Abrasive Machining

▪ Material removal by action of hard,

abrasive particles usually in the form of
a bonded wheel.
▪ Grinding is the most important abrasive
process.
▪ Other abrasive processes: honing,
lapping, superfinishing, polishing, and
buffing
▪ Generally used as finishing operations
after part geometry has been
established by conventional machining

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 Why abrasive processes are important
▪ Can be used on all types of materials
▪ Some can produce extremely fine surface finishes, to 0.025 µm
▪ Some can hold dimensions to extremely close tolerances

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 Grinding and grinding wheel
▪ The most popular material removal process in
which abrasive particles are bonded in a
wheel that operates at very high surface
speeds
▪ Grinding wheel usually disk-shaped and
precisely balanced for high rotational speeds.
▪ The grinding wheel consists of abrasive
particles and bonding material
o Abrasive particles accomplish cutting
o Bonding material holds particles in place
and establishes shape and structure of
wheel
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 TYPES OF GRINDING PROCESSES
Surface grinding
▪ Surface grinding
involves the grinding of flat surfaces.
▪ Traverse grinding occurs as the table
reciprocates longitudinally and is fed
laterally after each stroke.
▪ Plunge grinding occurs when the wheel
may move radially into the workpiece.

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 Cylindrical grinding
Various cylindrical-grinding
Two types of cylindrical grinding/center type operations

(a) Profile grinding

(a) External (a) Internal

(b) Traverse grinding (c) Plunge grinding

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 Centerless grinding
▪ Centerless grinding is a high-production process for grinding cylindrical
surfaces;
▪ The workpiece is supported not by centers or chucks, but by a blade
▪ Typical parts made by this process are roller bearings, piston pins, engine
valves, camshafts, and similar components.

Through – feed grinding Plunge grinding Internal grinding

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 Creep feed grinding
▪ High Depths of cut 1000 to 10,000 times greater than normal
▪ Feed rates reduced by about the same proportion
▪ Material removal rate and productivity are increased in creep feed grinding
because the wheel is continuously cutting

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 Coated abrasives
▪ Common examples of coated abrasives are sandpaper and emery cloth;
▪ The majority of which are made of aluminum oxide, with silicon carbide and
zirconia alumina making up the rest.
▪ Coated abrasives usually have a much more open structure than do grinding
wheels, and their grains are more pointed and aggressive.
▪ The grains are deposited electrostatically on flexible backing materials, such as
paper, cotton, rayon polyester, polynylon, and various blends.

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 Belt grinding
▪ Coated abrasives also are used as belts for high-rate material removal and with
good surface finish.
▪ Belt grinding is an important production process, and in some cases competes
with and is preferred to conventional grinding operations.
▪ Belts with grit numbers ranging from 16 to 1500 are available.
▪ Belt speeds are in the range of 700–1800 m/min.
▪ Machines for abrasive belt operations require proper belt support and must
have rigid construction to minimize vibrations.

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 Grinding wheel parameters
▪ Grinding wheel parameters are:
1. Abrasive material
2. Grain size
3. Bonding material
4. Wheel grade
5. Wheel structure

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 Abrasive materials
▪ Abrasive material properties
o High hardness
o Wear resistance
o Toughness
o Friability - capacity to fracture when cutting
o edge dulls, so a new sharp edge is exposed
▪ Types abrasive materials
o Aluminum oxide (𝑨𝒍𝟐 𝑶𝟑 ) - most common abrasive used to grind steel
and most cast irons.
o Silicon carbide (SiC) - harder than (𝐴𝑙2 𝑂3 ) but not as tough used on most
nonferrous metals and certain ceramics

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 Abrasive materials
▪ Types abrasive materials
o Cubic boron nitride (cBN) –harder, more expensive used for hard
materials such as hardened tool steels and aerospace alloys
o Synthetic diamond – Even harder, very expensive used on hard, abrasive
materials such as ceramics, cemented carbides, and glass
Hardness of abrasive materials

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 Grain size
▪ Small grain sizes produce better finishes
▪ Harder work materials require smaller grain sizes to cut effectively
▪ Larger grain sizes permit larger material removal rates
▪ Grit size is measured using a screen mesh procedure
▪ The surface coarseness of a grinding wheel is indicated by grit size.
▪ Grit size 8 is coarse and size 250 is fine.

Bonding material properties

▪ Must withstand centrifugal forces and high temperatures
▪ Must resist shattering during shock loading of wheel
▪ Must hold abrasive grains rigidly in place for cutting yet allow worn grains to
be dislodged to expose new sharp grains

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 Wheel Structure
▪ Refers to the relative spacing of
abrasive grains in wheel Bond Pores (air
Material gaps)
▪ In addition to abrasive grains and bond
Abrasive
material, grinding wheels contain air grains

gaps or pores
▪ Volumetric proportions of grains, bond material, and pores can be expressed as
𝑃𝑔 + 𝑃𝑏 + 𝑃𝑝 = 1.0

▪ Measured on a scale that ranges between "open“ and "dense."

▪ Open structure means 𝑃𝑝 is relatively large and 𝑃𝑔 is relatively small -
recommended when clearance for chips must be provided
▪ Dense structure means 𝑃𝑝 is relatively small and 𝑃𝑔 is larger - recommended to
obtain better surface finish and dimensional control
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 Wheel grade
▪ Indicates bond strength in retaining abrasive grits during cutting
▪ Depends on amount of bonding material in wheel structure (𝑃𝑏 )
▪ Measured on a scale ranging between soft and hard Soft" wheels lose grains
readily - used for low material removal rates and hard work materials
▪ Hard wheels retain grains - used for high stock removal rates and soft work
materials

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 Grinding wheel specification
▪ Standard grinding wheel marking system used to designate abrasive type, grit
size, grade, structure, and bond material
▪ Example: A-46-H-6-V
▪ Also provides for additional identifications for use by grinding wheel
manufacturers

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 Undeformed length and thickness
Undeformed length (𝑙)
𝑙 = 𝐷𝑑
Undeformed thickness (𝑡)

4 𝑑
𝑡=
𝑉𝐶𝑟 𝐷

𝐷 – grinding wheel diameter

𝑑 – wheel depth of cut
𝑉- Wheel tangential velocity
𝑣 – velocity of workpieces
𝐶 is the number of cutting points per unit area of the wheel periphery (Typical
range: 0.1 to 10 /𝑚𝑚2 ).
The quantity 𝑟 is the ratio of chip width to average undeformed chip thickness, and
has an estimated value typically between 10 and 20.
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 Grinding forces
▪ A knowledge of grinding forces is essential for
o Estimating power requirements
o Designing grinding machines and work-holding devices and fixtures
o Determining the deflections that the workpiece, as well as the grinding
machine and its components, may undergo; deflections adversely affect
dimensional accuracy, and are especially critical in precision and
ultraprecision grinding
▪ The grain force is defined as:

𝑣 𝑑
𝐺𝑟𝑎𝑖𝑛 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 ∝ UTS
𝑉 𝐷

▪ The forces in grinding should be kept low, in order to avoid distortion and to
maintain high dimensional accuracy of the workpiece.
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 Specific energy

▪ The energy dissipated in producing a grinding chip consists of the energy

required for:
o Plastic deformation in chip formation
o Plowing, as shown by the ridges formed in below
o Friction, caused by rubbing of the abrasive grain along the workpiece
surface

▪ Specific-energy in grinding is defined

as the energy per unit volume of
material ground from the workpiece
surface

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 Specific energy

Materials removal rate (MRR)

𝑀𝑅𝑅 = 𝑑𝑤𝑣 𝑤 = width of cut

The power consumed is given by 𝑣 = workpiece velocity

𝑃 = 𝑢(𝑀𝑀𝑅) 𝑑 = depth of cut

𝑃 = 𝑇𝜔 𝜔 = 2𝜋𝑁

Torque (T) is given by 𝑢 = specific energy

𝐷 = diameter of the disc
𝐹𝑐 𝐷
𝑇=
2
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 Temperature
The temperature rise in grinding is an important consideration because
▪ It can adversely affect the surface properties of the workpiece, including
metallurgical changes
▪ The temperature rise can cause residual stresses on the workpiece
▪ Temperature gradients in the workpiece cause distortions due to thermal
expansion and contraction of the workpiece surface, thus making it difficult to
control dimensional accuracy
▪ The surface-temperature rise (∆𝑇 ) in grinding is related to process variables by
the following expression:

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 Temperature
How to Reduce Work Surface Temperatures:
▪ Decrease infeed (depth of cut) 𝑑
▪ Reduce wheel speed 𝑣
▪ Reduce number of active grits per square inch on the grinding wheel C
▪ Increasing work speed 𝑣𝑣
▪ Use a cutting fluid

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 Grinding-wheel wear
▪ Grain fracture
o When a portion of the grain breaks off, but the rest remains bonded in the
wheel.
o Edges of the fractured area become new cutting edges
o Tendency to fracture is called friability
▪ Attritious wear
o Dulling of individual grains, resulting in flat spots and rounded edges
o Analogous to tool wear in conventional cutting tool
o Caused by similar mechanisms including friction, diffusion, and chemical
reactions

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 Grinding-wheel wear
▪ Bond fracture
o The individual grains are pulled out of the bonding material
o Depends on wheel grade, among other factors
o Usually occurs because grain has become dull due to attritious wear, and
resulting cutting force becomes excessive

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 Grinding ratio

▪ Typical wear curve of a grinding

wheel.
▪ Wear is conveniently plotted as a
function of volume of material
removed, rather than as a function
of time

▪ Indicates slope of the wheel wear curve

𝑉𝑤
𝐺𝑅 =
𝑉𝑔
▪ where 𝐺𝑅= grinding ratio; 𝑉𝑤 = volume of work material removed; and 𝑉𝑔 =
corresponding volume of grinding wheel worn.
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 Dressing, truing, and shaping of grinding wheels

▪ Dressing is the process of conditioning, producing sharp new edges on worn

grains on the grinding surface of a wheel.
▪ Truing, producing a true circle on a wheel that has become out of round.
▪ Dressing is necessary when excessive attritious wear dulls the wheel, called
glazing or when the wheel becomes loaded.
▪ Glazing is the shiny appearance of the wheel surface.
▪ Loading of a grinding wheel occurs when the porosities on the wheel surfaces
become filled or clogged with chips from the workpiece.
▪ Loading can occur while grinding soft materials or from improper selection of
wheels or process parameters.

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 Dressing, truing, and shaping of grinding wheels
The techniques used to dress grinding wheels are:
▪ A specially shaped diamond-point tool or diamond cluster is moved across the
width of the grinding face of a rotating wheel, and removes a small layer from
the wheel surface with each pass.
▪ This method can be performed either dry or wet, depending on whether the
wheel is to be used dry or wet, respectively.
▪ In practice, however, the wear of the diamond with harder wheels can be
significant, requiring the use of a diamond disk or cup wheel.
▪ A set of star-shaped steel disks is pressed manually against the wheel.
▪ Material is removed from the wheel surface by crushing the grains; as a result,
this method produces a coarse surface on the wheel and is used only for rough
grinding operations, on bench or pedestal grinders.

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 Dressing, truing, and shaping of grinding wheels
The techniques used to dress grinding wheels are:
▪ Abrasive sticks are used to dress grinding wheels, particularly softer wheels;
however, this technique is not appropriate for precision grinding operations.
▪ Dressing techniques for metal-bonded diamond wheels involve the use of
electrical-discharge and electrochemical machining techniques. These processes
erode away very thin layers of the metal bond and thus expose new diamond
cutting edges.
▪ Dressing for form grinding involves crush dressing or crush forming.
▪ The process consists of pressing a metal roll on the surface of the grinding wheel,
which typically is a vitrified wheel. The roll (which usually is made of high-speed
steel, tungsten carbide, or boron carbide) has a machined or ground profile on its
periphery; thus, it reproduces a replica of this profile on the surface of the
grinding wheel being dressed.
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Dressing, truing, and shaping of grinding wheels

(a)

(a) Forms of grinding-wheel dressing.

(b) Shaping the grinding face of a wheel by dressing
it by computer control; note that the diamond
dressing tool is normal to the surface at the point
(b) of contact with the wheel.
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 FINISHING OPERATIONS
Wire brushing
▪ Wire Brushing/power brushing, the workpiece is held against a circular wire
brush that rotates at speeds ranging from 1750 rpm for large wheels to 3500
rpm for small wheels.
▪ As they rub against it, the tips of the wire produce longitudinal scratches on the
workpiece surface.
▪ Wire brushing is used to produce a fine or controlled surface texture.
▪ Performed under proper conditions, wire brushing also may be considered as a
light material-removal process.

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 Honing
▪ Abrasive process performed by a set of bonded abrasive sticks using a
combination of rotational and oscillatory motions

▪ Common application is to finish the

bores of internal combustion engines
▪ Grit sizes range between 30 and 600
▪ Surface finishes of 0.12 𝜇𝑚 or better
▪ Creates a characteristic cross-
hatched surface that retains
lubrication

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 Superfinishing
▪ Similar to honing - uses bonded abrasive stick pressed against surface and
reciprocating motion
▪ Differences with honing:
o Shorter strokes
o Higher frequencies
o Lower pressures between tool and surface
o Smaller grit sizes

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 Lapping
▪ Lapping is an operation for finishing flat, cylindrical, or curved surfaces.
▪ Generally, the lap is relatively soft and porous, made of such materials as cast
iron, copper, leather, or cloth.
▪ The abrasive particles either are embedded in the lap or may be carried in a
slurry.
▪ Lapping of spherical objects and glass lenses is done with specially shaped laps.
▪ Running-in of mating gears can be done by lapping, as on hypoid gears for rear
axles.
▪ Depending on the type and hardness of the workpiece material, lapping
pressures range from 7 to 140 kPa.

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 Lapping
▪ Dimensional tolerances on the order of ±0.0004 mm can be obtained in lapping
by using fine abrasives (up to grit size 900),
▪ And the surface finish can be as smooth as 0.025–0.1 μm.

(a) (b) (c)

(a) Schematic illustration of the lapping process. (b) Production lapping on flat surfaces.
(c) Production lapping on cylindrical surfaces.

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 Polishing
▪ Polishing is a process that produces a smooth, lustrous surface finish.
▪ The basic mechanism involved in the polishing process is the softening and
smearing of surface layers, by frictional heating developed during polishing, as
well as by some very fine-scale abrasive removal from the workpiece surface.
▪ The shiny appearance commonly observed on polished surfaces results from a
smearing action.
▪ Polishing is done with disks or belts, made of fabric, leather, or felt, which
typically are coated with fine powders of aluminum oxide or diamond.
▪ In double-sided polishing, pairs of pads are attached to the faces of platens that
rotate horizontally and in opposite directions.
▪ Parts with irregular shapes, sharp corners, deep recesses, and sharp projections
can be difficult to polish.

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 Polishing
Chemical–mechanical Polishing - slurry of abrasive particles and a controlled
chemical corrosive

▪ Electropolishing mirrorlike finishes can be obtained on metal surfaces by

electropolishing, a process that is the reverse of electroplating (next chapter)
▪ Buffing is similar to polishing, with the exception that an even finer surface
finish is obtained using very fine abrasives, on soft disks that typically are made
of cloth or hide.
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 Deburring operations
▪ Burrs are thin ridges, usually triangular in shape, that develop along the edges
of a workpiece from such operations as machining, shearing sheet and
trimming of forgings and castings.
▪ Burrs can be detected by simple means, such as with a finger, toothpick, or
cotton swab; visual inspection of burrs includes the use of magnifiers and
microscopes.
▪ As yet there are no widely accepted standards for specifically defining a burr,
partly because of the variety of burrs developed on parts.

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 Deburring operations
▪ Burrs have several disadvantages:
(a) They may interfere with the mechanical assembly of parts, and can
cause jamming and misalignment of parts, as well as cause short circuits
in electrical components.
(b) Because they are usually sharp, they can be a safety hazard to personnel
handling the parts.
(c) Burrs may reduce the fatigue life of components.
(d) Sheet metal may have lower bendability if the burr is on the tensile side.
▪ On the other hand, burrs on thin drilled or tapped components, such as the
tiny parts in mechanical watches and mechanisms, can provide additional
thickness and improve the holding torque of screws.

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 Deburring operations
Deburring operations include:
1. Manual deburring, using files and scrapers. It is estimated, however, that
manual deburring can contribute up to 10% of the cost of manufacturing the
part.
2. Mechanical deburring, by machining pieces such as cylindrical parts on a
rotating spindle.
3. Wire brushing or using rotary nylon brushes, consisting of filaments
embedded with abrasive grits.
4. Using abrasive belts
5. Ultrasonic machining
6. Electropolishing
7. Electrochemical machining
8. Magnetic–abrasive finishing and vibratory finishing
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Economics of abrasive machining and finishing operations
▪ The use of abrasives and finishing operations achieve a higher dimensional
accuracy than the solitary machining process.
▪ Automation has reduced labor cost and production times.
▪ The greater the surface-finish, the more operations involved, increases the
product cost.
▪ Abrasive processes and finishing processes are important to include in the
design analysis for pieces requiring a surface finish and dimensional accuracy.
▪ Creep-feed grinding is an economical alternative to other machining
operations.

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Economics of abrasive machining and finishing operations

Increase in the cost of machining

and finishing a part as a function
of the surface finish required; this
is the main reason that the surface
finish specified on parts should
not be any finer than is necessary
for the part to function properly.

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