Epistemology

1. Propositional Knowledge (Knowledge That Something is True):

What it means: Propositional knowledge refers to knowing specific facts or information about the world.
It’s the type of knowledge where you know that something is true.
Example: "Paris is the capital of France" or "The Earth revolves around the Sun."
Explanation: This type of knowledge involves statements or claims that can be true or false. For
propositional knowledge to count as true, it needs to meet certain conditions: the statement must be
true, you must believe it, and you must have a justification or good reason for believing it.
Importance: Propositional knowledge helps us understand facts about the world. It allows us to
communicate clearly and share information.
2. Factual Knowledge (Knowledge Based on Observable Facts):
What it means: Factual knowledge is based on facts that can be directly observed or proven through
experience, experimentation, or reliable sources. It is more grounded in direct evidence or reality.
Example: "Water boils at 100°C" or "Humans need oxygen to survive."
Explanation: This kind of knowledge comes from things we can see, measure, or test. Scientists rely on
factual knowledge to explain how the world works. Unlike some opinions or beliefs, factual knowledge
can be checked and confirmed by others.
Importance: Factual knowledge is important for science, technology, and everyday life because it gives us
solid, reliable information to build on.
3. Inferential Knowledge (Knowledge Gained Through Reasoning):
What it means: Inferential knowledge is knowledge you acquire by reasoning from other known facts or
information. It involves making connections between ideas or drawing conclusions based on evidence.
Example: If we know that all humans are mortal and that Socrates is a human, we can infer that Socrates
is mortal.
Explanation: Instead of directly observing something, inferential knowledge involves thinking critically
and logically to figure things out. You use what you already know to reach new conclusions. For example,
you might not see the rain, but if the streets are wet, you can infer that it probably rained.
Importance: Inferential knowledge is essential for problem-solving and making decisions. It helps us
figure out things we don’t directly observe by using logic and reasoning.

Realism vs. Idealism

This debate centers on how we relate our knowledge to the external world.

1. Realism:
Main Idea: Realism is the view that the world exists independently of our thoughts or perceptions, and
our knowledge should aim to reflect that reality as accurately as possible.
Explanation: Realists believe that there is a real world "out there," and the things we perceive (like trees,
buildings, or other people) exist independently of our awareness of them. Knowledge, according to
realists, is successful when our beliefs and perceptions accurately mirror the external world.
Example: If I see a tree, the realist view is that the tree exists in reality, regardless of whether I am there
to see it. My knowledge of the tree depends on my ability to perceive it correctly.
Importance: Realism is foundational in science, which assumes that we can observe the world, measure
it, and obtain accurate knowledge about it. For realists, knowledge is only valuable if it corresponds to
actual facts about the world.
Challenges to Realism:
Realism assumes that we can know the world as it truly is, but what if our senses deceive us? What if
what we see and experience isn’t a perfect reflection of reality? These challenges open up room for
skepticism, where we question whether knowledge can ever be certain.

2. Idealism:
Main Idea: Idealism is the view that knowledge is not about discovering an external reality but is instead
something created by our minds. What we think of as reality is shaped or even constructed by how we
perceive and interpret it.
Explanation: Idealists argue that our knowledge of the world is largely a mental construction. The things
we see, feel, and experience are shaped by our minds, not just by what exists "out there." This means
that the world we know is filtered through our personal experiences, thoughts, and perceptions.
Example: If I see a tree, an idealist would argue that what I "know" about the tree is a product of my
mind interpreting sensory information. The tree’s shape, color, and even its existence are ideas that my
mind creates. Thus, knowledge is more about how I interpret the tree rather than an objective tree
existing in the world.
Importance: Idealism emphasizes that human minds actively shape what we consider to be reality. This
viewpoint plays a major role in understanding how culture, language, and individual experiences
influence knowledge.
Challenges to Idealism:
If all knowledge is constructed by the mind, how can we know anything with certainty? If reality is just
what we make of it, does this mean that no objective reality exists outside of our perception? These
questions highlight the potential limits of idealism.

Comparing Realism and Idealism:

Realism emphasizes that knowledge must accurately reflect the world as it really is, independent of our
perceptions. It assumes that the external world exists regardless of whether we are aware of it.
Idealism focuses on how our minds shape and interpret reality. It suggests that knowledge is more about
how we mentally construct our experiences than about discovering an external, independent reality.
Conclusion:
The debate between realism and idealism addresses a fundamental issue in epistemology: Can we truly
know the world as it is, or is knowledge always shaped by our minds? Realists argue that knowledge
reflects the real world, while idealists believe that knowledge is constructed by how we perceive and
interpret reality. The problem of knowledge lies in determining how much we can trust our senses and
whether our knowledge is a direct reflection of reality or simply a creation of our minds.

1. Plato
Main Idea: Plato believed that knowledge is about remembering eternal truths. He thought that before
we were born, our souls knew everything, and learning is just remembering what we already know. He
thought true knowledge is more than just believing something; we have to understand why it’s true.
2. Aristotle
Main Idea: Aristotle thought that knowledge comes from observing the world around us and using
reason to make sense of it. He believed that knowledge has to be based on evidence, but some truths
are basic and don’t need proof (like the idea that "something exists").
3. Descartes
Main Idea: Descartes tried to find certain knowledge by doubting everything. He doubted everything he
thought he knew until he realized the only thing he couldn’t doubt was that he was thinking ("I think,
therefore I am"). He believed that clear and logical thinking was the best way to find knowledge.
4. Kant
Main Idea: Kant believed that knowledge isn’t just about the world around us, but also about how our
minds make sense of it. He said our minds shape how we see the world. For example, we see things in
terms of space and time because that’s how our minds work. Kant thought that we could never fully
know things as they really are, only how we experience them.
Summary
Plato: Knowledge is remembering eternal truths.
Aristotle: Knowledge comes from observing and reasoning.
Descartes: Doubt everything except the fact that you’re thinking.
Kant: Our minds shape how we see and know the world.
This gives a simple explanation of how each philosopher understood knowledge.
Theories of Knowledge (Expanded in Simple Terms)
1. Empiricism
What It Means: Empiricism is the idea that we gain knowledge through our senses—what we see, hear,
touch, taste, and smell. It emphasizes that experience is the primary source of knowledge.
How It Works: For example, if you touch a hot stove and feel pain, you learn that the stove is hot. This
knowledge comes from your direct experience.
Key Idea: Empiricists believe that all knowledge starts with sensory experience. They argue that we
cannot know anything without first experiencing it through our senses. For instance, you know that rain
is wet because you've felt it.
2. Intellectualism
What It Means: Intellectualism suggests that the mind plays a big role in understanding knowledge. It
claims that our minds organize and interpret experiences, and some ideas may already exist in us before
we encounter them.
How It Works: For example, the concept of "justice" might be something we understand innately, even if
we haven't had specific experiences of it. Intellectualists believe that some knowledge is built into our
thinking or comes from reason, rather than just from sensory experiences.
Key Idea: According to intellectualism, while we learn from experience, our understanding and ideas
come from our minds processing those experiences. It's not just about what we see or hear but how we
think about it.
3. Dogmatism vs. Skepticism
Dogmatism:

What It Means: Dogmatism is the belief that knowledge is possible and that we can know the truth
about things.
How It Works: Dogmatists hold strong beliefs and assert that certain ideas or truths are undeniable. For
example, someone might say, "I know that the Earth revolves around the Sun," and they stand firmly by
that belief.
Key Idea: Dogmatism tends to reject doubt and skepticism, insisting that there are certain truths we can
rely on and that our knowledge can be certain and valid.
Skepticism:

What It Means: Skepticism is the belief that it’s difficult or even impossible to know the truth about
anything fully.
How It Works: Skeptics question the reliability of our senses and reasoning. For example, they might ask,
"How do I know I’m not dreaming right now?" They emphasize that our perceptions can be misleading,
and what we think we know could be false.
Key Idea: Skepticism encourages doubt and careful questioning of what we claim to know. It suggests
that we should be cautious and critical about our beliefs since our understanding of reality is limited.
Summary
Empiricism: Knowledge comes from our senses and experiences. We learn by seeing, hearing, and
feeling.
Intellectualism: Our minds organize and interpret our experiences. Some ideas may be innate or learned
through reasoning.
Dogmatism: We can know the truth, and some beliefs are certain and undeniable.
Skepticism: It's hard to know the truth completely because our minds and senses can be deceiving.
These theories help us understand different perspectives on how we acquire knowledge and the
reliability of what we think we know.

Modern Epistemology (Expanded in Simple Terms)

1. Kant
Main Idea: Immanuel Kant believed that our knowledge is influenced by the way our minds process
information. He argued that we don’t just passively receive knowledge; instead, our minds actively shape
how we understand the world.
How It Works: For example, when we look at a tree, we don’t just see it as it is; our minds categorize it as
a "tree" based on our previous experiences and concepts. Kant said that we understand the world
through certain structures in our minds, like space and time.
Key Point: According to Kant, knowledge isn’t just about what we observe; it’s also about how our minds
interpret and make sense of those observations. This means that while we can know things about the
world, our understanding is filtered through our mental frameworks.
2. Husserl and Phenomenology
Main Idea: Edmund Husserl introduced a philosophy called phenomenology, which emphasizes knowing
through direct experiences and our intuition (or gut feelings). He believed that to understand something
fully, we should focus on how it appears to us in our experiences.
How It Works: For example, when you feel happy, phenomenology asks you to reflect on that feeling and
how it presents itself to you. It’s not just about saying, “I am happy,” but exploring what happiness feels
like and how it impacts your perception of the world.
Key Point: Husserl’s approach suggests that our direct experiences and feelings are valid sources of
knowledge. Rather than just relying on logical reasoning, phenomenology values personal experiences as
a way to understand reality.
3. Coherentism
Main Idea: Coherentism is the theory that our beliefs are justified when they fit well together, like pieces
of a puzzle. Instead of looking for a single foundation for knowledge, coherentism focuses on how all our
beliefs connect and support one another.
How It Works: For example, if you believe that exercise is good for your health, that belief might connect
with other beliefs, like eating healthy food and maintaining a balanced lifestyle. If all these beliefs
support each other, then your belief in the benefits of exercise becomes stronger.
Key Point: Coherentism emphasizes that knowledge is about the relationships between our beliefs. It
suggests that as long as our beliefs are logically connected and make sense together, they can be
considered justified, even if we don’t have a single, absolute truth backing them.
Summary
Kant: Our understanding of knowledge is shaped by how our minds interpret and categorize our
experiences.
Husserl and Phenomenology: Knowledge comes from direct experiences and intuition, focusing on how
things feel and present themselves to us.
Coherentism: Our beliefs are justified when they fit together and support each other, like pieces in a
puzzle.

Handout: Understanding Skepticism and Knowledge

Introduction to Skepticism
What is Skepticism?
Skepticism is a philosophical viewpoint that questions the possibility of having certain knowledge. It
invites us to critically examine our beliefs and assumptions about the world.
Skeptics argue that we might never have absolute certainty about anything, encouraging a mindset of
inquiry and doubt.
Common-Sense Beliefs
Common-sense propositions are simple statements that most people take for granted, like "I exist" or
"There are physical objects around me."
These beliefs are foundational to our everyday understanding of life. However, skepticism challenges us
to consider how we know these things are true.
Main Arguments for Skepticism
The Problem of the Criterion
To establish knowledge, we rely on our faculties—our senses, reasoning abilities, and memory.
To verify that these faculties are reliable, we need another means of verification, which leads to a cycle
(or regress) where we keep needing new sources of confirmation. This endless loop creates a challenge
in justifying any belief.
The Regress Problem
Whenever we claim to know something, we need reasons to support that knowledge. But if each reason
requires further justification, we end up in an infinite chain of needing more reasons.
This suggests that ultimately, we might not be able to justify any belief at all, making knowledge elusive.
Hume's Problem
Philosopher David Hume argued that we only perceive the appearances of things, not the actual objects
themselves. For instance, when we see a tree, we don't see the tree itself, only our perception of it.
Because our perceptions can be misleading or limited, we cannot logically infer that external objects
exist based solely on our sensory experiences.
The Evil Genius Argument
This thought experiment suggests that a powerful deceiver could manipulate our senses, making us
believe in a physical world that doesn’t actually exist.
If we can’t trust our perceptions, this raises serious doubts about the reality of the world around us.
Types of Skepticism
Direct Skepticism
This viewpoint asserts that no one can know any statement or proposition (denoted as "p"). It leads to a
very pessimistic view of human knowledge.
Iterative Skepticism
This type claims that not only can we not know certain things, but we can’t even know that we know
those things. It questions the very basis of knowledge itself.
Pyrrhonian Skepticism
Named after the ancient philosopher Pyrrho, this type argues that there are no stronger reasons for
believing we can know something than for believing we cannot.
It promotes a position of suspension of judgment on all matters, suggesting that one should refrain from
making definitive claims about knowledge.
Responses to Skepticism
Many philosophers counter skepticism by pointing out that it contradicts itself. For example, if skepticism
claims that we cannot know anything, it is itself making a knowledge claim, which is paradoxical.
Additionally, common-sense beliefs have a strong initial credibility. Most people find it difficult to dismiss
their everyday experiences, making it hard for skeptical arguments to gain traction.
Subjective Idealism
What is it?
Subjective idealism posits that our knowledge of the world is rooted in our perceptions. Essentially, it
suggests that what we know is shaped by our mental states—our ideas and experiences.
Key Thinkers:
John Locke: Locke introduced the idea of "Representationalism," arguing that our understanding of the
world comes from mental representations of external objects. We never access the objects themselves
directly; instead, we understand them through our perceptions.
George Berkeley: Berkeley challenged Locke’s view by arguing against the existence of substance apart
from perception. He famously claimed, "Esse est percipi," meaning "To be is to be perceived." This
suggests that if something isn’t being perceived by a mind, it doesn’t exist. Berkeley focused on the role
of perception in determining reality, emphasizing that our experiences shape our understanding of the
world.