CHAPTER 2

HUMAN REPRODUCTION

2.1 The Male

Reproductive System
2.2 The Female Reproductive As you are aware, humans are sexually reproducing
System and viviparous. The reproductive events in humans
include formation of gametes (gametogenesis), i.e.,
2.3 Gametogenesis
sperms in males and ovum in females, transfer of
2.4 Menstrual Cycle sperms into the female genital tract (insemination) and
2.5 Fertilisation and fusion of male and female gametes (fertilisation) leading
Implantation to formation of zygote. This is followed by formation
and development of blastocyst and its attachment to
2.6 Pregnancy and Embryonic the uterine wall (implantation), embryonic
Development development (gestation) and delivery of the baby
2.7 Parturition and Lactation (parturition). You have learnt that these reproductive
events occur after puberty. There are remarkable
differences between the reproductive events in the male
and in the female, for example, sperm formation
continues even in old men, but formation of ovum ceases
in women around the age of fifty years. Let us examine
the male and female reproductive systems in human.

2.1 THE MALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The male reproductive system is located in the pelvis
region (Figure 2.1a). It includes a pair of testes
alongwith accessory ducts, glands and the external
genitalia.

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The testes are situated outside

the abdominal cavity within a
pouch called scrotum. The
scrotum helps in maintaining the
low temperature of the testes (2–
2.5o C lower than the normal
internal body temperature)
necessary for
spermatogenesis. In adults, each
testis is oval in shape, with a
length of about 4 to 5 cm and a
width of about 2 to 3 cm. The
testis is covered by a dense
covering. Each testis has about Figure 2.1(a) Diagrammatic sectional view of male pelvis showing reproductive system
250 compartments called
testicular lobules (Figure
2.1b).
Each lobule contains one to
three highly coiled seminiferous
tubules in which sperms are
produced. Each seminiferous
tubule is lined on its inside by
two types of cells called male
germ cells (spermatogonia) and
Sertoli cells (Figure 2.2 ). The
male germ cells undergo meiotic
divisions finally leading to sperm
formation, while Sertoli cells
provide nutrition to the germ cells.
The regions outside the
seminiferous tubules called
interstitial spaces, contain small
blood vessels and interstitial
cells or Leydig cells (Figure 2.2).
Leydig cells synthesise and Figure 2.1(b) Diagrammatic view of male reproductive system (part of testis is open to show in
secrete testicular hormones
called androgens. Other
immunologically competent cells
are also present.
The male sex accessory ducts include rete testis, vasa efferentia,
epididymis and vas deferens (Figure 2.1b). The seminiferous tubules
of the testis open into the vasa efferentia through rete testis. The vasa
efferentia leave the testis and open into epididymis located along the 27
posterior surface of each testis. The epididymis leads to vas deferens
that ascends to the abdomen and loops over the urinary bladder. It
receives a duct from seminal vesicle and opens into urethra as the
ejaculatory duct (Figure 2.1a). These ducts store and transport the

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sperms from the testis to the outside through urethra. The urethra
originates from the urinary bladder and extends through the penis to
its external opening called urethral meatus.

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 BIOLOGY

Figure 2.2 Diagrammatic sectional view of seminiferous tubule

The penis is the male external genitalia (Figure 2.1a, b). It is made
up of special tissue that helps in erection of the penis to facilitate
insemination. The enlarged end of penis called the glans penis is covered
by a loose fold of skin called foreskin.
The male accessory glands (Figure 2.1a, b) include paired seminal
vesicles, a prostate and paired bulbourethral glands. Secretions of
these glands constitute the seminal plasma which is rich in fructose,
calcium and certain enzymes. The secretions of bulbourethral glands
also helps in the lubrication of the penis.

2.2 THE FEMALE REPRODUCTIVE SYSTEM

The female reproductive system consists of a pair of ovaries alongwith a
pair of oviducts, uterus, cervix, vagina and the external genitalia
located in pelvic region (Figure 2.3a). These parts of the system alongwith
a pair of the mammary glands are integrated structurally and
functionally to support the processes of ovulation, fertilisation,
pregnancy, birth and child care.
28 Ovaries are the primary female sex organs that produce the female
gamete (ovum) and several steroid hormones (ovarian hormones).
The ovaries are located one on each side of the lower abdomen
(Figure 2.3b). Each ovary is about 2 to 4 cm in length and is connected to
the pelvic wall and uterus by ligaments. Each ovary is covered by a thin
epithelium which encloses the ovarian stroma. The stroma is divided into
two zones – a peripheral cortex and an inner medulla.

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Figure 2.3 (a) Diagrammatic sectional view of female pelvis showing

The oviducts reproductive
(fallopian tubes),
system uterus and vagina constitute the
female accessory ducts. Each fallopian tube is about 10-12 cm long and
extends from the periphery of each ovary to the uterus (Figure 2.3b), the
part closer to the ovary is the funnel-shaped infundibulum. The edges
of the infundibulum possess finger-like projections called fimbriae,
which help in collection of the ovum after ovulation. The infundibulum
leads to a wider

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Figure 2.3 (b) Diagrammatic sectional view of the female reproductive

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 BIOLOGY

part of the oviduct called ampulla. The last part of the oviduct, isthmus
has a narrow lumen and it joins the uterus.
The uterus is single and it is also called womb. The shape of the
uterus is like an inverted pear. It is supported by ligaments attached to
the pelvic wall. The uterus opens into vagina through a narrow cervix.
The cavity of the cervix is called cervical canal (Figure 2.3b) which
alongwith vagina forms the birth canal. The wall of the uterus has three
layers of tissue. The external thin membranous perimetrium, middle
thick layer of smooth muscle, myometrium and inner glandular layer
called endometrium that lines the uterine cavity. The endometrium
undergoes cyclical changes during menstrual cycle while the
myometrium exhibits strong contraction during delivery of the baby.
The female external genitalia include mons pubis, labia majora, labia
minora, hymen and clitoris (Figure 2.3a). Mons pubis is a cushion of fatty
tissue covered by skin and pubic hair. The labia majora are fleshy folds of
tissue, which extend down from the mons pubis and surround the
vaginal opening. The labia minora are paired folds of tissue under the
labia majora. The opening of the vagina is often covered partially by a
membrane called hymen. The clitoris is a tiny finger-like structure which
lies at the upper junction of the two labia minora above the urethral
opening. The hymen is often torn during the first coitus (intercourse).
However, it can also be broken by a sudden fall or jolt, insertion of a
vaginal tampon, active participation in some sports like horseback riding,
cycling, etc. In some women the hymen persists even after coitus. In fact,
the presence or absence of hymen is not a reliable indicator of virginity
or sexual experience.

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Figure 2.4 A diagrammatic sectional view of Mammary gland

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A functional mammary gland is characteristic of all female

mammals. The mammary glands are paired structures (breasts) that
contain glandular tissue and variable amount of fat. The glandular
tissue of each breast is divided into 15-20 mammary lobes containing
clusters of cells called alveoli (Figure 2.4). The cells of alveoli secrete
milk, which is stored in the cavities (lumens) of alveoli. The alveoli open
into mammary tubules. The tubules of each lobe join to form a
mammary duct. Several mammary ducts join to form a wider
mammary ampulla which is connected to lactiferous duct through
which milk is sucked out.

2.3 GAMETOGENESIS
The primary sex organs – the testis in the males and the ovaries in the
females – produce gametes, i.e, sperms and ovum, respectively, by the
process called gametogenesis. In testis, the immature male germ cells
(spermatogonia) produce sperms by spermatogenesis that begins at
puberty. The spermatogonia (sing. spermatogonium) present on the
inside wall of seminiferous tubules multiply by mitotic division and
increase in numbers. Each spermatogonium is diploid and contains 46
chromosomes. Some of the spermatogonia called primary
spermatocytes periodically undergo meiosis. A primary spermatocyte
completes the first meiotic division (reduction division) leading to
formation of two equal, haploid cells called
secondary spermatocytes, which have only
23 chromosomes each. The secondary
spermatocytes undergo the second meiotic
division to produce four equal, haploid
spermatids (Figure 2.5). What would be the
number of chromosome in the spermatids?
The spermatids are transformed into
spermatozoa (sperms) by the process
called spermiogenesis. After
spermiogenesis, sperm heads become
embedded in the Sertoli cells, and are
finally released from the seminiferous
tubules by the process called spermiation.
Spermatogenesis starts at the age of Figure 2.5 Diagrammatic sectional view of a seminiferous tubule (enlarged)
puberty due to significant increase in the
secretion of gonadotropin releasing hormone
31
(GnRH). This, if you recall, is a hypothalamic hormone. The increased
levels of GnRH then acts at the anterior pituitary gland and stimulates
secretion of two gonadotropins – luteinising hormone (LH) and follicle
stimulating hormone (FSH). LH acts at the Leydig cells and stimulates
synthesis and secretion of androgens. Androgens, in turn, stimulate
the process of spermatogenesis. FSH acts on the Sertoli cells and
stimulates

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secretion of some factors which help in the

process of spermiogenesis.
Let us examine the structure of a sperm.
It is a microscopic structure composed of a
head, neck, a middle piece and a tail (Figure
2.6). A plasma membrane envelops the whole
body of sperm. The sperm head contains an
elongated haploid nucleus, the anterior
portion of which is covered by a cap-like
structure, acrosome. The acrosome is filled
with enzymes that help fertilisation of the
ovum. The middle piece possesses numerous
mitochondria, which produce energy for the
movement of tail that facilitate sperm motility
essential for fertilisation. The human male
ejaculates about 200 to 300 million sperms
during a coitus of which, for normal fertility,
at least 60 per cent sperms must have
normal shape and size and at least 40 per
cent of them must show vigorous motility.
Sperms released from the seminiferous
Figure 2.6 Structure of a sperm
tubules, are transported by the accessory
ducts. Secretions of epididymis, vas deferens, seminal vesicle and
prostate are essential for maturation and motility of sperms. The seminal
plasma along with the sperms constitute the semen. The functions of
male sex accessory ducts and glands are maintained by the testicular
hormones (androgens).
The process of formation of a mature female gamete is called
oogenesis which is markedly different from spermatogenesis. Oogenesis
is initiated during the embryonic development stage when a couple of
million gamete mother cells (oogonia) are formed within each fetal ovary;
no more oogonia are formed and added after birth. These cells start
division and enter into prophase-I of the meiotic division and get
temporarily arrested at that stage, called primary oocytes. Each primary
oocyte then gets surrounded by a layer of granulosa cells and is called
the primary follicle (Figure 2.7). A large number of these follicles
degenerate during the phase from birth to puberty. Therefore, at
puberty only 60,000-80,000 primary follicles are left in each ovary. The
primary follicles get surrounded by more layers of granulosa cells and
32 a new theca and are called secondary follicles.
The secondary follicle soon transforms into a tertiary follicle which
is characterised by a fluid filled cavity called antrum. The theca layer is
organised into an inner theca interna and an outer theca externa. It is
important to draw your attention that it is at this stage that the
primary oocyte within the tertiary follicle grows in size and completes its
first meiotic division. It is an unequal division resulting in the formation
of a large haploid secondary oocyte and a tiny first polar body (Figure
2.8b). The

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secondary oocyte retains bulk of the

nutrient rich cytoplasm of the primary
oocyte. Can you think of any advantage
for this? Does the first polar body born
out of first meiotic division divide
further or degenerate? At present we
are not very certain about this. The
tertiary follicle further changes into
the mature follicle or Graafian follicle
(Figure 2.7). The secondary oocyte
forms a new membrane called zona
pellucida surrounding it. The Graafian
follicle now ruptures to release the
secondary oocyte (ovum) from the
ovary by the process called Figure 2.7 Diagrammatic Section view of ovary
ovulation. Can you identify major
differences between
spermatogenesis and oogenesis? A diagrammatic representation of
spermatogenesis and oogenesis is given below (Figure 2.8).

(a) (b)
Figure 2.8 Schematic representation of (a) Spermatogenesis; (b) Oogenesis

2.4 MENSTRUAL CYCLE 33

The reproductive cycle in the female primates (e.g. monkeys, apes
and human beings) is called menstrual cycle. The first menstruation
begins at puberty and is called menarche. In human females,
menstruation is repeated at an average interval of about 28/29 days,
and the cycle of events starting from one menstruation till the next
one is called the menstrual cycle. One ovum is released (ovulation)
during the middle
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