that have little resistance.
⦁ Ensure proper hygiene through regular cleaning and disinfection of house and equipment.
⦁ Isolation of sick animals to prevent them from passing diseases to healthy animals.
⦁ Control of vermins such as rodents that eat the animal feed as they are vectors of diseases
⦁ Control of parasites through foot bath, dipping and drenching.
⦁ Follow vaccination programs for diseases to prevent their outbreaks
⦁ Provision of clean water: Provide animals with adequate clean water at all times.
⦁ Observe quarantine and legislative measures to prevent introduction of diseases and
parasites

Livestock diseases can be classified on the basis of causative agent and host animal(s) as
follows:

Diseases Cause Hosts

Foot and Mouth disease viruses cloven footed animals such as cattle,
sheep and goats
Swine fever pigs
Newcastle Poultry like chickens
Rabies dogs, cattle, sheep and goats

Tuberculosis bacteria cattle, goats, sheep, poultry

Mastitis lactating mammals e.g. cattle, goats,
sheep
Botulism cattle, goats, sheep
Anthrax cattle, goats, sheep
Contagious abortions cattle, goats, sheep, and donkey
Fowl typhoid poultry e.g. chickens
Bovine Pleuro Pneumonia (CBPP) cattle

Coccidiosis Protozoa young livestock of poultry, cattle sheep,

goats, rabbits and pigs
 22

Trypanosomiasis cattle, goats, sheep, horses

Heart-water rickettsia cattle, goats and sheep

Rickets lack of calcium cattle and poultry

Piglet anaemia lack of iron piglets
Aphosphorosis lack of cattle, goats, sheep, donkeys, lumpy ski
phosphorus and cattle

This is a notifiable, viral disease of cloven footed animals such as cattle, goats, sheep, and
impala.

It is caused by virus known as picornavirus .

African buffalo is a natural host and transmit the virus to cattle through contact.

⦁ High fever, a sharp rise in body temperature which subsides later on

⦁ Releases a lot of saliva from the mouth (excessive or continuous salivation)
⦁ Painful blisters (sores) in the palate, gums, tongues, mouth, muzzle, hooves and coronet.
⦁ Dullness
⦁ Poor or loss of appetite
⦁ Difficulty in eating (chewing) due to blisters in the mouth
⦁ Difficulty in walking (lameness) due to blisters in the coronet
⦁ Swollen udder
⦁ Reduced milk production
⦁ Anorexia and emaciation (severe weight loss)
⦁ Loss of hooves

There is no treatment for this disease

⦁ Regular vaccination every six months

⦁ Erection of cordon fences to restrict animal movement
⦁ Restrict movement of animal products
⦁ Observe quarantine regulations
⦁ Isolation of infected animals
⦁ Disinfect all objects that came in contact with the virus
⦁ Kill the infected animals and burn or burry their carcasses
⦁ Report suspected cases of the disease to relevant authorities (department of veterinary
services or police)
⦁ Keep the affected area unstocked for three months

⦁ A parasite is an organism that derives its nourishment (and/or shelter) from another
organism (the host), while the host does not benefit from the association.
⦁ There are two types of parasites - Internal and external parasites.
 23

⦁ They are parasites found inside the body of an animal and survive by absorbing food
swallowed by the animal or sucking blood from the walls of the intestine.
⦁ Common examples include: tapeworms, roundworms, and liver flukes

Tania saginata

The beef tapeworm needs two hosts, humans (primary host) and a cow (Secondary host) to
complete its life-cycle. The stages of its life cycle are as follows:

⦁ Absorb food from the cow’s body, so the cow may not get enough nutrients
⦁ Can damage the wall of the gut
⦁ Suck blood from the cow, causing disease such as anaemia
⦁ Can cause diarrhea
⦁ Cattle with bladder-worm are suffering from beef measles
⦁ Measly meat is condemned by a meat inspectors causing economic loss to beef producers.

⦁ Ensure that beef is thoroughly cooked before eating

⦁ Encourage herdsmen to take tapeworm tablets regularly
⦁ Ensure proper disposal of human faeces, use pit latrines, or safely bury them.
⦁ Meat should be inspected by competent and trustworthy meat inspectors. Condemn meat
that is discovered with bladderworms
⦁ Treat affected animals with copper sulphate and 40% nicotine at 6 weeks intervals or a
combination of copper sulphate and arsenic, 4 times a year at three months intervals.
 24

These are parasites that live on the body of the animal and survive by sucking blood from the
host. Common examples include ticks, tsetse flies, lice, red louse, blackflies, and mosquitoes.

⦁ Eggs are laid on

ground. Larvae hatch
and climb on host
⦁ Larvae attach and feed
on blood of host
⦁ Engorged larvae moult
and nymphs emerge
⦁ Nymphs feed on blood
⦁ Engorged nymphs
moult and adult with 8
legs emerge
⦁ Adult mate on host and
feed on blood
⦁ Engorged females drop
to the ground to lay
eggs and the cycle
continues.

⦁ Heavy infestations causes severe weakness, anaemia and low resistance to diseases
⦁ Transmit various tick-borne diseases such as redwater, gall sickness and heartwater
⦁ Cause wounds that may start off infections
⦁ Tick damage can cause severe damage and even loss of ears
⦁ Loss in production by weakening animals through loss of blood
⦁ Irritate, cause pain, stress and discomfort to livestock
⦁ Tick bites lower the quality of skins and hides
⦁ Tick can cause blood poisoning resulting in loss of appetite, listlessness and loss of
weight.

⦁ Regular dipping or spraying of livestock is very effective

⦁ Practice rotational grazing to break the life-cycle of ticks
⦁ Controlled burning of heavily infested pastures
⦁ Fencing farms to keep out unwanted animals like wild animals which may host ticks
⦁ Hand dressing those parts of the body favoured by certain ticks with anti-tick grease
⦁ Promote biological control by birds that prey on ticks such as small rhinoceros birds
⦁ Place new arrivals to the farm under quarantine before being allowed on the clean veld.

1. Which pair of observations indicates an animal which is free from disease?

A. bright clear eyes with high appetite

 25

B. bright clear eyes with normal appetite

C. high appetite with watery running nose
D. normal appetite with watery reddish eyes

2. Which list contains cattle diseases only?

A. heartwater, mastitis, tuberculosis, anthrax

B. newcastle, coccidiosis, heartwater, anthrax
C. mastistis, newcatsle, tuberculosis, coccidiosis
D. coccidiosis, anthrax, mastitis, newcastle

3. Which measure should a farmer take to ensure that newly acquired livestock does
introduce a disease into an area?

A. Disinfect paddocks before restocking

B. Keep new arrivals in quarantine
C. Separate animals according to age
D. Slaughter all suspected animals

4. Flies can be carriers of disease-causing organisms.

In animal housing, what will help to prevent the spread of diseases by flies?

A. covering all stores of food

B. an open water supply
C. good ventilation
D. separation of old and young stock

5. Which measure should be taken immediately when an infectious disease outbreak is

suspected in animals?

A. drenching
B. isolation
C. slaughtering
D. vaccination

1. Describe any livestock disease under the following headings:

(a) cause Cause ; virus
symptoms ; loss of hooves
[1]
(b) symptoms lameness due to wounds in the coronet [4]
(c) prevention and control of the disease. blisters in the mouth [5]
abundant strings of saliva dripping and hanging from the mouth

⦁ Differentiate between game farming, game ranching and game and livestock ranching.
⦁ Name at least 5 game animals
 26

⦁ Explain 4 importance of game farming

⦁ Explain the following ecological principles used in selecting a suitable game farm, size of
area, flow of energy, carrying capacity, numbers of game and ecosystem concept.
⦁ Outline the habitat preference of three species found in different habitats of Botswana.
Only one species from each of the three geographical areas should be selected. The species
list to choose from is as follows:
⦁ Chobe area – Roam Antelope or Elephant or Buffalo.
⦁ Tuli Block – Impala or Kudu
⦁ Kalahari – Gemsbok or Eland or Springbok
⦁ Describe either Capture of game by means of movable capture corrals or Capture of game
by use of crossbows, dart guns and game capture drugs.
⦁ Outline efforts by the government towards game farming development in Botswana
⦁ State legislative measures ensuring sustainable use of game, especially endangered species
⦁ Outline Ostrich farming in relation to the following:
✓ Extensive , semi-intensive and intensive farming
✓ Incubation of ostrich eggs
✓ The need to mark birds in captivity by the use of microchips
✓ Advantages of ostrich meat beef.

This refers to the keeping of wildlife in small enclosures in the wild to semi-or fully
domesticated state. Example of gaming farming includes the ostrich and crocodile farming.
Game farming requires an intensive management practices and as a result, it has high input cost,
and requires both the technical and managerial skills.

This refers to an enterprise where wild animals kept on a fenced area but under extensive
management practices. The examples of game ranching in Botswana include, Dithopo Game
Ranch near Lephepe in Kweneng, Mmokolodi Nature Reserve in Gaborone and Khama Rhino
Sanctuary in Serowe Central District.

This is an agricultural enterprise where livestock and wild animals are kept together in a large
fenced area under good husbandry practices.

⦁ Source of employment - Many people are employed as game scouts, guides and in lodges.
⦁ Diversifies the economy through job creations.
⦁ Sources of foreign exchange through exports of some game products like ostriches,
ostrich eggs, meat and skins to other countries
⦁ Sources of raw materials like skins of ostrich and crocodile which are used by other
industries to make some finished goods.
⦁ Source of tourist attraction as many people visit Botswana to view game species
⦁ Trophy hunting
⦁ Source of food which is an alternative source of protein to human nutrition.
⦁ Source of income for farmers through sale of game and their products
⦁ Conservation of endangered game species such as rhino, elephants, and waterbucks hence
protecting them from extinction.
 27

Larger farms offer game better chances for survival while small farms can easily become
overgrazed and lead to other management problems. The size of the area will also determine the
level of management required i.e. whether intensive farming or extensive ranching.

This is about the maximum number of animals that can be supported in a particular area without
causing deterioration of the environment. Carrying capacity determines the number of game that
the farm can contain as well as the species that the farm can support. The carrying capacity of an
area can be increased for a given species or combination of game species by veld management
and other forms of habitat manipulation.

The number of game kept on the farm is mainly determined by the carrying capacity, size of the
area and level of management used. Aerial game census is carried out to determine different
game species and game number available.

Ecosystem refers to a community of organisms interacting with each other and with the
environment. The ecosystem basically consists of two components being the biotic and abiotic
factors. The biotic factors consist of living organisms ranging from the biggest to the smallest
being the microbes. The abiotic factors consist of non-living factors like water, soil,
temperature, light, precipitation (rainfall, snow, and hail), minerals and air.
These two components ( ) act inter-dependently and they each
influence one another in several ways. All aspects of an ecosystem have a major effect on the
whole system. Therefore a slight variation in one feature of the system has a significant effect
on the whole system to a large extent.

Plants Herbivores Carnivores or

(Producers) (Game animals) Omnivores
Energy (Man)
Plantsfrom
which
the are producers trap solar energy from the sun and change it into stored energy
throughsunthe process of photosynthesis. They are called producers because they produce food
from water, carbon dioxide and salts.
Primary consumers these are herbivores such as springboks and they eat green plants to acquire
their energy through the process of digestion. Secondary consumers are carnivores such as lions
and eat herbivores to meet their energy requirements. They may be eaten by tertiary consumers
such as vultures.
Decomposers include the bacteria and fungi found in the soil, use organic mater of dead animals
for their energy.
In game farming /ranching carnivores/omnivores are mainly people. Thus, energy flows from
the sun to people via plants and herbivores or game animals. If one aspect of this flow is
distributed all other aspects will also be disturbed creating a ripple effect. So, farmers must
ensure that plants grow to ensure that game produce so that the farm can make profit and be
successful. Several food chains form a food web which balances the ecosystem.

Game animal Geographical area preferred

Buffalo, Elephant
Roan antelope ⦁ They prefer dense covers, thickets or reeds and also live in open
 28

woodland.
⦁ They are bulk grazers which survive on tall and course grasses.
⦁ They also browse to some extent.

Impala, Kudu
⦁ Prefer light woodland with little undergrowth and grassland of low to
medium height.
⦁ They are grazers when grasses are green and also a browser of foliage
forbs, shoots, seedpods at other times.
⦁ Adapted to different habitats by being both grazers and browsers

Gemsbok, Eland
⦁ Prefer vast shade-less spaces.
⦁ It is most perfectly desert-adapted.
⦁ Large mammals capable of subsisting in Arid areas.
⦁ Prefer green browse but also eats dry grass
⦁ Can dig for roots, bulbs, wild melons to provide water.

Game animals can be captured using the following methods:

⦁ Movable capture corrals
⦁ Cross bows and game capture drugs
⦁ Dart guns and game capture drugs

⦁ It involves shooting a dart at the targeted animal.

⦁ A helicopter may be used to launch the darts.
⦁ The shooting range is 80 – 100m.
⦁ The speed of the dart is 90m/s.
⦁ The dart contains a drug used as an immobiliser, tranquiliser (affect central nervous system)
or depolarizer such as M99, CI – 744, orivapine hydrochloride, fentanylcitrate, fentanyl,
superfentanyl.
⦁ When the drug is released into the animal, it makes the animal sleepy, docile or paralysed
(depolarizer).
⦁ An antidote may be required to waken the animal.
⦁ This is most efficient for capturing carnivores/predators.

⦁ It is possible to select and capture the particular animals desired.

⦁ There is very little disturbance to the animals.
⦁ The operation can be done quickly, quietly and alone.

⦁ Expertise is needed when handling the equipment

⦁ There is risk of drug overdose
⦁ Not suitable for all animals
⦁ Only one animal is captured at a time
⦁ The method is ineffective in bushy or forest areas
⦁ There is increased risk to the operator
 29

⦁ Drugged animals need close monitoring to minimise cases of death

⦁ Darts break easily
⦁ Capture equipment are not readily available
⦁ Drugs and darts are costly which make the method expensive

• Birds roam over a large open area which is fenced to prevent them from escaping.
• The birds mainly depend on the natural vegetation for survival.
• Birds find nests for themselves and hatch eggs naturally.

• Low feeding cost

• Low labour requirement
• Requires less skill to operate

• Low productivity and hatchability

• Birds and eggs may be eaten by predators
• Birds waste a lot of energy searching for food.
• Difficult to control parasites, diseases and breeding.

⦁ Birds are kept in medium sized paddocks up to 40ha.

⦁ Birds get much of their food from the range but receive regular supplement from the
farmer.
⦁ Birds are allowed to breed and lay eggs freely.
⦁ The ostrich nests are identified and eggs are naturally incubated
⦁ Some eggs are collected and artificially incubated.

⦁ Low feeding cost compared to intensive method.

⦁ Low labour required compared to intensive method
⦁ Higher productivity than extensive system
⦁ Lower mortality rate than extensive method

• Expensive to construct paddocks

• Requires skill to manage birds.

⦁ This is basically a zero grazing system, with all feed supplied to birds kept in paddocks.
⦁ Pairs and trios are kept in 0.2 -0.5ha paddocks or pens.
⦁ All eggs are collected daily and hatched artificially.

• High productivity and hatchability

 30

• The birds are protected from predators

• Parasites, diseases and breeding are easily controlled
• Low mortality rate.

• High feeding costs

• Expensive to operate
• Needs skilled manpower

To incubate eggs in an incubator, the farmer must ensure the following are:
⦁ – the ostrich eggs need six weeks or 42 days for the chick to mature
⦁ – the eggs should be turned at least twice per day to ensure even heating and to
avoid chick deformities.
⦁ – Ostrich eggs require a constant temperature of 36 – 36.5oc
⦁ – the eggs requires 40 – 42% relative humidity to prevent it from drying out and
dying of the developing chick

⦁ Collection of eggs
⦁ Storage for not longer than 10 days
⦁ Cleaning and fumigation to kill micro-organisms
⦁ Pre-heating of eggs
⦁ Cleaning and fumigation of incubator
⦁ Setting incubator temperature between 35 - 36.5ocand relative humidity between 40 -42%
⦁ Turning of eggs
⦁ Period of incubation is 40 – 42 days.
⦁ Provide enough ventilation to allow chicks to develop and removal of waste gases from
the incubator.

⦁ Ostriches in captivity are marked using microchips.

⦁ Microchips are small, metal pellet-like devices that can store information like a computer
-e.g. name of farmer, age of bird, sex or area/location.
⦁ Microchips are inserted beneath the skin on the neck of the ostrich using a special tool.
⦁ The chip remains under the skin for the entire life of the ostrich.
⦁ New information can be entered or old information retrieved using a microchip reader.
⦁ The Department of Wildlife and National Parks (DWNP) in Botswana provides equipment
and technical skills in the use of microchips.

⦁ The microchips cannot be easily removed or altered

⦁ The microchips are able to store large amounts of information
⦁ The microchips are not easy to obtain and cannot be used without the knowledge of the
relevant officers (DWNP). This prevents their use on illegally captured wild birds.

⦁ The equipment (microchips) is expensive

⦁ The use of microchips requires technical skill to use and insert.
 31

⦁ Ostrich meat has less fat than beef

⦁ Ostrich meat has less cholesterol than beef
⦁ Ostrich meat has more protein than beef.

The Botswana government has put in place a number of initiatives to encourage farmers to
venture into game farming as a means of diversifying the economy.
⦁ Construction of an ostrich abattoir at Sebele – this provides farmers with a place to sell
their birds at reasonable.
⦁ Provision of technical assistance on capture of wildlife to farmers through the Department
of Wildlife and National Parks.
⦁ Government through the Department of Wildlife and National Parks provides disease
control assistance
⦁ The government through financial assistance schemes like CEDA, and parastatals like
NDB provides financial assistance to aspiring farmers to start the ostrich projects

1. Which if the following is an advantage of ostrich meat over beef?

A. it is cheap and tender

B. it is high in fat and protein
C. it is lean and higher in protein
D. it is low in cholesterol and tender

2. The table below shows a chemical analysis of meat from two different animals.

protein content fat content Cholestero

l
meat high low Low
meat low high high

Which option lists the type of animals which would provide the pieces of meat A and
B?

meat meat
A. cattle chicken
B. ostrich cattle
C. pig ostrich
D. pig chicken

3. Students observed that cattle were kept alongside impalas, goats, kudus, and sheep in a
farm.
 32

What system of rearing animals is practised on this farm?

A. commercial mixed farming

B. mixed species grazing
C. pastoral farming
D. rotational grazing

4. What is an advantage of extensive ostrich farming over intensive ostrich farming?

A. a smaller farming area is required

B. less equipment is required
C. more skilled labour is required
D. selection of breeding is more strict

✓ Explain the concepts of range, pasture, rangeland, and range/pasture management

✓ State the factors affecting range management in Botswana
✓ Describe the types of natural vegetation found in Botswana with reference to grass and
woody plant species
✓ Describe the composition of rangelands
✓ Explain the concept of forage, stocking rate, carrying capacity, overstocking, overgrazing,
mixed species grazing, grazing, decreasers, increasers and invaders.
✓ Calculate the stocking rate and carrying capacity of a given range land.

⦁ Natural vegetation used for grazing or browsing by animals.

⦁ It also refers to land covered with native vegetation over which grazing/browsing animals
roam.

⦁ An enclosed land with cultivated forage plants.

⦁ A large area not suited for cultivation but covered with native vegetation for grazing and
browsing animals.

⦁ The judicious use and care of range in order to obtain sustainable maximum livestock
production.

⦁ Plant species to be grazed by livestock.

⦁ A mature animal with a live weight of 450 - 500kg. It is used to put grazing scale that is
 33

one cow equals to one livestock unit.

⦁ The number of livestock units in a given area of land at a given time (LSU/ha).
⦁ It also refers to the area of land per livestock unit at any given time (ha/LSU).

⦁ Carrying capacity is also defined as the correct stocking rate.

⦁ Maximum number of livestock units an area of land can support without causing land
degradation or deterioration.
⦁ The carrying capacity depends on the range or pasture composition.
⦁ It determines the stocking rate.

⦁ This is when the stocking rate of an area exceeds the carrying capacity.
⦁ This means that area has more number of livestock units than it can support.
⦁ It often results in overgrazing.

⦁ it is the direct consumption of standing forage usually grass by animals.

⦁ This is when livestock is allowed to exhaust forage on the grazing land.

⦁ It usually leads to land degradation – bare ground, soil erosion, etc

⦁ Keeping different types of animals in the same range at the same time.
⦁ It improves efficiency in the use of range resources since different types of stock uses
prefer different types of forage plants.
⦁ Examples of stock that may be mixed include cattle, sheep and goats
.

⦁ These are highly palatable forage species

⦁ They decline in quantity when the grazing pressure increases.
⦁ They are highly desirable/liked by animals
⦁ They are highly nutritional
⦁ They dominate well managed range.
⦁ They are highly digestible.
⦁ Examples include Guinea grass, Star grass, Kikuyu grass, signal grass and Rhodes grass.

⦁ Forage species which increases in quantity when grazing pressure increases.

⦁ They are average in nutritional value
⦁ They are less palatable
⦁ They are less competitive
⦁ They are less desirable
⦁ Animals graze them they the decreasers become scarce.
⦁ They dominate poorly managed range or underutilisation of forage due to selective grazing
(understocking)
⦁ Examples of increasers include, hairy love grass, pinhole grass, thatching grass, feathered
 34

chloris

⦁ Plant species that are not liked by animals

⦁ They often grow when decreasers and increasers are weakened by constant grazing
pressure
⦁ They are unpalatable shrubs or weeds
⦁ They are plant species of poor quality
⦁ They may be poisonous.
⦁ Their dominance indicates that range has been continuously mismanaged
⦁ Examples of invaders include thorn apple, pig weed, Blackjack and Lantana.

Stocking rate = LSU/Ha or Ha/LSU

⦁ influence the growth of range. Poor, acidic, infertile soils normally lead to poor and
less grass for grazing animals.
⦁ when animals gather around a borehole localized overgrazing
results.
⦁ steep slopes may be to shallow to support growth of range plants.
⦁ influences decisions on type of stock to graze and
management practices to adopt.
⦁ Communal grazing and high stocking rates common in
rangelands lead to overgrazing and soil erosion.
⦁ on proper range management practices results in the
deterioration of the range due to overstocking, overgrazing, and range destruction.
⦁ often destroy large area of the range leading to poor grazing area for
livestock.
⦁ result in good forage only limited to few months in a year when rain.

⦁ This is where the dominant vegetation is tall

woody trees
⦁ Has some scattered shrubs with grass cover.
⦁ Common in the northern part of the country.

⦁ It is dominated by grasses, forbs, herbs and some

non-woody plants with a few or no trees.
⦁ The grasses spread over a large area of land.
⦁ Commonly associated with pan such as
Makgadikgadi pan and Sua pans.
 35

⦁ Has few trees and many scattered shrubs.

⦁ There are patches of grasses over the land.
⦁ Common in the dry areas like Kgalagadi region.

The rangeland is made of many components which include plants species like trees, shrubs,
grasses, sedges and forbs, water sources and bare ground.

⦁ Acacia tortilis – mosu

⦁ Acarcia mellifera – mongana
⦁ Colophospermum mopane - mophane
⦁ Ziziphus macronata – mokgalo
⦁ Grewia bicolor – mogwana
⦁ Grewia flava – moretlwa
⦁ Boscia albutrunca – motlopi
⦁ Combretum apiculatum – mohudiri

✓ Outline the characteristics of extensive range management including the advantages and
disadvantages
✓ Explain the use of indigenous plants to increase range productivity.
✓ Explain ways in which man can destroy range lands
✓ Suggest ways by which destruction of range and range lands can be avoided

• Animals are allowed to graze/ browse on large area of land consisting of natural vegetation
• There is no fencing to control animal movement
• Animal movement is no restricted.
• continuous grazing is normally used
• Herd boys are used to look after livestock.

• Inputs costs are low as there are no costs for feed, fencing materials, etc.
• There is less labour requirements
• No special skills are required in managing the system.

• Encourages overgrazing and soil erosion

• Difficult to practice correct stocking rates
• Encourages build-up of parasites and diseases
• It is difficult to control breeding and to separate animals according to their age and sex.
• Encourages selective grazing which results in waste of other forage species.
• Animals are more exposed to predators
• Results in low livestock production
 36

• Sowing desirable grasses (guinea grass, buffel grass) and legumes (stylo) in a range
• Plant browse and shrubs ( sesbania, leucaena) along fences

⦁ Deforestation reduces forage supply and increases soil erosion

⦁ Indiscriminate burning of the range lands causes loss of forage
⦁ Overstocking and overgrazing result in degradation of rangelands
⦁ Bush encroachment reduces grazing land available
⦁ Uncontrolled grazing causes selective grazing, overgrazing or underutilization of range
resources
⦁ Grazing stock not suited to forage type lead to depletion of selected forage species

⦁ Practice correct stocking rates to ensure efficient use of forage resources/ avoid
overgrazing / underutilization of forage
⦁ Controlling veld fires to encourage regrowth of desirable forage species.
⦁ Fencing and paddocking range lands to ensure sustainable use of forage through good
grazing methods
⦁ Stock animals suited to available forage to maximise forage use and livestock production.
⦁ Ensure even distribution of water resources in a range to avoid localized overgrazing.
⦁ Graze forage at right moisture levels- dry plants are easily destroyed by trampling
⦁ Allow forage rest period to recover from grazing pressure
⦁ Kraal animals at night to avoid forage losses due to trampling
⦁ Use good grazing methods such as rotational grazing
⦁ Conserve fodder for dry season to feed animals

✓ Explain at least 4 ways of improving range and pasture utilization

✓ State the advantages and disadvantages of creep, rotational, strip and zero grazing
✓ Describe ways in which fodder crops can be preserved for future use.
✓ Outline the causes of pasture deterioration
✓ Name at least 2 poisonous plants found in Botswana
✓ Describe 1 grass and 1 legume species from the list given below, in relation to the
following objectives:
⚪ Form and habit of growth
⚪ Soil and climatic requirements
⚪ Persistence (length of growth)
⚪ Fertilizer treatment
⚪ Planting time and method
⚪ Nutritional value
✓
✓ Chlorisgayana (Rhodes grass); Kikuyu; Panicum maximum ( Guinea grass);
Eragrostiscurvula (Weeping love grass); Eragrostislehmannian ( Lehmmanniana’s grass);
Eragrostisteff (Teff grass); Hyparrheniasp (Thatching grass); Cynodondactylon (Star
grass); Cenchrusciliaris (Buffel grass);
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✓ Stylosanthesgracilis (Stylo); Medicagosativa (Lucerne); Lablab purpereus

(Lablab)Leucaenaleucocephala (Leucaena); Sesbania sp (Sesbania);

⦁ Applying fertilizers to encourage rapid growth of pasture by improving soil fertility or

correcting nutritional deficiencies e.g for phosphorous/ nitrogen
⦁ Fencing to be able to conserve pasture for dry season/ practice rotational grazing/ rest
pasture
⦁ clearing unwanted bush to encourage regrowth of palatable and desirable plant species
⦁ ploughing and reseeding using improved/more nutritious species and legumes to increase
nutritional value of pasture.
⦁ irrigation particularly during dry periods to encourage all year growth of pasture
⦁ liming to improve soil condition for improved growth of pasture.
⦁ controlled burning to control unwanted woody shrubs and trees in selected areas
⦁ mixed stock grazing to avoid overgrazing of certain of pasture plants due to selective
grazing
⦁ controlling grazing to avoid selective grazing
⦁ destocking to reduce overstocking and its associated problems such as overgrazing.
⦁ Supplementary feeding to reduce overgrazing during dry periods
⦁ Practice soil conservation to prevent soil erosion and allow vegetation to restore itself

⦁ Land is divided into camps or paddocks by means of fencing.

⦁ Animals graze paddocks in an ordered sequence
⦁ Animals may graze a paddocks at two weeks interval
⦁ Grazed paddocks are left to recover

⦁ Enables conservation of pastures

⦁ Allows grasses a rest period to recover
⦁ Pastures are allowed to mature and produce seeds periodically
⦁ Livestock is protected from predators
⦁ Permits higher stocking rates
⦁ Facilitates separation of stock into sexes or age groups
⦁ Achieves control of parasites by breaking their lifecycle
⦁ High livestock productivity

⦁ It is expensive to erect and maintain fence

⦁ Requires special skills to practice effectively
⦁ It is labour intensive to move livestock to new camps

⦁ Intensive form of rotational grazing

⦁ Animals allowed to graze on a narrow strip of pasture each day
⦁ Electric fence is used to control animal movement
⦁ Fence is moved to a fresh strip of pasture daily
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⦁ Pastures are heavily fertilized by animal droppings

⦁ Minimizes selective grazing
⦁ Minimizes waste of pasture
⦁ Encourages higher livestock production
⦁ Prevents premature grazing of pastures

⦁ Involves high capital investment due to fencing, water reticulation and electric fences
⦁ Requires high standard of management
⦁ Only suited to highly productive stock e.g dairy cattle.
⦁ Requires moisture and fertilisers to be available throughout the year

⦁ Animals are not allowed on to pastures at all

⦁ Pastures are cut and supplied to the animals daily
⦁ Fertilizers are applied soon after cutting pasture

⦁ Animals get fresh grass

⦁ There is no build-up of parasites on pastures.
⦁ Achieves maximum production of pastures due to regular resting and fertiliser applications
⦁ Less land is required
⦁ Eliminates costs of fencing and water reticulation
⦁ Animals do not trample on pastures
⦁ Achieves greater tick control
⦁ Results in higher animal production
⦁ Less danger of build-up of parasites

⦁ High labour requirements

⦁ Expensive machinery and fertiliers are needed
⦁ Special skills are needed for the method to succeed

⦁ This is where young animals are allowed access to high quality pasture separate from older
stock.

⦁ Young stock is provided with high quality pasture

⦁ Young stock have access to enough feed
⦁ Improves growth rates of the young stock
⦁ Allows early weaning of the young stock
⦁ Reduces dependence of young stock on their mothers

⦁ Expensive since fencing and paddocking are required

⦁ Labour intensive to establish and maintain high quality pasture
 39

Silage is a succulent, green, fresh fodder produced by controlled fermentation. Silage making
involves the following steps:
⦁ Cut grass at flowering stage
⦁ Chop the material to a reasonable size or pieces before filing the silo
⦁ Spread the chopped material evenly inside the silo step wise.
⦁ After each load, the material is compacted to drive out air.
⦁ Filing should be complete within 3 to 4 days.
⦁ Cover the silo with polythene sheeting or other materials to make it air and water tight.
⦁ Allow fermentation to take place by the help of lactobacillus bacteria.
⦁ Good silage is usually yellowish - brown in colour with an acidic aroma.

Hay is fodder that has been cut and partially dried to be used as stock feed. This involves the
following steps:
⦁ Cut the forage crop at early flowering stage when the sun is shining
⦁ Dry the cut crop/material in the sun or by artificial heating to a moisture content of 20% or less.
⦁ Bulk the dry material for storage
⦁ Store hay in a well-ventilated and water proof shelter.

⦁ This is dried out forage plants still standing not cut in the range or pasture land. The
practice involves setting aside pasture or range for bio-harvesting during the dry periods.

⦁ Graze forage at right times to avoid its destruction

⦁ Graze animals suited for the forage type available to maximise forage use.
⦁ Distribute watering points on the range to prevent localized overgrazing
⦁ Practice rotational grazing to allow some pasture areas to rest and recover
⦁ Conserve fodder for dry periods to avoid destruction of pastures by animal trampling
⦁ Practice controlled burning of to control bush encroachment

⦁ Weed invasion
⦁ Drought
⦁ Selective grazing
⦁ Uncontrolled burning of pasture
⦁ Overstocking
⦁ Continuous grazing
⦁ Overgrazing
⦁ Understocking/undergrazing
⦁ Bush encroachment
⦁ Soil erosion
⦁ Poor drainage
⦁ Infertile soils

⦁ Devil’s thorn
⦁ Rubber hedge plant
 40

⦁ Thorn apple , Datura stramonium – Mokhure

⦁ Wild striped cucumber, Cucunis myrriocarpus – Monyaku
⦁ Lantana, Lantana camara –
⦁ Solanum incunum – tholwana
⦁ Dichapetttalum cymosum – Mogau

(Madicago sativa )
This is one of the most commonly used legume plants to establish fodder.

⦁ Lucerne has small purple flowers

⦁ It has trifoliate leaves
⦁ It is a perennial plants
⦁ It is a tufted plant which has bushy growth
⦁ It grows to a height of 90 to 100cm.

⦁ It requires loam soils but does well in most soils

⦁ It does well in a wide range of temperatures
⦁ It is frost resistant and drought tolerant.

It is perennial plant which grows all year round or from season to season.

⦁ Phosphate fertilizer like super phosphate should be applied at a rate of 200kg/ha.

⦁ If the soil has not been used for legume production, the seeds should be inoculated with
rhizobium bacteria to encourage nodulation and nitrogen fixation. Otherwise there is no
need to apply nitrogen when growing lucerne as it can fix nitrogen into the soil.

⦁ Lucerne should be planted early during the rainy season that is from November to December.
⦁ Lucerne can be planted either through the use of seeds or vegetative route using setts.

⦁ Lucerne is highly nutritious and it contains a lot of protein

⦁ It contains vitamins
⦁ It has good mineral content.

(Chloris gayana)
Form and growth habit
⦁ It grows all the year round
⦁ It grows to height of 100cm
⦁ It spreads by stolons

⦁ It prefers sandy loam to loam soils

⦁ The soil pH should be around 6 or slightly acidic
⦁ It grows well in warm weather.
 41

⦁ It is perennial grass
⦁ It may remain productive for 3 – 4 years.

⦁ 200kg/ha of single superphosphate should be applied during land preparation

⦁ About 80 – 100kg ammonium nitrate or urea should be applied after grazing or cutting to
encourage new growth.

⦁ It is planted early at the beginning of the rainy season

⦁ Seeds broadcasted over the prepared seed bed and slightly covered by soil.
⦁ Splits/setts can be used from an established grass.

⦁ Rhodes grass is highly palatable and good nutritional value even when dry.

1. Which grazing system allows the farmer to wean calves earlier?

A. creep
B. rotational
C. strip
D. zero

2. Why is it important to leave a paddock to rest for a year in rotational grazing?

A. to allow seeds to form

B. to break the life cycle of grass pests
C. to break soil crusts
D. to increase water infiltration

3. Which pasture has the lowest stocking rate?

pasture number of livestock units number of hectares

A. 5 10
B. 5 20
C. 10 10
D. 10 20

4. Which system of grazing is shown in the picture?

A. extensive pasture management

B. extensive range management
C. intensive pasture management
D. intensive range management
 42

5. Which method of grazing involves supplying housed livestock with freshly cut fodder?

A. creep
B. rotational
C. strip
D. zero

Use the information to answer question and question .

Some disturbing signs of pasture deterioration were noticed in two paddocks as

follows.
⦁ paddock 1 - localised erosion around water points
⦁ paddock 2 - accumulation of old dead grass

6. Which pair of factors could have contributed to pasture deterioration in paddock 1 and
paddock 2?

paddock 1 paddock 3
A. poor distribution of water points lack of irrigation
B. poor distribution of water points under – utilisation of pasture
C. uniform distribution of water points lack of irrigation
D. uniform distribution of water points poor distribution of water points

7. Which pair of measures would restore the two paddocks?

paddock 1 paddock 2
A. controlled burning of grass improved irrigation
B. controlled burning of grass water points distributed uniformly
C. water points of distributed uniformly controlled burning of grass
D. water points of distributed uniformly improved irrigation

8. A ranch manager was advised to sow indigenous grasses and legumes on large patches
of bare ground caused by overgrazing.

Why was the sowing if indigenous grass and legumes suggested?

A. to decrease biodiversity
B. to decrease the stocking rate
C. to increase production
D. to increase range productivity

9. Range destruction can be avoided through the following:

⦁ constructing a perimeter fence
⦁ erecting several tanks to catch water
⦁ introducing fire breaks

What could be another way of avoiding destruction of the existing vegetation in the
range?
 43

A. encourage germination and emergence of invaders

B. provide unevenly distributed water point
C. stock with animals at less than the carrying capacity
D. stock with animals suited to the forage available

10. Which grazing system is matched with the correct features?

grazing Features Features

system
A. Creep fresh pastures available for young animals only needs moveable fence
B. Creep fresh pastures available for all animals needs permanent fence
C. Strip fresh pastures available for young animals only needs moveable fence
D. Strip fresh pasture available for all animals needs permanent fence

11. The following statements lists the stages in a method of fodder presentation:

⦁ young grass cut at flowering time

⦁ cut grass put in a pit
⦁ tractor compacts the cut grass
⦁ compacted grass covered with membrane

Which method of fodder preservation do these statements describe?

A. bale making
B. hay making
C. silage making
D. straw making

12. The graph shows number of decreasers and increasers in relation to grazing pressure.

What conclusion can be drawn from the graph?

A. decreasers are abundant at high grazing pressure

B. increasers are abundant at low grazing pressure
C. number of decreasers drops as grazing pressure rises
D. number of increasers drops as grazing pressure rises

1. Use the information below to the questions 1.

 44

Livestock Number of animals equivalent to 1 LSU

Mature cow/bull 1
Male or female cattle, 12 – 24 2
month
Goats or sheep 6
Suckling calves 0

a) A ranch of 80 ha has the following types of livestock: 4 mature culls, 36 sheep, 24

goats, 6 young cows of 16 months and 24 suckling calves.
i. Determine the herd composition of the ranch in terms of livestock units.

............... LSU [1]

ii. Calculate the stocking rate.

.................... [2]

b) The stocking rate of the ranch 4LSU/ha.

i. State the conclusion that can be made about the stocking rate of the ranch..
.................................................................................................................................
[1]
ii. State a reason for your answer.
.................................................................................................................................
[1]

c) A new farmer leased the ranch and with to keep goats only.
Calculate the additional number of goats that the farmer needs to maintain the ranch
correctly stocked.

................. goats [3]

2. Two essential requirements for making good silage are to reduce the pH and remove
oxygen.
a) Name the process that assists in reducing the pH of the silage.
....................................................................................................................................
Fermentation
[1]
b) State two activities that can be carried out to minimise the content of oxygen in the
silage.
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
[2]
c) Suggest why silage that has a low pH is of better quality.
....................................................................................................................................
....................................................................................................................................
[1]
 45

1. Paddocks can become dominated by less palatable and low producing pasture plants.
a) Outline the factors that might cause the development of less palatable and low
producing pasture plants.
b) State what can be done to improve the condition of the pasture