湖南大学学报（自然科学版） 第 49 卷 第 12 期

Journal of Hunan University (Natural Sciences） 2 0 2 2 年 12 月

Vol. 49 No. 12
Available online at http://jonuns.com/index.php/journal/index
December 2022

Open Access Article https://doi.org/10.55463/issn.1674-2974.49.12.2

Physico-Chemical and Numismatic Study of Moroccan Silver Coins from the

Almohad Dynasty (XII to XIII Century)
A. Allouch1, K. Hmina2*, F. Benyaich3, A. Ben-Ncer4, A. Chaabane5
1
Department of Physics, Higher School of Education and Training, Ibn Tofaîl University, Kenitra, Morocco
2
Department of Mechanics, National School of Arts and Crafts, Integrated Mechanical and Engineering Team, Moulay Ismail
University, Meknes, Morocco
3
Department of Physics, Laboratory of Spectrometry, Materials and Archaeomaterials, Faculty of Science, Moulay Ismail
University, Meknes, Morocco
4
National Institute of Archeology and Heritage Sciences, Rabat, Morocco
5
Researcher and expert in Islamic numismatics, Former Director of the Coin Museum, Banque du Maroc, Rabat, Morocco
* Corresponding author: hminаkhadija@gmаil.com

Received: August 6, 2022 / Revised: October 1, 2022 / Accepted: November 9, 2022 / Published: December 30, 2022

Abstract: This study obtains information on the constitution of the coinage alloy and the elements of
contamination on the surface of archaeological objects. Thus, this work consists of physico-chemical
characterization of old coins by MEB coupled with the EDS of 36 Almohade’s dynasty Islamic coins (XII-XIII
century). In addition to the physico-chemical analysis of which the data are treated using tools statistical
mathematics with the help of software SPSS, the parts being studied were the subject of a historical and numismatic
analysis. The results of this work conclude that these silver coins contain: Ag, C, Cu, Mg, O, Si, Al, Au, Cl, Sr, S,
Pb and Fe. The analysis also made it possible to dissociate the elements belonging to the original alloy from those,
which are not. So we can say that the elements that come primarily from silver-bearing alloys of origin are Ag, C,
Cu, Mg, Au, S, Pb and Fe. The other elements are due to different phenomena (corrosion, contamination etc). Let us
recall, finally, that in most cases, we notice that a good amount of numismatic, historical, archaeological and mining
data is confirmed by the results of the physico-chemical characterization. The novelty of this work lies in the fact
that the results can, among other things, be used for improving the methods and techniques of conservation and
restoration of these archaeological objects and their development.
Keywords: Islamic coin, silver, numismatics, archeology, physico-chemical characterization.

阿尔莫哈德王朝（十二至十三世纪）摩洛哥银币的物理化学和钱币学研究

摘要：本研究获得了铸币合金的构成和考古物品表面污染元素的信息。因此，这项工作
包括通过物质和能量平衡以及 3 种光谱王朝伊斯兰硬币（十二至十三世纪）的能量色散对古
钱币进行物理化学表征。除了在社会科学软件统计包的帮助下使用统计数学工具处理数据的
物理化学分析外，所研究的部分是历史和钱币分析的主题。这项工作的结果得出结论，这些
银币含有：银、C、铜、镁、欧、矽、阿尔、金、氯、锶、小号、铅和铁。该分析还可以将
© 2022 by the authors. This article is an open access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution (CC-BY) license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/).
 Allouch et al. Physico-Chemical and Numismatic Study of Moroccan Silver Coins from the Almohad Dynasty (XII to XIII Century), Vol. 49
No. 12 December 2022
12
属于原始合金的元素与不属于原始合金的元素区分开来。因此我们可以说，主要来自含银合
金的元素是银、C、铜、镁、金、小号、铅和铁。其他因素是由于不同的现象（腐蚀、污染
等）造成的。最后，让我们回顾一下，在大多数情况下，我们注意到大量的钱币、历史、考
古和采矿数据得到了物理化学表征结果的证实。这项工作的新颖之处在于，除其他外，其结
果可用于改进这些考古物品的保护和修复方法和技术及其发展。
关键词：伊斯兰硬币、银币、钱币学、考古学、物理化学特征.

1. Introduction the elementary data thus obtained are processed

The precious metals gold and silver represent the mathematically using tools multivariate statistics. For
oldest coin metals and means of exchange used by interpretation, the results are correlated with
man. Silver has also been used, according to texts, as a archaeological, numismatic and historical data. The
metallic coin since approx. 700 BC [1]. It is in this figure 1 illustrates the methodology for developing this
sense that collections of silver coins are often studied study.
in much research, given their precious evidence of the
past.
The results of this research generally contribute, to
certain tolerated uncertainty, to confirming historical
and political facts as well as to predicting the probable
dates of emission [2]. This research applies to the
analysis of very precise, even particular, geometric and
dimensional specifications, as well as the transcriptions
appearing on their facies, their mass, their modulus and
especially their title in base metal, that is to say their
proportion in precious metal, in this case silver in our
case.
Moreover, the silver coinage of the Islamic Empire
has enormous importance in the economic history of
the medieval world. Islamic coin was the means of
trade and exchange over a countless area, and its Fig. 1 Flowchart presenting the methodology of the study
import reached Europe [3]. And Morocco has an
interesting quantity of this metallic archaeological
heritage of critical cultural and historical value.
2. Method and Material
In addition to the studies of decorations and The corpus under study is composed, as already
inscriptions read by archaeologists and historians on specified, of 36 Almohad silver coins (12th to 13th
the facies of coins [4], the analysis of composition is century) of square shape belonging to a collector,
also very useful in understanding the metallurgy of researcher and expert in Islamic numismatics. A
different periods of our history. To do this, the detailed description of the coins is presented in the
determination of the physicochemical properties of following table indicating the metrological
metallic objects is necessary. characteristics (dimensions and weights) and
To this end, we present, in what follows, the study information on the minting location of each coin.
of 36 silver coins minted by Almohad sovereigns, who For the metrological characteristics (the dimensions
reigned in Morocco during the 12th and 13th centuries. and weight of the coins), as well as the numismatic
The Almohades represent the Berber dynasty founded data relating to the date and place of minting,
at the beginning of the 12th century in the Moroccan responsible issuer, nominal values are indicated by the
Anti-Atlas, this dynasty dominated the Maghreb and supplier of the coins. Furthermore, for the sake of
part of the Iberian Peninsula from 1147 to 1269 [5]. verification and reliability of the information provided,
The choice of this period is due, according to these data are verified before physicochemical analysis,
historical writings, to the fact that the coinage of the by measurements using a caliper for measuring the
Almohad dynasty was most prestigious. His coins dimensional specifications, an electronic scale for
were, moreover, sought after for the purity of their weighing and a proofreading of the facies of the
metal [6]. samples with the contribution of specialized
The study consisted in the analysis of the pieces of numismatists of that time. The results are shown in
this corpus by scanning electron microscopy (SEM) Table 1.
associated with energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS),
 13

Table 1 Description of the corpus studied historical events requires monitoring their integrity and
N° Dimensions (mm) Weight (g) Location of minting
1 15x15 1.50 Without indication of
preservation against any phenomenon of alteration or
2 15.5x16 1.56 the minting location disappearance. Thus, any analysis, treatment
3 15.5x16 1.52 manipulation requires the use of methods and rules
4 15x15 1.52
5 15x15 1.49
with certain well-adapted characteristics, in particular
6 14x14 1.52 the non-destructive character for elementary analysis
7 15x15 1.52 methods, knowing that these must make it possible to
8 15x15 1.51
9 14.5x14.5 1.54 determine the concentration of the greatest number of
10 15x15 1.50 elements with detection limits as low as possible. The
11 14x14 1.53
12 14x15 1.53
analysis should therefore be non-destructive, or at least
13 15.5x15.5 1.53 not cause damage visible to the naked eye [2].
14 14.5x15 1.53 Therefore, the choice of analytical method is
15 15x15 1.51
16 14x14 1.53 important. The different methods that can be used have
17 15x15 1.50 characteristics which, depending on the alloy and type
18 14.5x15 1.53 of coin studied, can be a handicap or an advantage, this
19 15x15 1.52
20 14.5x15 1.54 Fes apart from considerations of access and cost. The
21 14x14 1.54 choice of the method to be used will be defined
22 14.5x14.5 1.53
23 14.5x15.5 1.53
according to the problem and alloy studied, knowing
24 13.5x14 1.52 that the physico-chemical and metallurgical
25 14.5x14.5 1.53 characteristics of the coins are different according to
26 15x15 1.52
27 14x14.5 1.52 the metal or the alloy used.
28 15x15 1.52 Mallorca Non-destructive methods can be classified
29 14x14 1.49 Murcia according to their penetrating power (depth or
30 14x14.5 1.54 Sebta
31 14x14 1.53 Tlemcen thickness analyzed). Among these we distinguish:
32 14x15 1.53 Tlemcen - Surface analysis methods, which only study the
33 15x15 1.52 Tlemcen
34 15x15 1.46 Seville
surface of the object. The term surface here defines a
35 17x17 1.40 Without indication of layer that goes from the actual surface of the object to a
36 17x17.5 1.27 the minting location depth of about 30 to 50 micrometers. It is generally
within this layer that corrosion or enrichment
According to this table and as certain authors phenomena are the most significant.
specify, the Almohad silver coins are not dated and - Methods of semi-global analysis. The layer
quite rarely contain the minting location [6]. This is analyzed here is of the order of a few hundred
also confirmed according to a collector's item micrometers. In a certain number of cases (mainly
published on a site for the private sale of old coins precious metals) this is sufficient to disregard the
(figure 2) (except for the precision of the weight corrosion phenomena.
equivalent to 1.52 grams, the item does not contain any - Global methods that analyze the entire object and,
indication relating to the mint and on the date of which make it possible to obtain an average
minting). Note that the facies corresponds perfectly to composition of the alloy used. These methods are of
that of the studies studied in this article. interest in the case of alloys that are strongly disturbed
by corrosion or are very heterogeneous (mainly copper
Photo alloys).
Superficial and semi-global analysis methods are
often also ad hoc. The volume of metal studied can be
likened to a cylinder whose diameter varies between a
Arabic ‫ال إله إال هللا‬ ‫هللا ربنا‬
few tens of micrometers and several millimeters in
Transcripts ‫األمر كله هلل‬ ‫محمد رسولنا‬ diameter, depending on the method used. The choice of
‫ال قوة إال باهلل‬ ‫المهدي إمامنا‬ technique is therefore important and will depend on the
Translation of There is no god Allah (is) our Lord expected homogeneity of the alloy studied.
transcripts into except Allah Muhammad (is) our To select the method used, a last important criterion
English All command is prophet is the number of elements analyzed by the latter. This
with Allah Al Mahdi (is) our
There is no strength guide
number varies from one method to another and may, in
except in god some cases, depend on the alloy studied [8].
Fig. 2 Example of minting by the Almohad ruler Al Mahdi: Photo In our case, depending on the availability of the
of a coin published in a catalog for the sale of old coins [7] techniques and machines used and the conditions
required by the suppliers of the parts, in this case the
2.1. Physicochemical Analysis preservation of the integrity of the parts. Given the
The importance of coins as testimony and proof of non-destructive nature of the technique, we had to use
 Allouch et al. Physico-Chemical and Numismatic Study of Moroccan Silver Coins from the Almohad Dynasty (XII to XIII Century), Vol. 49
No. 12 December 2022
14
scanning electron microscopy (SEM) coupled with corrode the metal.
energy dispersive spectroscopy (EDS), available in the  Use, if necessary, acetone to degrease the part
laboratories of the Technical Support Units for after washing.
Scientific Research (UATRS) of the National Center  Thoroughly wipe the samples dry.
for Scientific and Technical Research (CNRST) in
Rabat, Morocco. This center also has various 2.3. Calibration
techniques commonly used in materials science, but The head of the laboratory handling the SEM
which are not always adapted to the materials and the conducts a systematic calibration of the device. To
geometric and dimensional specifications of heritage further ensure the reliability of the measurements, the
objects (coins) and do not best meet the criterion of operator performs, at our request, an additional
non-destructiveness required by our samples. calibration for each batch to be analyzed using five
The SEM+EDS technique has most of the qualities reference coupons.
and conditions required for the study of cultural Table 2 shows the nominal composition of the
heritage objects, since it is non-destructive, quantitative standard samples. The values are indicated in quantity
with precision generally better than 5%, multi- per thousand of each constituent (g/kg) [9].
elementary up to light elements, likely to provide
information on the spatial distribution of elements Table 2 Nominal composition of calibration standard samples
Coupon Alloy As Sn Zn Pb
(depth profile and lateral distribution with a resolution (g/kg) (g/kg) (g/kg) (g/kg)
of up to one micrometer). 1 Quaternary 1.84 ±0.1 71.6 ±2.1 60.2 ±2.2 79 ± 7
However, the following limitations of this technique bronze
2 Arsenic copper 46±2.7 2.02±0.29 0.55±0.05 1.75±0.14
should be noted, in particular the fact that the analysis 3 Tin bronze 1.94±0.20 70 ±6 1.57±0.25 2.04±0.18
concerns the surface area of the material (up to a few 4 Lead bronze 2.85±0.22 101±8 1.84±0.24 92±17
tens of micrometers) and can therefore be biased by 5 (Tin) brass 0.99±0.10 20.6±0.7 148±5 3.9±0.3
surface alteration (corroded metals, for example) and
no information is provided on the chemical state of the 2.4. Measurement
elements. For a reliable and efficient analysis, the electron
The conduct of the analysis can be summarized in beam is oriented on well-cleaned and flat areas to avoid
three main phases. The first concerns the preparation the phenomenon interference. The measurements are
and cleaning of the samples, the second is reserved for taken at several points (2 to 3 points), sometimes by
calibrating the analysis device and the third and last scanning over a control area that can reach up to 400
phase is dedicated to taking measurements. microns, sometimes by spot taking over a surface of 80
to 100 nm. The accelerating voltage ranges from 16 to
2.2. Sample Preparation 20 KV, reaching a penetration of up to 1.28 microns
Before going through the SEM, the samples are [10].
carefully cleaned, the cleaning consisted of washing
with soapy distilled water, followed by rinsing in 3. Results
alcoholic water. The parts were then weighed using an If the interest of the elemental analysis of coined
electronic scale (UATRS/CNRST) and determination metals is no longer to be demonstrated, whatever the
of the dimensions were measured using a caliper at coinage is considered, it is, on the other hand,
1/50. important to underline the extent to which the
In accordance with the rules and instructions collaboration between the numismatists and historians
provided, to be considered for handling and cleaning on the one hand, the physicist, the geologist and
the parts by the sample supplier managers, and for the metallurgist on the other hand, is decisive so that the
sake of preserving the integrity of the parts, certain exploitation of the numerical data obtained is effective
precautions were considered during the cleaning of the and relevant. The definition of the problem and the
parts for their preparation to analysis. choice of the resulting method of analysis to be applied
So to remove superficial dirt, we generally proceed to solve it constitute the essential stages of this
as follows: approach. They partly condition the importance that the
 Wash each portion in lukewarm distilled water analysis results will take in the discussion [8].
with a mild liquid soap. To this end, different issues can be addressed
 If necessary, pass the parts through an ultrasonic depending on the metal or alloy that enters into the
bath, which allows the removal of granules that may composition of the coinage to be studied:
remain stuck to the surface of the parts.  The variation of the title according to the
 Always rinse with distilled water, as tap water typological evolution of the coin;
contains chlorine, which may leave chloride deposits  The modes of alteration of the precious metal;
on the surface of the part. These deposits can affect the  The study of possible overhauls and recycling;
reliability of the measurements and will eventually  The origin or the nature of the ores exploited for
 15

the coined metal; mathematical processing, using ascending hierarchical

 The origins of the various elements detected in classification (AHC) and principal component analysis
the analyzed samples. (PCA) [11]. The CHA classifies the samples according
The issues addressed are of course not set in stone; to their degree of similarity, this classification is
they are likely to change as research advances and it represented graphically by a dendrogram summarizing
may be useful to compare the results of the analysis the mutual similarities and the relationships between
obtained with those of another coinage. This was the the individuals of a given population. The PCA
case of this study, in which we refer to mining, highlights the families of the elements constituting the
metallurgical, historical and numismatic data as well as parts and makes it possible to classify them into
examples of the analysis of other currencies around the elements belonging to the original alloy (in major or
world. minor quantities), or those due to incrustation deposits
It should also be noted that to establish a and concretions on the surface of the parts.
hypothesis, which is the most probable on the historical
level, research on the sources of supply of coined 3.2. Statistical Processing of Elementary Data
metals must be confronted with the study of
archaeological, textual and numismatic data. The 3.2.1. Dendrogram and Binary Diagrams -
mixture of different metal sources is likely to give the Hierarchical Ascending Classification (AHC)
resulting alloy a geochemical signature corresponding AHC [11] is one of the commonly used automatic
to an existing source, without there being any real link classification method which consists of progressively
with it. It is also possible that two different sources, grouping individuals according to their degree of
exploited at the same time and under the same resemblance until a single class grouping them all
authority, have geochemical characteristics together is obtained.
indistinguishable by analysis [2]. The results can be provided, as needed, in the form
of a graph called a dendrogram. It is a graphical
3.1. Results of Physico-Chemical Analyses representation of a hierarchical classification tree
The table below presents the values of the total highlighting the progressive inclusion of classes.
spectrum, in mass percentage, of the contents of the The fusion or separation of the objects to be
various elements detected in the parts analyzed. classified appearing on the dendrogram makes it
possible to specify at what level the groups are formed.
Table 3 Elemental composition of the parts analyzed (values in In our study, this method will shed light on the
mass percentage w%) degrees of similarity that could exist between the
N° Ag (w%) Cu (w%) Mg (w%) C O (w%) Si (w%) Total
(w%) (w%) currencies analyzed by the issuing sovereigns,
1 87.38 0.00 0.00 5.10 5.62 1.91 100
2 84.87 4.30 0.67 5.10 4.42 0.66 100
workshops, or minting period.
3 88.67 0.00 0.76 3.86 4.51 1.86 100 Thus, in our case, on the basis of the contents of the
4 88.39 0.00 0.62 4.70 4.59 1.46 100
5 87.95 3.28 0.70 4.50 3.11 0.46 100 elements presented in table 2, the dendrogram in figure
6 88.12 2.46 0.30 5.01 2.67 0.42 99 2 makes it possible to classify the parts into three
7 86.89 3.28 0.58 4.28 3.97 1.03 100
8 89.33 0.00 0.49 3.44 4.73 2.03 100 groups (marked G1, G2, and G3):
9
10
92.28
89.36
0.00
4.00
0.49
0.00
4.21
3.83
2.27
2.82
0.58
0.00
100
100
The G1 group includes most parts (32 parts) and it
11 89.61 0.00 0.94 4.03 4.01 1.42 100 is in turn divided into three subgroups of parts, called
12 92.70 0.00 0.62 3.40 2.33 0.97 100
13 92.68 0.00 0.66 3.37 2.64 0.67 100
G12, G12 and G13, of similar elementary compositions
14 89.89 0.00 0.84 3.56 4.22 1.52 100 and four parts divided between the two small groups
15 86.33 5.32 0.25 4.34 2.96 0.48 100
16 90.63 0.00 0.75 4.15 3.49 1.00 100 G2 and G3, as shown in the following graph.
17 89.35 0.00 0.86 4.31 4.40 1.09 100
18 89.63 0.00 0.73 4.40 4.04 1.21 100
19 89.79 0.00 0.67 4.65 3.98 0.93 100
20 94.93 0.00 0.36 3.13 1.12 0.48 100
21 90.75 0.00 0.65 4.49 3.28 0.85 100
22 90.53 0.00 0.69 4.02 3.57 1.20 100
23 93.22 0.00 0.99 3.50 1.81 0.50 100
24 88.07 0.00 0.89 4.37 4.87 1.81 100
25 90.14 0.00 0.64 3.58 4.34 1.32 100
26 88.46 0.00 0.63 4.07 4.81 2.05 100
27 87.63 0.00 0.70 4.82 5.24 1.62 100
28 91.25 0.00 0.79 4.29 2.85 0.83 100
29 89.89 2.36 0.62 4.05 2.37 0.71 100
30 89.85 0.00 0.86 3.64 4.00 1.66 100
31 91.10 0.00 0.33 3.63 3.60 1.36 100
32 92.88 0.00 0.58 3.56 2.33 0.67 100
33 88.09 0.00 0.61 4.48 4.90 1.94 100
34 89.08 2.22 0.62 4.07 3.18 0.83 100
35 79.17 8.75 0.00 4.58 6.37 1.15 100
36 75.47 11.06 0.00 5.60 7.31 0.56 100

Fig. 3 Dendrogram of ascending hierarchical classification (AHC)

For the interpretation of these data, we carried out a
 Allouch et al. Physico-Chemical and Numismatic Study of Moroccan Silver Coins from the Almohad Dynasty (XII to XIII Century), Vol. 49
No. 12 December 2022
16
A description of the elementary compositions of the Group G2 contains the two coins 2 and 15 samples
parts according to each group (G1, G2, and G3) is without indication of the minting workshop,
provided in the following table 2: distinguished by a relatively average copper content
reaching 5%.
Table 4 Comparison of average levels Finally, group G3 contains the two samples 35 and
G1 G2 G3
Average Ecart Type Average Ecart Type Average Ecart Type 36, having high copper content, against silver content
Ag 89,95 1,91 85,60 1,03 77,32 2,62 of less than 80%.
C 4,08 0,51 4,72 0,54 5,09 0,72
Cu 0,55 1,20 4,81 0,72 9,91 1,63 By comparing the binary diagrams to the
Mg 0,62 0,23 0,46 0,30 0,00 0,00 dendrogram, we observe that the parts are divided into
O 3,61 1,08 3,69 1,03 6,84 0,66
Si 1,14 0,54 0,57 0,13 0,86 0,42 three main categories:
 The first category is characterized by a high
copper content, low silver content compared to the
whole lot and an absence of magnesium, including
parts 35 and 36. By comparison of the facies,
metrological data (weight and dimensions) and
inscriptions indicated on the obverse and reverse of
these two coins with the rest of the samples, as shown
in Figure 4, and referring to historical texts describing
Almohad counterfeiting, we can conclude that these are
two counterfeit coins from the Almohad period, these
coins are called, in literature, the Millares [12].
Faciès d’une pièce Faciès de l’échantillon 35
authentique (Millares)
Avers Reverse Avers Reverse

Fig. 4 Ag/Cu binary diagram

The results of the CHA (figure 2), confirmed by ‫ال إله إال هللا‬ ‫هللا ربنا‬ ‫ال إله إال هللا‬ ‫هللا ربنا‬
binary diagram figure 3, make it possible to identify a ‫األمر كله هلل‬ ‫محمد رسولنا‬ ‫األمر كله هلل‬ ‫محمد رسولنا‬
G1 group made up of 32 pieces whose average Ag ‫ال قوة إال باهلل‬ ‫المهدي إمامنا‬ ‫ال قوة إال باهلل‬ ‫المهدي إمامنا‬
content is around 90%. This group is in turn subdivided There is no
Allah (is) our
There is no Allah (is)
into three subgroups: G11, G12, and G13. god except god except our Lord
Lord
Allah Allah Muhammad
The G11 sub-group contains 20 coins including: ten All command
Muhammad
All command (is) our
without indication of the mint (1, 3, 4, 8, 11, 14, 16, 17, (is) our
is with Allah is with Allah prophet
prophet
18, 19), six struck in Fez (21, 22, 24, 25, 26, 27), a There is no
Al Mahdi (is)
There is no Al Mahdi
sample in Mallorca (28), one in Sebta (30), and two strength strength (is) our
our guide
except in god except in god guide
samples minted in Tlemcen (31, 32, 33). These twenty
Fig. 5 Comparative photos of real and fake coins
coins are characterized by the presence of a significant
amount of silver, at content between 90 and 92%. The
In addition to the metrological data indicated in
G12 subgroup is made up of six pieces with high
table 3, figure 5 makes it possible to show that despite
copper content and silver content of around 90%,
the literally identical transcriptions of meaning, a clear
including four pieces without an indication of the name
difference in the metrological calligraphic quality
of the mint (5, 6, 7, 10), a sample hit in Murcia (29)
appears between the two parts 35 and 36, represented
and one in Seville (34). G13 contains six pieces with
by part 35 in figure 5 compared to the rest of the parts
high silver content exceeding 92%, consisting of three
of the whole batch represented by an authentic part
samples without any indication of the mint (9, 12, 13),
facies. Although parts 35 and 36 are large, their
two samples from Fez (20, 23), and one sample from
respective weights are lower than the other parts of the
Tlemcen (32). Table 4 presents the values of the
lot, which suggests that the manufacture of these two
average contents of the elements of the elemental
parts is made from an alloy rich in copper, since this
composition of each subgroup.
metal is lighter compared to silver.
Table 4 Average levels of elements present in each subgroup
Counterfeit coins are not an exception to this era
Ag C Cu Mg O Si only, but they have existed at other times and in other
G11 89,43 4,18 0 0,67 4,25 1,45 places in the world. Writing has also been devoted to
G12 83,94 3,96 1,04 0,58 3,6 1,12 the broad development of counterfeiting [13].
G13 83,93 3,66 1,38 0,53 2,48 0,63  The second category: whose copper content
varies between 2 and 5% and that of silver between 85
 17

and 89% to obtain it. of the coin and finally the elements present
 The third category: is characterized by zero on the surface of the coins that are due to the
copper content and high silver content reaching 95%. manipulation, the environment and the methods of
storage and conservation of these objects [3, 15].
3.2.2. Principal Component Analysis (PCA) The minor and trace elements contained, for
PCA [10] is a simple factorial method which is example, in silver-copper alloys are contributed by one
considered one of the most classic techniques of or the other of the two metals or even by both
multivariate statistics and as the basic method of data simultaneously, as impurities or as elements of addition
analysis. Karl Person described it first [14]. aimed at improving certain physicochemical and
This method is an excellent example for illustrating aesthetic characteristics of the coins.
the multivariate study of data and makes it possible to Writings specify that silver is obtained by extraction
extract the maximum information on a given subject or by separation of other metals [1]. The ores exploited
from few more easily interpretable elements, presented for this metal in ancient times are most often rich in
in a simple and coherent form from a countless set of lead, so silver coins in most cases contain a significant
data. It serves to highlight the interrelationships amount of lead, knowing that the latter is not altered by
between the variables and the similarities and the processes. Metallurgical processes implemented to
oppositions between the different units analyzed. obtain the silver, which could provide information on
It mainly applies to measurement tables, i.e., to a set the possible sources of the original ore [2].
of quantitative variables that are both homogeneous Certain elements follow the silver during the
and heterogeneous. various metallurgical operations, so that the ratio, in
Principal component analysis is an analysis whose certain cases, between their concentration and that of
results are usually considered new hypotheses to the silver is preserved from the ore to the finished
broaden and better understand the problem under study. object. Furthermore, the concentrations of these minor
In our case, the PCA will make it possible to and trace elements in the finished product depend on
develop hypotheses relating to the possible sources of various parameters: their initial levels in the ore, their
the elements detected on the surface of the analyzed behavior during the various metallurgical and forming
parts. operations. We cite for this purpose the example of
The histograms of the following figure 6 represent elements commonly detected in the silver alloy, such
the results of the PCA. as: tin, gold, copper, arsenic, antimony, zinc, lead,
bismuth [16].
Gold and bismuth can come from the original ore,
preserved by the refining process, with Au being
completely preserved and Bi, resistant to oxidation,
being partially preserved. Gold is frequently associated
with silver ore in small quantities, it is usually found in
quantities below 1% by weight. Although it is unlikely
Fig. 6 Histogram of principal components that Au was deliberately added to the silver, it can
sometimes have an exogenous origin, resulting from
The PCA made it possible to classify the elements Au contamination or gilding during recycling. The
of the elementary composition into two large families, amount of Bi is related to the Pb content, so the ratio of
the first family containing the elements Ag, C, Cu, and these elements remain constant after refining [16].
Mg, united in the Main Component CP1. The second For lead, a study of minting in the Islamic world
family is made up of the elements Si and O united in (Umayyads and Abbasid) indicates that silver stocks
the Principal Component CP2. are confined both regionally and chronologically,
which means that the stock used by the Umayyads may
4. Discussions be different from that used by the Abbasids of Baghdad
and that the stock used in Baghdad is not the same as
The justification of the elemental composition of
that used in Iran and Central Asia. These results are
archaeological object results from several factors, in
encouraging for origin studies based on isotopic and
particular, historical, mining and metallurgical.
elemental analysis of lead [17].
According to bibliographical sources, elementary
However, it is difficult to have this information
analyzes of archaeological objects, such as coins in our
simultaneously, knowing that certain practices such as
case, generally provide important information.
recycling which is generally considered as a major
This information contributes to knowing the silver
obstacle in the studies of the origin of precious metals
content, which confers the intrinsic value to the piece,
[18], since it is based on the mixture of metals from
the contents of the minor and trace elements that make
different sources, as well as certain surface treatments,
it possible to identify the origin and provenance of the
such as bleaching or dressing, which enriches the
metal as well as the metallurgical practices carried out
 Allouch et al. Physico-Chemical and Numismatic Study of Moroccan Silver Coins from the Almohad Dynasty (XII to XIII Century), Vol. 49
No. 12 December 2022
18
surface of silver coins [19-22]. These practices remove the results of physicochemical analysis applied to
any specific signatures that can provide information on archaeological objects is means that contribute
the exact origin of the metal coin. effectively to their reintegration into history [4]. The
Additionally, according to a study [18], recycling multidisciplinary identification (history, archaeology,
allows evaluating long-distance commercial networks, physic-chemistry) of a coin has an added value having
the movement of coins and the frequency of recycling a direct impact on the economic and social promotion
events and helps understand socio-cultural and through the valorization of this heritage on the cultural
economic phenomena on a large scale. and socio-economic level.
In this study, PCA has made it possible to highlight Restoration of archaeological objects and their
two families of elements, the first of which contains the enhancement, knowing that the knowledge of the
elements that may belong to certain silver ores (Ag, C, chemical composition is essential to control the state of
Cu, Mg). Thus, these elements can be considered as conservation of the work and to possibly deduce the
coming from the original alloy. The presence of carbon aging mechanism by comparison with materials of
can also be attributed to the contamination of the parts similar composition, subjected to accelerated aging
during the molding of the blanks, the casting of which tests. These data can also guide the choice of the best
was done in crucibles made from animal bones [23], as restoration technique, as they can guide the choice of
it can also result from concretions accumulated on the conservation treatments for restoration of heritage
surface. Coins in their places of conservation or burial metal objects likely to help inhibit or slow down
in the case of treasures found underground. corrosion processes and compensate for traditional
Magnesium is like carbon, its content is uniform in methods. Common, practiced in certain places of
most samples, so it can come from the original alloy, conservation, namely, the application of a protective
i.e. from the ore, or due to contamination during layer (varnish) to the surface of the pieces, which can
operation silver refining using refractory earths. have harmful long-term effects on these pieces.
In our case, scanning electron microscopy coupled
5. Conclusion with EDS provided relevant information on the
In conclusion, the results confirm, generally, the elemental composition of the pieces, however, when
statements quoted in historical writings stipulating that the patina is thick, the concretions on the surface
the evolution of the processes of elaboration of gold prevent in-depth analysis of the samples.
and silver metals reached its maturity during the Abundant elements in the soil, such as: iron,
Almohad period. The mastery and maturity of manganese, calcium, silicon, aluminum, accumulate on
metallurgical techniques during this period was the surface of the parts. Other elements of the coin
developed compared to the periods, which preceded it, alloy, such as copper, zinc and tin, are preferentially
this had a positive impact on the techniques of coinage eliminated by corrosion. This can falsify the
manufacture, which could subsist until the period of the determination of the original elemental composition of
Merinid dynasties (13th to 14th century) or Sadian the coin.
(16th to 17th century) testified by the skill of the The circulation of coins and their manipulation
Almohad workshops to manufacturing very precise leads, over time, to significant changes in the original
counterfeit coins from copper coins, which perfectly elemental composition on the surface.
resembled those of gold [24]. In the cleaning procedures carried out, usually after
This work also allowed to distinguish the elements excavations or in museums, commonly used
that could belong to the alloy and those that do not, as commercial chemicals preferentially attack the copper
well as the confirmation of two counterfeit coins and and, therefore, contribute to the increase in the silver
confirmations of historical writings. content on the surface of the pieces.
The results correlate with other studies of the same The SEM coupled with the EDS has the advantage
type we cite, for example [25]. of a non-destructive technique and therefore meets the
That said for the gold coins, as for the silver coins, requirements of the holders of the archaeological
the discovery of a treasure in which the facies of the heritage, however the limits of this analysis technique
coins seem in excellent condition, testifies to the good lie in the fact that it is superficial (depth of penetration
quality of the Almohad minting, these coins seem clean not exceeding certain level), thus the analysis results
and little oxidized since they contain high levels of Ag. are affected by contaminations on the surface of the
It should also be noted that analyses of coins carried coins
out by various specialists (numismatists and scientists), Thus, the textual, archaeological and analytical data
also testify to this evolution. For example, the gold must, therefore, be crossed and confronted to try
content of certain samples of a batch of Almohad coins, having information on the probable origin of the metal
analyzed in 1974, reached 99.7%, while that of its of a given coinage [2].
predecessors (Almoravids) rarely exceeded 96% [6]. We note that some pieces have particular
As a result, the information that can emerge from elementary compositions compared to the whole
 19

corpus, therefore, a study of samples from the same which it is important to know well before any
family (same mint, same date), must be carried out to intervention [28].
draw more relevant information. on this category of
parts, information which must be corroborated with Acknowledgments
historical data. We warmly thank the managers of the National
This method constitutes preliminary work for any Center for Scientific and Technical Research (CNRST)
preservation or restoration intervention and deserves to in Rabat, Morocco, for providing us with very
be supplemented by more advanced analyses that can satisfactory working conditions, and especially the
reach the heart of the pieces analyzed, which will allow managers and technicians of the laboratories of the
more advanced conclusions to be drawn that will help, technical support units for scientific research (UATRS)
for example, to identify the original ores, or even the to the CNRST for their support and assistance during
manufacturing and processing phases through which the performance of the analyses.
these parts have passed. We also thank all the numismatists, historians,
Finally, the kind of results obtained in this study can archaeologists and geologists from the National Higher
be used for the need conservation and restoration of Institute of Archeology and Heritage in Rabat and the
archaeological objects and their enhancement, knowing Moulay Ismail University of Meknes in Morocco, for
that the knowledge of the chemical composition is their very enriching contributions to the analysis, each
essential to control the state of conservation of the in its domain, currencies and the interpretation of the
work and to possibly deduce the aging mechanism by data collected.
comparison with materials of similar composition,
subjected to accelerated aging tests. These data can
also guide the choice of the best restoration technique,
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