IMC Training Camp: Algebra

Nanyang Technological University

10 Jun 2016

1 Theory
1.1 Criteria for Irreducible Polynomial
Definition 1 A nonconstant polynomial f ( X ) ∈ F [ X ] is irreducible over F or is an irreducible polynomial
in F [ X ] if f ( X ) cannot be expressed as a product g( X )h( X ) of two polynomials g( X ) and h( X ) in F [ X ]
both of lower degree. If f ( X ) ∈ F [ X ] is a nonconstant polynomial that is not irreducible over F, then
f ( X )is reducible over F.

Theorem 1 If R is a unique factorization domain, so is R[ X ].

Theorem 2 Let f ( X ) ∈ F [ X ], and let f ( X ) be of degree 2 or 3. Then f ( X ) is reducible over F iff it has a zero in
F.

Theorem 3 Let D be a unique factorization domain with quotient field F. If f is a nonconstant polynomial in
D [ X ], then f is irreducible over D iff f is primitive and irreducible over F.
A polynomial with integer coefficients is irreducible over Z iff it is irreducible over Q.

Theorem 4 (Eisenstein’s Irreducibility Criterion) Let R be a UFD with quotient field F, and let f ( X ) =
an X n + · · · + a1 X + a0 be a polynomial in R[ X ], with n ≥ 1 and an 6= 0. If p is prime in R and p divides ai for
0 ≤ i < n but p does not divide an and p2 does not divide a0 , then f is irreducible over F.

Theorem 5 (Irreducibility modulo p) The polynomial f ( X ) = X 4 + aX 2 + b2 , where a, b ∈ Z, is reducible

over F p for all primes p.

Theorem 6 (Cohn’s Irreducibility Criterion) If a prime p is expressed in the decimal system as

n
p= ∑ ak 10k , 0 ≤ ak ≤ 9,
k =0

n
then the polynomial ∑ ak xk is irreducible in Z[X ].
k =0

For more criterions please refer to the book ’Polynomial’ by Victor. (URL available in NTU library).

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1.2 Discriminants
Definition 2 If K is a field and f is a polynomial over K then f splits over K if it can be expressed as a
product of linear factors
f ( X ) = k ( X − α1 ) . . . ( X − α n )
where k, α1 , . . . , αn ∈ K.

Definition 3 The field Σ is a splitting field for the polynomial f over K if K ⊆ Σ and
1. f splits over Σ,
2. If K ⊆ Σ0 ⊆ Σ and f splits over Σ0 then Σ0 = Σ.

Definition 4 An irreducible polynomial f over a field K is separable over K if it has no multiple zeros in
a splitting field.

Definition 5 Let f ( X ) ∈ F [ X ] be a monic polynomial of degree n having all its irreducible factors sep-
arable over F. Let K ≤ F̄ be the splitting field of f ( X ) over F, and suppose that f ( X ) factors in K [ X ]
into
n
∏ ( X − α i ).
i =1
Let
∆( f ) = ∏ ( α i − α j ),
i< j

the product (∆( f ))2 is the discriminant of f ( X ).

For the discriminant of f ( X ) we have the following results:

1. ∆( f ) = 0 iff f ( X ) has a factor the square of some irreducible polynomial in F [ X ].
2. (∆( f ))2 ∈ F.
3. G ( E/F ) may be viewed as a subgroup of S̄n , the group of all permutations of {αi |i = 1, . . . , n}.
Moreover, G ( E/F ) is a subgroup of Ān , the group formed by all even permutations of {αi |i = 1, . . . , n}
iff ∆( f ) ∈ F.

1.3 Symmetric polynomials

Definition 6 The rth elementary symmetric polynomial

sr ( t1 , . . . , t n )

in the indeterminate t1 , . . . , tn is the sum of all possible distinct products, taken r at a time, of the elements
t1 , . . . , t n .

Theorem 7 Over a field K, any symmetric polynomial in t1 , . . . , tn can be expressed as a polynomial of smaller or
equal degree in the elementary symmetric polynomials sr (t1 , . . . , tn )(r = 0, . . . , n).

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2 Problems
Question 1.
(Robert B.Ash) Show the polynomial X 3 + 27X 2 + 5X + 97 is irreducible over Z.

Question 2.
(Robert B.Ash) Show that f ( X ) = X 4 + 4X 3 + 6X 2 + 4X + 4 is irreducible over Z.

Question 3.
(Robert B.Ash) Show that f ( X, Y ) = X 2 + Y 2 + 1 ∈ C[ X, Y ] is irreducible over C.

Question 4.
Show that the polynomial
Φ p ( x ) = x p −1 + x p −2 + · · · + x + 1
is irreducible over Q for any prime p. This polynomial is called the pth cyclotomic polynomial.

Question 5.
(The math Problems notebook) If n is not a multiple of 5 then f ( X ) = X 4n + X 3n + X 2n + X n + 1 is
divisible by Q = X 4 + X 3 + X 2 + X + 1. More generally, X (m−1)n + · · · + 1 is divisible by X m−1 + · · · + 1
if gcd(m, n) = 1.

Question 6.
(The math Problems notebook) Every natural number n > 6 can be written as a sum of distinct primes.

Question 7.
(The math Problems notebook) Let ϕn (m) = ϕ( ϕn−1 (m)), where ϕ1 (m) = ϕ(m) is the Euler totient
function, and set ω (m) the smallest number n s.t. ϕn (m) = 1. If m < 2α , then prove that ω (m) ≤ α.

Question 8.
(The math Problems notebook) Let a, b, c, d ∈ R[ x ] be polynomials with real coefficients. Set
Z x Z x Z x Z x
p= acdt, q = addt, r = bcdt, s = bddt.
1 1 1 1

Prove that ps − qr is divisible by ( x − 1)4 .

Question 9.
(The math Problems notebook) 1. Find the minimum number of elements that must be deleted from the
set {1, . . . , 2005} such that the set of the remaining elements does not contain two elements together with
their product.
2. Does there exist, for any k, an arithmetic progression with k terms in the infinite sequence

1 1 1
1, , . . . , , . . . , , . . .?
2 2005 n

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Question 10.
(The math Problems notebook) Find an example of a sequence of natural numbers 1 ≤ a1 < a2 < · · · <
an < an+1 < . . . with the property that every m ∈ Z+ can be uniquely written as ai − a j , for i, j ∈ Z+ .

Question 11.
(Problems in group theory by John D. Dixon) Describe all the nonsolvable groups of order at most 200.

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3 Solutions
Question 1 (Hint: Consider factorization over Z p ) Consider Z3 .

Question 2 (Hint: Change of variable) By Eisenstein, X 4 + 3 is irreducible over Z. The substitution

X = Y + 1 yields f (Y ).

Question 3 (Hint: Eisenstein’s criterion) If p = X = i, then p is irreducible since X + i is of degree

1. Furthermore, p divides X 2 + 1 but p2 does not. Take the ring R to be C[ X, Y ] = (C[ X ])[Y ] and apply
Eisenstein’s criterion.

Question 4 (Hint: Eisenstein’s criterion) By Theorem 3, we need only consider factorizations in Z[ X ].

( x + 1) p − 1 x p + ( 1p) x p−1 + · · · + px
 
p −1 p p −2
g ( x ) = Φ p ( x + 1) = = =x + x + · · · + p,
x = 1−1 x 1

satisfies the Eisenstein criterion for the prime p.

Question 5 If η is a fifth primitive root of unity, then f (η ) = 0. Hence

f ( X ) = ( X − η )( X − η 2 )( X − η 3 )( X − η 4 ) R = QR

for some polynomial R.

Question 6 (Hint: Chebyshev’s theorem: there exists a prime p between n2 and n.) Let n ≥ 15,
then exists p between n2 and n. Then 0 < n − p < n2 . Further, there exists a prime q such that
n−p
< q < n − p, and the rest n − p − q satisfies therefore 0 < n − p − q < n4 . We continue
2
this process until there remains either a prime number or a number from the set {7, 8, . . . , 14}. Since
7 = 5 + 2, 8 = 5 + 3, 9 = 7 + 2, 10 = 7 + 3, 11 = 11, 12 = 7 + 5, 13 = 13, 14 = 2 + 5 + 7, the claim follows.

Question 7 If we consider the minimal j with ϕ j (m) = 1, then ϕ j−1 (m) = 2. Also, we have
ϕ1 (m) < m < 2α , but ϕ1 (m) is an even number and thus ϕ2 (m) ≤ 21 ϕ1 (m) < 2α−1 . By induction,
we obtain ϕ j−1 (m) < 2α−( j−2) , whence the claim. For even m, we have ω (m) ≤ α − 1.

 0 80 Let p, q, r, s be smooth functions

Question   that p(u) = q(u) = r (u) = s(u) = 0 and
such
p q p q
det = 0. Then the function det = 0, together with its first three derivatives, van-
r 0 s0 r s
ishes at u. The proof is immediate. The given p, q, r, s satisfy the previous conditions ar u = 1, and hence
the claim.

Question 9 1. If we extract the numbers 1, 2, 3, . . . , 44 and then choose x, y ∈ {45, . . . , 2005}, then
xy ≥ 452 > 2005, and thus it cannot belong to the given set. Therefore the number of elements to
be deleted is at most 43.
Consider now the triples (2, 87, 2 · 87), (3, 86, 3 · 86), . . . , (44, 45, 44 · 45) consisting of elements of the given
set. We must delete at least one number from each triple in order that the remaining set be free of prod-
ucts. Thus the minimum number of elements to be deleted is 43.
2. Yes, it does. Take for instance k!1 , k!2 , . . . , k!k

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Question 10 We consider the sequence

a1 = 1, a2 = 2,
a2n+1 = 2a2n ,
a2n+2 = a2n+1 + rn ,

where rn is the smallest natural number that cannot be written in the form ai − a j with i, j ≤ 2n + 1.

Question 11 The following are the only nonsolvable groups of order ≤ 200. There is a simple group
of order 60, the alternating group A5 . There are three nonisomorphic nonsolvable groups of order 120,
and each of there has a composition factor isomorphic to A5 . There is a simple group of order 168: the
subgroup V of S7 generated by the permutations (1234567) and (26)(34). There is one nonsolvable group
of order 180. (see Theory and applications of finite groups (reprint) by G.A. Millser, H.F.Blichfeldt, LE.
Dickson, section 74.)