Electric Vehicle Adoption: A Comprehensive Systematic Review of Technological, Environmental, Organizational and Policy Impacts

Systematic Review
Electric Vehicle Adoption: A Comprehensive Systematic Review

of Technological, Environmental, Organizational
and Policy Impacts
Rami Zaino * , Vian Ahmed , Ahmed Mohamed Alhammadi and Mohamad Alghoush
Department of Industrial Engineering, College of Engineering, American University of Sharjah,

Sharjah P.O. Box 26666, United Arab Emirates; [email protected] (V.A.); [email protected] (A.M.A.);
[email protected] (M.A.)
* Correspondence: [email protected]
Abstract: This comprehensive systematic review explores the multifaceted impacts of electric vehicle
(EV) adoption across technological, environmental, organizational, and policy dimensions. Drawing
from 88 peer-reviewed articles, the study addresses a critical gap in the existing literature, which
often isolates the impact of EV adoption without considering holistic effects. Technological advance-
ments include innovations in the battery technology and energy storage systems, enhancing EV
performance and mitigating range anxiety. The environmental analysis reveals substantial reductions
in greenhouse gas emissions, with lifecycle assessments showing significant reductions for EVs
compared to internal combustion engine vehicles, particularly when charged with renewable energy
sources. Key comparisons include lifecycle emissions between mid-size battery electric vehicles
(BEVs) and internal combustion engine vehicles (ICEVs), and global average lifecycle emissions by
powertrain under various policy scenarios. The organizational implications are evident, as businesses
adopt new models for fleet management and logistics, leveraging EVs for operational efficiency
and sustainability. Policy analysis underscores the crucial role of government incentives, regulatory
measures, and infrastructure investments in accelerating EV adoption. The review identifies future
research areas such as efficient battery recycling methods, the potential impact of EVs on grid stability,
Citation: Zaino, R.; Ahmed, V.;
and long-term economic implications. This study offers insights for stakeholders aiming to foster
Alhammadi, A.M.; Alghoush, M.
Electric Vehicle Adoption: A
sustainable transportation and achieve global climate goals.
Comprehensive Systematic Review of
Technological, Environmental, Keywords: electric vehicles; sustainability; environment; organizations; technology; sustainable
Organizational, and Policy Impacts. infrastructure; policy frameworks; energy efficiency
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 375.
https://doi.org/10.3390/
wevj15080375
1. Introduction
Academic Editor: Zonghai Chen
Electric vehicles (EVs) are cars and trucks that run on electricity instead of gasoline
Received: 6 July 2024 or diesel. Adopting EVs refers to the increased choice of electric vehicles over traditional
Revised: 9 August 2024
fossil fuel-powered vehicles by individuals and companies. Over the past decade, interest
Accepted: 15 August 2024
in EVs has grown, as more consumers and businesses recognize the benefits of cleaner,
Published: 18 August 2024
more efficient transportation [1]. According to [2], this shift is supported by significant
advancements in EV technology and infrastructure, which have helped alleviate some
of the early concerns such as battery life and the availability of charging stations. Policy
Copyright: © 2024 by the authors.
and fiscal incentives are crucial in driving EV adoption. Strategies such as stricter fuel
Licensee MDPI, Basel, Switzerland. economy and CO2 standards, alongside EV sales mandates, have stimulated the initial
This article is an open access article uptake and subsequent expansion of the EV market. With the International Energy Agency
distributed under the terms and (IEA) projecting a 35% global market share for electric cars by 2030, with China, the United
conditions of the Creative Commons States, and Europe leading the charge [3], these policies not only lower financial barriers
Attribution (CC BY) license (https:// but also strengthen the commitment to sustainable mobility. Such governmental support
creativecommons.org/licenses/by/ boosts consumer and manufacturer confidence in EVs, fostering a more robust market
4.0/). environment. Additionally, such policy-driven efforts shape broader market dynamics
World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 375. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15080375 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/wevj

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 375 2 of 47
and have direct implications for organizational strategies, as companies must adapt and
innovate in response to these evolving regulatory landscapes. This adaptation requires
enhancing EV designs [4], expanding charging infrastructure, and implementing more
efficient operational practices to meet new standards and consumer expectations [5].
In the evolving landscape of transportation and energy management, the adoption of
EVs presents significant changes. These innovations not only enhance energy efficiency but
also drive economic restructuring and market trend shifts. The authors in [6] explored the
behavioral factors driving this adoption in China’s Jiangsu Province, shedding light on how
perceptions and technology acceptance influence EV integration strategies. Similarly, the
authors in [7] extended the dialogue to operational efficiencies, introducing a model that
integrates EV routing with battery health, emphasizing the longevity and cost-effectiveness
of fleet operations. Building on this, the studies in [8,9] offer computational models
that balance travel time and battery degradation costs, and maximize profitability within
electric taxi fleets, respectively. These insights collectively underscore a shift toward more
sustainable and economically viable transportation solutions, prompting organizations to
reconsider their strategic approaches in light of these technological advancements.
Figure 1 shows an exponential rise in scholarly publications from 2019 to August 2024,
highlighting the importance and timeliness of this systematic study. The statistics show
how important EV adoption is for advancing sustainable practices, as acknowledged by
the academic community. They also show how important EVs are becoming to business
and policymaking. Figure 1 illustrates a noteworthy upsurge in publications between 2023
to June 2024.
Chronological Growth
160
140
Number of Publications
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
2019 2020 2021 2022 2023 Jan 2024–Aug 2024
Year
Figure 1. Chronological growth of publications on EV adoption and its multifaceted impacts (2019—
August 2024)—Scopus.
In the realm of environmental sustainability, adopting EVs plays a pivotal role in

mitigating climate change impacts through significant reductions in greenhouse gas (GHG)
emissions [1,10,11]. According to the U.S. Department of Energy [11], electric motors in
EVs are highly efficient, converting over 77% of the electrical energy from the grid to power
at the wheels. In contrast, conventional gasoline vehicles only convert about 12–30% of
the energy stored in gasoline to power at the wheels [11]. This higher efficiency means
that even when the electricity used to charge EVs is generated from fossil fuels, the total
emissions are still lower than those from traditional gasoline or diesel vehicles.
According to the IEA [1,3], the lifecycle emissions of a medium-size battery electric
vehicle (BEV) are about half of those of an equivalent internal combustion engine vehicle
(ICEV). The IEA reports that net avoided well-to-wheel (WTW) GHG emissions from EV
deployment are substantial, with significant reductions projected from 2023 to 2035 across
various scenarios [1]. Figure 2 illustrates that under the Stated Policies Scenario (STEPS),
the net GHG emissions avoided will reach nearly 700 million tonnes of CO2 -equivalent
by 2030. In the Announced Pledges Scenario (APS) and the Net Zero Emissions by 2050
Scenario (NZE), even greater reductions are projected, showcasing the potential for EVs to
drive substantial emissions savings as electricity grids continue to decarbonize.
Net GHG emissions (Mt)
Figure 2. Net reduction in well-to-wheel GHG emissions from EV implementation, detailing the
proportion of emissions avoided by mode, from 2023 to 2035—adapted from [1].
Moreover, as highlighted by Sergey Paltsev, Deputy Director of the MIT Joint Program
on the Science and Policy of Global Change, while EVs are more carbon-intensive to
manufacture due to their large lithium-ion batteries, they compensate by operating much
more cleanly under nearly any condition. For instance, a study from MIT showed that
gasoline cars emit more than 350 grams of CO2 per mile driven over their lifetimes, while
fully battery-electric vehicles create just 200 g. Even in regions heavily reliant on coal for
electricity, EVs tend to emit less carbon than gasoline cars over their lifetime [10]. These
findings reinforce the significant long-term climate benefits of EVs.
In the STEPS scenario, for example, net GHG emissions avoided by 2035 are significant,
underscoring the effectiveness of current policies. The APS scenario, which includes
announced pledges, shows further reductions, and the NZE scenario highlights the impact
of achieving net-zero emissions by 2050. These scenarios collectively demonstrate that
EV adoption, coupled with grid decarbonization, can result in substantial GHG emissions
savings. These benefits underscore the necessity of adopting EVs in urban planning and
policy-making to foster a sustainable transport model that aligns with climate targets [1].
At the intersection of technology and operational efficiency, the integration of EVs
into transportation networks introduces complex challenges and innovative solutions.
Advances in battery technology, smart charging infrastructures, and software management
systems are crucial for optimizing the operational efficiency and reliability of EVs. These
technological innovations not only enhance the functionality and range of EVs but also
support the scalability of electric mobility solutions. As the sector evolves, continuous
technological enhancements will be vital in addressing the infrastructural demands and
energy management needs of a growing EV market, ensuring that the transition to electric
mobility is both efficient and sustainable.
The current body of literature on EV adoption tends to focus on specific aspects,

often overlooking the multifaceted impacts of EVs. For instance, environmental studies
have primarily concentrated on the effects of EVs on air pollution and health, energy con-
sumption, carbon emissions, and comparisons with diesel vehicles [12–14]. Technological
research has delved into areas such as charging infrastructure, power management, and
control techniques, and the impact of national culture on technology acceptance [15,16].
Organizational studies have provided decision-makers with perspectives on passenger EV
adoption at the country level and suggested policy, societal, and managerial implications
of EV adoption [17]. However, while valuable, these studies do not provide a holistic view
of the impacts of EV adoption on the environment, technology, and organizations. This
gap in the literature could hinder stakeholders, decision-makers, and governments from
making informed decisions about EV adoption. Therefore, there is a pressing need for
comprehensive research that examines the holistic impact of EV adoption across these three
dimensions. Such research could provide invaluable insights and guide policy-making in
this critical area.
Building on the existing body of knowledge, this paper employs a systematic approach
to holistically examine the multifaceted impacts of EV adoption, addressing significant
gaps in the current research. While studies to date have explored various dimensions
of EVs—from environmental effects to technological infrastructure and organizational
strategies—there remains a crucial need for an integrated analysis that encapsulates these
interconnected aspects. By employing the Preferred Reporting Items for Systematic Reviews
and Meta-Analyses (PRISMA) methodology, this research aims to comprehensively map
out the existing literature and identify critical areas lacking thorough investigation. The
results of this systematic review will not only inform different stakeholders but also outline
key areas where further research is needed, potentially guiding future investigations into
the sustainable integration of EVs across various sectors.
The rest of this paper will therefore discuss the PRISMA methodology employed
in this research, detailing the systematic review process to evaluate the organizational,
technological, and environmental impacts of EV adoption, as reported by the body of
knowledge. As such, this paper presents a bibliometric analysis of the existing studies and
their mapping in the field to identify key trends and contributions to the body of knowledge.
In addition, this study delves into a detailed content analysis systematically organized into
thematic areas, providing insights into the multifaceted impacts of EV adoption. Finally,
the study draws conclusions from the findings and suggests directions for future research,
with emphases on areas that require further exploration to enhance the understanding and
implementation of EV strategies in both policy and practice.
2. Methodology
This systematic review adheres to the PRISMA 2020 guidelines, with a detailed PRISMA
flow diagram (Figure 3) visually summarizing the study selection process. This process
includes identification through the Scopus database, a screening of titles and abstracts,
an assessment of full-text article eligibility, and final study inclusion. Our predefined
search strategy, selection criteria, and analytical methods are documented below to ensure
reproducibility and transparency.
a. Literature Retrieval: We conducted a comprehensive search in the Scopus database
using a specific set of keywords to identify publications relevant to EV adoption. The
search, adhering to PRISMA 2020 guidelines, was completed in August 2024.
The search strategy was designed to cover the literature on EV adoption compre-
hensively, using a targeted query in the Scopus database. Our search string was:
(“electric vehicle*” OR “EV” OR “EVs”) AND (“fleet electrification” OR “fleet man-
agement” OR “fleet operations” OR “Emission Reductions” OR “Adoption of EVs”)
AND (“sustainability” OR “organizational performance” OR “Key Performance In-
dicators” OR “KPI” OR “energy consumption” OR “cost savings” OR “renewable
energy utilization”). We restricted our search to English-language, peer-reviewed
journal articles published from 2019 to 2024, ensuring a focus on the most recent and
relevant research.
The keywords were carefully selected to cover the complex dimensions of EV adop-
tion research. “Electric vehicle*” and its variants broadly define the scope, while
terms like “fleet electrification”, “management”, and “operations” delve into orga-
nizational impacts. Environmental effects are captured by “Emission Reductions”
and “sustainability”, whereas “Organizational performance”, “KPI”, and similar
phrases focus on the technological and performance-related aspects essential for
understanding EV adoption’s broader implications. We chose Scopus as our primary
database due to its comprehensive coverage across diverse research fields such as
engineering, environmental science, and business. This strategy led to the retrieval
of 802 papers, reflecting current trends and significant interest in the multifaceted
impacts of EV adoption.
Identification of studies via databases and registers
Records removed before

screening:
Identification
Duplicate records removed

Records identified from Scopus:
(n = 0)
Databases (n = 802)
Records marked as ineligible
Registers (n = 0)
by automation tools (n = 0)
Records removed for other
reasons (n = 0)
Records excluded
Records screened (n = 802)
(n = 490)
Reports sought for retrieval Reports not retrieved

(n = 312) (n = 0)
Screening
Reason 1: Not aligned with

Reports assessed for eligibility research focus (n = 130)
(n = 312) Reason 2: Addressed only
technical aspects without
broader impacts (n = 88)
Reason 3: Other reasons (too
general without implications
can be derived) (n = 6)
Studies included in qualitative

Included
synthesis (thematic analysis) and

in Bibliometric Analysis
(VOSviewer Analysis) (n = 88)
Figure 3. PRISMA flow diagram.
b. Literature Screening: Adhering to PRISMA 2020 guidelines, we meticulously re-

viewed the retrieved literature to ensure relevance and quality. Initial filtering based
on publication year (2019–2024) reduced the pool to 498 papers, reflecting a surge in
EV adoption research. Further refinement to include only English-language journal
articles narrowed it down to 312 papers.
Next, we reviewed the titles and abstracts of the remaining papers, narrowing
our selection to 130 studies closely aligned with our focus on the integration of
EVs with sustainability and organizational strategy. We applied strict exclusion
criteria to ensure the included studies comprehensively addressed the impact of EV
adoption on organizational performance, technological innovation, and sustainable
infrastructure, excluding those that solely focused on the technical aspects of EVs
without considering these broader impacts. The flow diagram of the search and
selection process is shown in Figure 3.
2.1. Selection Process

Two independent reviewers screened the titles and abstracts of the retrieved articles
using an Excel spreadsheet, marking each study as ’relevant’ or ’not relevant’ with color
codes (green for relevant, red for not relevant). Discrepancies were resolved through
consensus in joint review sessions, ensuring no disagreements escalated. This manual
approach, without the use of automated tools, enhanced the rigor and reproducibility of
our selection process, in compliance with the PRISMA 2020 guidelines.
2.2. Data Collection Process

Data from each included study were independently extracted by two reviewers using
a structured Excel spreadsheet designed to capture essential information, such as the year
of publication, the main focus, key findings, and the study’s objectives. This approach
ensured consistency and comprehensiveness.
The reviewers operated independently to minimize bias, planning to resolve any
discrepancies through consensus. No significant discrepancies occurred. However, any
disagreements were to be resolved through consultation with the second author, who also
served as the advisor, to provide final guidance.
This meticulous, manual process ensured the accuracy and reliability of our data,
adhering to the transparency and replicability standards set by the PRISMA guidelines.
2.3. Data Items and Outcomes Sought

Data collection targeted four primary outcome dimensions to assess the comprehensive
impacts of EV adoption: environment, organizations, technology, and policy.
• Environment: Focus on GHG emissions, air quality improvements, and lifecycle
environmental impacts.
• Organizations: Examination of economic viability, energy efficiency, and market
dynamics affected by EV adoption.
• Technology: Analysis of advancements in battery technologies, energy storage solu-
tions, and smart charging strategies.
• Policy: Assessment of policy frameworks, regulatory impacts, and strategic recom-
mendations to encourage EV adoption.
We employed VOSviewer software for bibliometric analysis to create co-occurrence
maps of key terms from the titles and abstracts of the selected articles, refining terms based
on frequency and relevance and removing duplicates with a thesaurus file.
For content analysis, data on methodological approaches, key findings, and implica-
tions within the outlined outcome dimensions were collected. Each reviewer independently
verified details such as the publication year, main focus, key findings, and objectives of
each study. Discrepancies were discussed and resolved in consultation with the second
author, ensuring a thorough and unbiased analysis without the use of automated tools.
Additional Variables Sought: We collected specific data on:
• Participant Characteristics: Information about the organizations and sectors involved
in adopting EVs, focusing on the scope of adoption and types of fleets, such as public
transport and commercial fleets.
• Intervention Characteristics: Details concerning technological and operational in-
terventions, including the use of specific EV models, charging infrastructures, and
battery management strategies.
• Geographical Distribution: Analysis of regional data to understand the geographical
spread and contextual impacts of EV adoption.
Assumptions Made: In conducting this review, we assumed:
• Data Completeness: The bibliometric data from Scopus were assumed to be complete
and accurate.
• Software Reliability: VOSviewer software was assumed to be reliable in producing
precise visualization maps and identifying key terms.
• Impact of Missing Data: Missing or unclear information was assumed not to significantly
affect the overall analysis, with efforts made to clarify or supplement such data as needed.
c. Bibliometric Analysis: We conducted a bibliometric analysis using VOSviewer to map
the field of EV adoption research. This analysis highlights significant contributions,
identifies new developments, and pinpoints geographical focuses in the academic
landscape, helping us understand where global research efforts concentrate.
d. Content Analysis: We performed a detailed content analysis of selected studies
to capture and synthesize the main ideas concerning EV adoption’s impacts on
organizational performance, innovation, and sustainability. This process involved
a systematic examination of the studies to identify key recurring themes, insights,
and trends.
This systematic review is registered on the Open Science Framework (OSF), enhancing
transparency and reproducibility. Details of the registration can be accessed on the OSF
platform [18], demonstrating our adherence to open science principles and PRISMA guide-
lines. Following this section, the paper continues with detailed bibliometric and content
analyses, as outlined in our methodology.
3. Bibliometric Analysis
This bibliometric analysis establishes the foundational scientific landscape for EV
adoption. Drawing from a comprehensive dataset sourced from the Scopus database,
this section seeks to uncover critical data and emerging trends that will inform the key
areas of our detailed examination in the content analysis. The objective is to map out the
broad-ranging effects of EV adoption across multiple sectors, highlighting key intersec-
tions between multiple dimensions, such as technology, policy, and market dynamics that
warrant deeper investigation.
Utilizing VOSviewer, we have generated a series of visualization maps to graphically
represent these dimensions. Each map uses variably sized circles to depict entities such as
concepts, authors, or studies, with the size and proximity of circles indicating the level of
research activity and thematic relationships, respectively. Larger, closely positioned circles
denote strong research presence and closely related themes, which guide the thematic
selection for the content analysis. This strategic use of bibliometric data ensures that our
subsequent in-depth analysis is directly influenced by the most prominently discussed
topics in the current academic discourse on EV adoption, thereby setting a structured
and data-driven agenda for exploring specific themes, such as environmental impact,
technological challenges, and policy strategies.
3.1. Co-Occurrence Map Based on Text Data

In this subsection, we conduct a bibliometric analysis to quantitatively map the schol-
arly landscape, guiding the thematic focus of our subsequent content analysis section. By
analyzing the titles and abstracts of the selected articles, we conducted a co-occurrence anal-
ysis to extract significant terms, forming a network of thematic connections. This method
allows us to identify the core themes that are most prevalent in the literature. Out of the
2977 terms generated, 51 met the threshold of at least 10 occurrences. Through VOSviewer’s
relevance scoring, the top 60% of these terms were further refined, yielding 31 key terms
that are depicted in Figure 4. These terms, selected for their pertinence, directly influence the
specific dimensions we explore in the content analysis, ensuring our discussion is grounded
in the most current and impactful facets of EV adoption research.
Figure 4. Co-occurrence map of text data.
Dominant terms identified through this analysis, such as ‘emission’, ‘strategy’, and
‘government’, directly inform the themes of our content analysis. These terms reflect critical
aspects of EV adoption, emission reduction, strategic adaptations within organizations,
and policy developments, that catalyze the transition to electric mobility. The visualization
in Figure 4 highlights the prevalence of these terms and underscores their centrality in the
discourse, shaping our subsequent examination of how these factors influence the broader
adoption and integration of EVs.
The focus on terms such as ‘station’, ‘battery’, and ‘time’ underscores the technological
challenges and operational considerations pivotal to EV integration, themes that we delve
into in the content analysis. Similarly, the prominence of ‘China’ in the network highlights
its role in the global EV market, both in terms of policy innovation and market dynamics.
These insights guide our in-depth exploration of technological advancements and policy
frameworks, critical elements for understanding the pace and direction of EV adoption.
In summary, Figure 4 offers a visual synopsis of the critical themes identified, setting
the stage for our content analysis by underscoring the academic community’s focus on
overcoming challenges through innovation and proactive policy-making. This visualization
not only confirms the research narrative’s trajectory but also justifies our selection of key
areas for deeper examination, particularly in how technological innovations and policies
are shaping the future of EV adoption.
Figure 5 focuses on ‘electrification’ and its pivotal role in advancing sustainable trans-
portation, connecting crucial elements like ‘transportation’, ‘framework’, ‘infrastructure’,
and ‘government’. This visualization underpins the comprehensive approach reviewed
in the subsequent Content Analysis section. It strategically determines the focus areas
that emerged from the bibliometric analysis, serving as a precursor to a more detailed
exploration of how these elements interplay in the broader context of EV adoption.
The co-occurrence network shown in Figure 5 places ‘electrification’ at the heart of
sustainable transportation discussions, highlighting its fundamental role. It is intricately
linked to ‘transportation’, emphasizing how the future of mobility is shaped by EVs. This
connection highlights the transformations within transport infrastructures necessary to
support this shift. Furthermore, ‘electrification’ is closely tied to ‘framework’ and ‘in-
frastructure’, underlining the essential policy frameworks and practical implementations
required for a successful electric transition. These insights form the basis of the subsequent
content analysis, guiding our exploration into how technological, policy, and infrastructural
strategies must align to support the broader adoption of EVs. The proximity of ‘electri-
fication’ to ‘strategy’ underscores the necessity for a cohesive approach that combines
technological innovation with strategic long-term planning to navigate the complexities of
EV integration.
Figure 5. Terms directly connected with “Electrification”.
Table 1 provides a quantitative overview of the most prominent themes within the EV
adoption literature. It identifies the ten most significant terms using VOSviewer, along with
their frequency and relevance scores. These scores, calculated through a comparison of the
distribution of second-order co-occurrences against the broader co-occurrence dataset using
the Kullback–Leibler distance, denote each term’s significance within the EV research land-
scape. The larger the difference between the two distributions, the higher the relevance of a
term [19]. The term ‘SEB’, referring to shared electric bicycles, tops the list with the highest
relevance, indicating a significant focus within the research community on micro-mobility
solutions. ‘China’ follows, reflecting the country’s prominent role in EV research and
adoption, while ‘PHEV’ (plug-in hybrid electric vehicles) and ’ICEV’ (internal combustion
engine vehicles) show the comparative analysis within different vehicle technologies. The
term ‘government’ underscores the importance of policy and regulation in the adoption of
EVs, highlighting how governmental actions influence the EV market. ‘Carbon emissions’
is a central environmental term, pointing to the considerable attention on EVs’ impact on
carbon footprint reduction.
The prominence of terms like ‘algorithm’ and ‘strategy’ emphasizes the technological
and strategic dimensions of EV research, highlighting advancements in EV-related software
and strategic approaches for EV integration. Lastly, ‘framework’ and ‘challenge’ suggest a
focus on structural and systematic obstacles within the field. These insights directly inform
the content analysis, guiding our exploration into the impacts of EV adoption on energy,
economy, market dynamics, environmental sustainability, technological challenges, and
policy recommendations. This interconnected web of technical, environmental, policy, and
strategic concerns frames our detailed examination in the Content Analysis section.
Table 1. Top 10 terms by occurrences and relevance in EV adoption literature.
Rank Term Occurrences Relevance

1 Shared Electric Bicycles (SEB) 10 2.63
2 China 18 2.51
3 Plug-in Hybrid Electric Vehicles (PHEV) 12 1.99
4 Internal Combustion Engine Vehicles (ICEV) 20 1.67
5 Government 18 1.67
6 Carbon Emissions 45 1.57
7 Algorithm 30 1.36
8 Strategy 40 1.31
9 Framework 22 1.29
10 Challenge 19 1.24
Note: This table provides a quantitative overview of the most prominent themes identified using VOSviewer.
Terms are ranked by their frequency of occurrence and relevance, highlighting key focuses such as SEB, China,
and the comparative analysis of PHEVs and ICEVs. Higher relevance scores indicate greater significance within
the EV research landscape. The ranking is based on the Kullback–Leibler distance method [19].
3.2. Co-Occurrences Map Based on Keywords

In this analysis, we identified frequently occurring keywords from 88 publications, a
foundational step in framing the subsequent content analysis. Out of 1146 keywords, 44
were selected with a minimum occurrence of five, as shown in Figure 6.
Figure 6. Co-occurrence map of all keywords.
Using VOSviewer (VOSviewer 1.6.20) along with a thesaurus, we standardized these

keywords and eliminated redundancies [20], ensuring a focused and precise dataset. This
refined selection includes both author keywords, which represent the core concepts em-
phasized by the researchers, and index keywords, used by databases for categorization
and retrieval. The chosen keywords serve as a direct indicator of prevalent themes and
trends within the scholarly discourse on EV adoption, guiding our in-depth examination of
specific aspects such as technological challenges, policy frameworks, and environmental
impacts in the subsequent section of content analysis.
The term ‘Electric Vehicles’ occupies a central node in our analysis, underscoring
its fundamental importance across all facets of EV research. This central positioning
is surrounded by clusters of interconnected terms that depict the scope of our review.
Notably, the term ’Fleet Operations’ emerges prominently, emphasizing the significant
role of operational management in electric fleet integration. This prominence guides our
subsequent analysis of organizational impacts and operational challenges in EV adoption,
highlighting areas such as fleet optimization and management practices that are crucial for
effective EV implementation.
Clusters adjacent to ‘Electric Vehicles’ outline additional core themes directly shaping
the scope of our content analysis. The terms ‘Sustainability’ and ‘Emissions Control’ are
pivotal, highlighting the environmental impacts that EV adoption fosters, which we explore
in depth in the subsequent environmental impact analysis. Similarly, ‘Charging (Batteries)’
signals the technical challenges and infrastructure needs essential for EV integration, set-
ting the stage for our discussion on technological and operational challenges. Financial
implications are spotlighted by terms like ‘Economic Analysis’ and ‘Cost Benefit Analysis’,
informing our examination of market dynamics. Furthermore, ‘Plug-in Hybrids’ and ‘ICEVs’
(internal combustion engine vehicles), alongside ‘Life Cycle Assessment’ and ‘Environmen-
tal Impact’, provide a framework for contrasting various vehicle technologies and assessing
comprehensive environmental effects, underscoring the multifaceted nature of EV adoption.
This interconnected map underscores the comprehensive nature of the research land-
scape, encompassing technological innovation, policy implications, environmental benefits,
and operational challenges in market integration. Each keyword’s connectivity highlights
the interdisciplinary collaboration inherent in the EV research domain. This map not only
charts the prevalent discussions but also directly informs the thematic areas our content
analysis will delve into, exemplifying the complex interdependencies within the EV ecosys-
tem. The detailed exploration of these terms and their interrelations is cataloged in Table 2,
where the total link strength quantifies the depth of connections between keywords [21],
reinforcing the selected themes for detailed exploration in subsequent sections.
Table 2. Top 10 keywords by occurrences.
Rank Keyword Occurrences Total Link Strength

1 Electric vehicles 76 497
2 Fleet operations 53 358
3 Energy consumption 44 286
4 Sustainability 36 228
5 Charging (batteries) 29 206
6 Transportation 25 205
7 Carbon emissions 26 199
8 Economic analysis 24 197
9 Secondary batteries 25 191
10 Emissions control 24 176
Note: The table lists keywords identified in the research analysis along with the number of occurrences and the
total strength of their associative links.
The keyword ‘Electric vehicles’ stands out with the highest occurrences and total link
strength, underscoring its central role in scholarly discussions and affirming its selection as
a core theme for deeper exploration. Following closely are ‘Fleet operations’, addressing
operational management challenges; ‘energy consumption’ and ‘sustainability’, highlight-
ing eco-efficiency; and ‘charging (batteries)’ and ‘transportation’, which detail the practical
aspects of EV integration. The presence of terms like ‘carbon emissions’, ‘economic analy-
sis’, ‘secondary batteries’, and ‘emissions control’ further broadens the scope, showcasing
a spectrum that spans technological, environmental, and economic dimensions. These

keywords not only reflect the critical topics within the EV dialogue but also frame our
content analysis sections, focusing on the corresponding impacts of EV adoption as derived
from the bibliometric insights.
To enhance our understanding of the thematic focus in the field of EV adoption,
two additional keyword maps were generated to offer a more granified perspective. The
first map displays the most common author keywords, with a threshold set at five oc-
currences, showcasing eight crucial terms that have guided author contributions within
the scholarly community (Figure 7). The second map presents the most common index
keywords, with forty-four terms highlighted, demonstrating the broad indexing categories
used by databases to organize the literature (Figure 8). These maps further refine our
selection of themes for the content analysis by providing a visual representation of the
prevailing topics and their interconnections, underscoring the relevance of these key areas
in current and future EV research.
Collectively, this keyword analysis not only provides a clear understanding of how
EV adoption is framed within contemporary research but also lays the groundwork for
the focused themes in our content analysis. It highlights the role of EVs in promoting
sustainable practices, combating climate change, and shaping urban and energy strategies.
This analysis underscores the essential interplay between technological innovation, policy
formation, environmental stewardship, and organizational management. The findings
direct our subsequent exploration of these key areas, ensuring a coherent transition into the
detailed discussions on the technological, environmental, organizational, and policy-related
impacts of EV adoption. The visualization maps serve as a foundational tool, illuminating
the interconnected research landscape and the diverse expertise that drives the electric
mobility transition.
Figure 7. Co-occurrence map of author keywords.

Figure 8. Co-occurrence map of index keywords.
3.3. Co-Occurrence Map Based on Country of Co-Authorship

In this subsection, we examine the geographic distribution of publications to highlight
the global collaboration and interest in EV adoption.
This analysis utilizes a visualization map generated for countries of co-authorship,
with the criterion that a country must be represented in at least four documents to be
included. Among the thirty-nine countries analyzed, only ten countries met this threshold.
The results, depicted in Figure 9, highlight the international scale of research and
lay the groundwork for understanding how regional collaborations and developments
contribute to the overarching themes of EV adoption that are explored in more depth in the
subsequent Content Analysis section.
Figure 9. Countries of co-authorships.

Table 3 presents the leading countries in EV adoption research, ranked by document

count, citations, and total link strength, a metric reflecting the intensity of co-authorship
connections. This table highlights the international dimension of EV research and also
identifies the key contributors: China, with its leading volume of research and citations,
indicates a significant thrust in EV development; the United States, with the highest link
strength, underscores its role as a central node in global collaborations. Germany and the
Netherlands also contribute prominently, each bringing unique regional insights into the
field. Other countries, including Australia, Spain, Poland, Turkey, the United Kingdom,
and Italy, also play essential roles, showcasing a diverse range of perspectives and expertise.
The geographic diversity here directly informs our analysis of environmental, technological,
and policy-driven themes in EV adoption, showcasing how regional experiences shape
global advancements and collaborative efforts in electric mobility.
Table 3. Top countries by document count, citation per document, and associated link strength.
Rank Country Documents Citations Total Link Strength

1 United States 24 272 12
2 China 24 325 9
3 Germany 8 166 5
4 Netherlands 4 74 5
5 Australia 5 108 3
6 Spain 4 98 3
7 Poland 4 61 3
8 Turkey 4 48 2
9 United Kingdom 4 109 2
10 Italy 4 131 1
Note: The table ranks the top countries based on the total link strength of documents.
3.4. Co-Occurrence Map Based on Authorship

Upon examining the co-occurrence map based on authorship, we found that each
author is linked to a single document, indicating a lack of substantial collaboration in this
field. This fragmented landscape highlights diverse, independent approaches, explored
further in our content analysis on technological innovation, policy formation, and environ-
mental impact. Notably, ten authors with high citation counts (91 each) made significant
yet isolated contributions, suggesting the need for greater interdisciplinary collaboration,
as shown in Table 4.
Table 4. Top 10 authors by citations.
Rank Author Documents Citations Total Link Strength

1 Bie, Yiming 1 91 0
2 Chen, Wen 1 91 0
3 Hong, Jichao 1 91 0
4 Ji, Jinhua 1 91 0
5 Lin, Peng 1 91 0
6 Qu, Changhui 1 91 0
7 Qu, Xiaobo 1 91 0
8 Wang, Leyi 1 91 0
9 Wang, Xiangyu 1 91 0
10 Wang, Zhenpo 1 91 0
Note: This table lists authors ranked by the number of citations. Each listed author has contributed to one
document, which has received 91 citations.
The observed citation levels signify the substantial influence of the discussed research,
forming a robust foundation for the thematic explorations in our content analysis. Despite
the independence of these authors, their notable contributions highlight key areas ripe for
further investigation and integration into broader thematic contexts, such as technological
advances and policy impacts on EV adoption.
3.5. Data Analysis on Article Sources

In this analysis, we analyze the distribution of the 88 publications across different jour-
nals to identify where the most significant conversations on EV adoption are taking place.
We cataloged 44 unique sources, with ‘Energies’ leading at nine publications, followed by
‘Transportation Research Part D: Transport and Environment’ with seven. This distribution,
depicted in a bar graph (Figure 10), not only highlights the journals most engaged with EV
topics but also underscores the thematic concentrations within these outlets. By examining
these sources, we frame our content analysis to focus on the most influential themes and
discussions in the field, ensuring our review is aligned with the primary forums of scholarly
debate on EV adoption.
Top 10 Sources by Number of Publications

Renewable and Sustainable Energy
Reviews
IEEE Access
Transportation Research Part C: Emerging

Technologies
Energy Reports
Applied Energy
World Electric Vehicle Journal
Energy
Journal of Cleaner Production
Transportation Research Part D: Transport

and Environment
Energies
0 2 4 6 8 10
Figure 10. A bar chart of the top 10 sources by number of publications used in this paper. The sources
were identified based on the search strategy detailed in the Methodology section using the Scopus
database, including the main criteria of English-language, peer-reviewed journal articles, published
between 2019 and 2024.
The diversity of journals from which these studies are sourced emphasizes the inter-
disciplinary approach required to fully understand EV adoption. This range, covering
engineering, environmental science, and policy studies, not only reflects the collaborative
nature of this research area but also prepares the groundwork for our content analysis. The
varied perspectives gathered across these sectors enrich our understanding and highlight
crucial aspects such as technological advancements, policy evolution, and sustainability
practices. This preparation allows for a comprehensive exploration of how these domains
interact within the broader narrative of electric mobility, guiding our focus on key areas of
impact and development in subsequent analyses.
4. Content Analysis
This section provides a thematic analysis of 88 papers on the multifaceted impacts of EV
adoption. To ensure comprehensive coverage, we conducted targeted searches within our
original methodology to include additional relevant studies. This section offers stakeholders,
decision-makers, and organizations a holistic view of the EV landscape and its impacts.
This section is divided into five subsections, each addressing critical topics. The first subsec-
tion examines the impact of EV adoption on organizations, focusing on energy, economy,
and market dynamics. The second subsection discusses the impact on the energy sector,
particularly the petroleum industry. The third subsection addresses the environmental
impact, including regional carbon reduction, vehicle type, and lifecycle assessment (LCA).
The fourth subsection covers technological and operational challenges in EV integration,
including advanced battery technologies, EV charging strategies and management, and the
optimization of the EV charging infrastructure. Finally, the fifth subsection presents frame-
work and policy recommendations. This comprehensive analysis informs organizational
strategies and infrastructure planning, essential for transitioning to sustainable mobility.
4.1. Impacts of EV Adoption on Energy, Economy, and Market Dynamics

As countries and corporations pivot toward more sustainable transportation solu-
tions, EVs stand at the forefront of this transformative shift, promising to significantly
alter energy consumption patterns, economic landscapes, and market dynamics. This
subsection explores the multi-dimensional impacts of EV adoption, focusing on direct
effects on energy efficiency and economic viability, as well as broader market responses.
Through the exploration of empirical studies and theoretical analyses, we aim to uncover
how EVs influence the economic dynamics of industries, dictate new market trends, and
redefine energy utilization parameters. The ensuing discussions and tables encapsulate the
complexity of these interactions, offering strategic insights into the efficient integration and
optimal utilization of EVs across different sectors.
4.1.1. Energy Efficiency and Consumption

Energy efficiency remains a critical focus in the adoption of EVs, reflecting a central
aspect of sustainable mobility. The studies summarized in Table 5 examine various aspects
of energy efficiency and consumption in EVs compared to internal combustion engine vehi-
cles (ICEVs). Using advanced modeling tools, real-world operational data, and innovative
vehicle operation strategies, these studies highlight the substantial energy efficiency gains
achievable through EV adoption.
Table 5. Overview on energy efficiency and consumption of EVs.
Ref. Focus Key Findings Implications

Strategic advantage for fleet electrification,
Modeling and analyzing energy efficiency of EVs Significant energy savings and cost
[22] reducing operational costs and
vs. ICEVs in Malaysia using AIMSUN software. efficiencies with EVs.
environmental impact.
Analyzed a year’s worth of data from an electrified Bus speed and seasonal changes Optimizing energy costs by adapting
[23] transit fleet, focusing on bus speed and seasonal significantly influence BEV energy operations to seasonal variations enhances
energy consumption changes. consumption. fleet electrification’s economic viability.
Enhancing operational efficiency of
Explored driver behavior patterns and route Potential reductions in energy
[25] electric trucks, paving the way for
optimization for long-haul electric trucking. consumption and range anxiety.
sustainable long-distance transportation.
Potential for DOT fleet electrification,
Investigated battery electric trucks for day trips in High feasibility for completing day
[24] supporting sustainability goals without
a department of transportation fleet. trips with battery electric trucks.
sacrificing operational efficiency.
Technological advancements can reduce
Developed an energy-optimized adaptive cruise Improved energy efficiency and
[26] operational energy costs and contribute to
control strategy for EVs at intersections. traffic flow.
sustainability objectives.
Table 5 outlines the main focus, key findings, and broader implications for the trans-
portation sector, providing strategic insights for organizations to leverage in fleet electri-
fication. The findings underscore the profound impact that targeted innovations in EV
technology and management can have on energy efficiency. The analysis of EVs, especially
in fleet settings, indicates potential cost savings and significant environmental benefits from
reduced energy consumption. For instance, the use of AIMSUN software to model vehicle
routes in Malaysia highlights how contextual factors like route diversity can influence
energy efficiency outcomes [22]. Similarly, the adaptations to seasonal variations in bus
operations suggest a dynamic approach to fleet management that aligns energy use with
operational needs throughout the year [23].
Moreover, the evidence pointing to the feasibility of using battery electric trucks for
departmental operations without compromising on operational efficiency marks a pivotal
shift towards more sustainable governmental fleet management practices [24]. These find-
ings collectively advocate for a strategic rethinking of how vehicles are integrated into
fleets, suggesting that a move towards electric mobility can achieve multiple objectives:
lowering operational costs, reducing carbon footprints, and enhancing the adaptability of
transportation infrastructures to future energy landscapes [25,26].
In light of these insights, it becomes evident that transitioning to electric mobility
requires not just an investment in new technologies but also a commitment to the contin-
uous optimization of operational strategies. This approach will ensure that the potential
of EVs to contribute to sustainable development goals is fully realized. Future research
should continue to explore these dynamics, particularly focusing on long-term operational
data and cross-regional studies, to validate and expand upon these findings. Building on
this overview, we delve deeper into the specifics of how EV adoption enhances energy
efficiency across different vehicle segments, providing a detailed comparison with ICEVs.
4.1.2. Analysis of Energy Efficiency and Consumption

EVs are recognized for their superior operating efficiency compared to ICEVs, resulting
in substantial energy savings. This sub-subsection provides a detailed analysis of energy
efficiency and consumption across various EV segments, supported by numerical data
highlighting the magnitude of savings achieved by EVs. The analysis covers two-wheelers,
three-wheelers, passenger cars, light commercial vehicles (LCVs), and heavy commercial
vehicles (HCVs).
• Well-to-Wheel Efficiency: The well-to-wheel efficiency of BEVs is significantly higher
than that of ICEVs. BEVs have a well-to-wheel efficiency ranging from 21% to 39%,
with an average of 32%, compared to ICEVs’ maximum overall energy efficiency of
28% [27]. Table 6 shows details on energy consumption and savings by vehicle type.
Table 6. Energy consumption and savings by vehicle type.
Vehicle Type Energy Consumption (Wh/pkm or MJ/km) Conventional Vehicle Energy Consumption Energy Savings (%)
Electric Scooter: 139.26 Wh/pkm, Motorcycle:
28.67 Wh/pkm [28] 80–85%
Two-Wheeler 155.93 Wh/pkm [28]
Electric LPG Auto: 230.21 Wh/pkm, Diesel Auto:
43.25 Wh/pkm [28] 76–81%
Three-Wheeler 181.40 Wh/pkm [28]
Full EVs 2024 Nissan Sentra: around 264 Wh/km
166 Wh/km (Nissan Leaf) [29] around 37%
(Four-Wheelers) (34 miles per gallon) [30]
Mercedes-Benz eVito Tourer Long 90 kWh:
Mercedes-Benz Vito 119 CDI: 660 Wh/km
LCVs 194–391 Wh/km (depends on weather and up to 70%
(21.48 liters/100 km) [32]
driving conditions) [31]
Volvo FH Diesel: 2148 Wh/km
HCV Volvo FH Electric: 1.1 kWh/km (1100 Wh/km) [33] 48.8%
(21.48 liters/100 km) [34]
• Impact of Power Generation Mix: The environmental benefits of EVs, particularly in

terms of CO2 emissions, are significantly influenced by the electricity generation mix.
For instance, BEVs in regions with a high proportion of renewable energy sources
exhibit lower lifecycle CO2 (LCCO2 ) emissions compared to ICEVs. In Norway, where
the electricity is predominantly generated from hydropower, BEVs have much lower
LCCO2 emissions than ICEVs [35]. Conversely, in China, where coal is a major source
of electricity, BEVs may have higher LCCO2 emissions than efficient ICEVs like the
Honda Insight [36]. Table 7 presents an illustrative example of LCCO2 emissions by
region and vehicle type.
Table 7. LCCO2 emissions by region and vehicle type: an illustrative example—adapted from [36].
Region ICEV Emissions (Tons) BEV Emissions (Tons) Comparison

Beijing 42.237 45.714 Emissions in BEV is Higher than ICEV
Yunnan 30.280 11.962 Emissions in BEV is Lower than ICEV
• Analysis of Energy Savings and CO2 Reduction: BEVs with an energy consumption
rate (ECR) of 10 kWh/100 km can meet the EU 2020 CO2 regulations if the power gen-
eration mix LCCO2 is around 900 g/kWh. For BEVs with an ECR of 20 kWh/100 km,
the power generation mix must have LCCO2 below 460 g/kWh to meet the same
regulations [37]. Moreover, BEVs in high-mileage applications, such as ride-hailing
fleets, could require 1–1.5 battery replacements over a 12-year vehicle life, impacting
their overall environmental performance [38].
Overall, EVs across different segments exhibit substantial energy savings over their
internal combustion engine counterparts, as shown in Table 6. These savings are most
pronounced in smaller vehicle segments such as two-wheelers and three-wheelers, where
the percentage savings can exceed 80%. For larger vehicles such as light and heavy commer-
cial vehicles, the savings are still significant, reflecting the inherent efficiency advantages
of electric powertrains. These findings underscore the potential for widespread energy
savings through the adoption of EVs, particularly as the technology continues to improve
and electricity generation becomes cleaner.
4.1.3. Impact of EVs on the Economy

Having established the substantial energy savings of EVs, we now focus on the
economic ramifications and market dynamics of EV integration. This part examines how
transitioning to electric mobility impacts operational costs, fleet management, and overall
market trends.
The adoption of EVs presents an opportunity for significant cost savings and economic
benefits across various sectors. Table 8 presents an economic analysis of various studies
on EV adoption, highlighting key findings and implications. These studies emphasize
the importance of optimizing operations, evaluating economic viability, assessing recharg-
ing models, and considering human factors in economic analyses. Strategic insights are
provided for fleet managers, policymakers, and organizations to enhance the economic
benefits and operational efficiency of EV integration. Optimized scheduling and procure-
ment strategies for electric bus fleets, for example, have not only improved efficiency but
also resulted in substantial cost reductions [39]. These strategies reveal the transformative
potential of EVs to lower operational expenses. Additionally, the adoption of advanced
models for evaluating different electric van powertrains enhances fleet management ef-
ficiency [40]. Innovative approaches like dynamic pricing for EV charging have become
crucial in aligning charging infrastructure with energy grid capacities, thereby optimizing
resource use and maximizing economic returns [41,42]. These findings highlight the role of
strategic economic planning and adaptive policies in encouraging widespread adoption
of EVs, where addressing economic factors alongside technological advancements can
significantly boost market penetration, supporting sustainability and profitability.
Table 8. Economic analysis and cost savings.

[39] Optimizing electric bus fleet operations. Efficiency gains and cost reductions. Benefits for transit authorities and fleet managers.
Evaluating electric van powertrains’
[40] Cost-effective fleet composition. Insights for logistics and transportation sectors.
economic viability.
Table 8. Cont.

Assessing recharging business models for Viability of battery swapping and
[43] Cost benefits for the taxi industry.
taxi fleets. double-shift operations.
Developing energy consumption
[44] Operational cost reductions. Tools for fleet managers to optimize operations.
estimation models for EV fleets.
Cost of ownership and battery
[45] Evaluating BEVs in subarctic conditions. Considerations for EV adoption in various climates.
performance impacts.
Exploring feasibility of long-haul
[46] Challenges and requirements. Insights for logistics operations.
electric trucks.
Impact of driver behavior on energy
[47] Significant impact of behavior. Importance of human factors in economic analysis.
consumption and costs.
Demand for faster charging Implications for energy consumption and
[48] Analyzing trends in EV charging demand.
solutions. infrastructure.
[41] Adaptive pricing strategy for EV charging. Potential for grid efficiency. Enhances grid efficiency and economic benefits.
Benefits of aligning pricing with Supports renewable energy integration and
[42] Dynamic pricing for EV charging.
energy and traffic conditions. traffic management.
Critical role of infrastructure
[49] Policy influence on BEV adoption rates. Importance of comprehensive policy frameworks.
support and subsidies.
The positive impact of electric mobility extends to job markets, particularly in manu-
facturing and infrastructure development. In the United States, a surge in EV-related job
announcements has linked 195,000 direct jobs to EV manufacturing, fueled by substantial
federal investments aimed at domesticating the EV supply chain and establishing states as
centers of new opportunities [50]. This job growth necessitates enhanced infrastructure,
projected to generate over 160,000 jobs by 2032 in various roles, from installation to mainte-
nance [51]. The economic implications are even more pronounced in developing countries,
where enhanced affordability through lower operating and maintenance costs contrasts
with high upfront costs.
In nations like India, policy interventions such as the Faster Adoption and Manufactur-
ing of Electric Vehicles (FAME) scheme and the Electric Mobility Promotion Scheme 2024
(EMPS) are crucial for fostering market penetration [52,53]. These initiatives support the
adoption of hundreds of thousands of EVs, focusing primarily on electric two-wheelers and
three-wheelers. Conversely, Brazil’s struggles with EV adoption due to less effective policy
measures and a lack of collaborative governance emphasize the need for a comprehensive
policy framework that includes both financial and non-financial incentives [54].
Such policies are complemented by infrastructural developments critical for the
widespread adoption of EVs. The availability and density of charging stations signifi-
cantly influence EV adoption rates. Studies by the World Bank and researchers at MIT have
shown that strategically placed charging stations and systems to delay charging initiation
can manage the increased energy demands from widespread EV adoption [55,56]. Addition-
ally, Vehicle-to-grid (V2G) technology allows EVs to discharge electricity back into the grid,
providing a distributed energy storage solution that stabilizes the grid during peak demand
periods [57].
Financial incentives also play a pivotal role in promoting EV adoption. Tax breaks and
subsidies have significantly narrowed the cost gap between EVs and internal combustion
engine vehicles, enhancing consumer adoption rates. In the U.S., the national Plug-In
Electric Drive Vehicle Credit offers up to USD 7500, and studies suggest that direct purchase
rebates are more effective in boosting EV sales than tax credits [52,58].
These economic and policy drivers align closely with environmental and socio-economic
benefits. The transition to electric mobility reduces GHG emissions and air pollution, leading
to lower healthcare costs and fostering a cleaner living environment. In regions like China,
the adoption of EVs has significantly reduced local PM2.5 levels, a particulate matter linked
to respiratory and cardiovascular diseases [59]. The shift also promises long-term economic
benefits such as a reduced dependency on imported oil and improved public health [60].
As electric mobility evolves, further studies should focus on long-term economic
impacts and renewable energy integration to assess the cost-effectiveness of EV adoption.
This comprehensive approach helps stakeholders make informed decisions, enhancing
operational viability and sustainability. Integrating EVs into the economy presents oppor-
tunities for cost savings, job creation, and environmental benefits, emphasizing the need
for strategic planning and infrastructure investment to maximize economic gains.
4.1.4. Strategic Insights and Market Dynamics in EV Adoption

After examining the economic aspects, it is crucial to explore how integrating EVs
within existing infrastructures influences both consumer behavior and strategic decisions
in mixed vehicle fleets. Table 9 provides a detailed look at market adoption complexities,
focusing on the interplay of policy, consumer attitudes, and technological advancements.
Table 9. Strategic insights and market dynamics in EV adoption.

Using game theory to study the dynamics between Optimization strategies for taxes Highlights the need for informed
[61]
electric and gasoline vehicles in South Korea. and subsidies. policy design.
Examining diverse business models for EV Innovation and service Framework for enhancing EV market
[62]
commercialization. orientation drive EV adoption. penetration.
Digital features, financial
Insights for boosting EV adoption through
[63] Investigating consumer attitudes towards EVs. incentives, and environmental
targeted marketing and policies.
awareness influence decisions.
Effects of EV penetration on Thailand’s Interaction between EV adoption Implications for national energy planning
[64]
electricity systems. and energy consumption patterns. and GHG emissions strategies.
Exploring biofuels’ role alongside EV adoption Alternative strategies for Advocates a multi-faceted approach
[65]
in Norway. achieving climate goals. including both EVs and biofuels.
Assessing the sustainability impact of Emissions implications of varying Tool for evaluating fleet transitions for
[66]
conventional vs. electric fleets in Spain. levels of EV penetration. policymakers and fleet managers.
Operational dynamics of medium-duty EVs in Economic considerations and Insights for electric mobility transition and
[67]
urban delivery fleets. technological needs. leveraging subsidies.
Strategic planning insights for market
Stock dynamics model for fleet electrification, Impact on energy consumption
[68] adoption and behavioral implications of
shared mobility, and autonomous vehicles. and emissions in Switzerland.
emerging mobility trends.
This table consolidates strategic insights from key studies on optimization strategies,
business models, and operational dynamics, emphasizing the significance of informed policy
design, innovation, and targeted marketing. For instance, the work of Yang et al. [67] highlights
the challenges in integrating medium-duty EVs into urban delivery fleets, pointing out
that technological advancements are essential to fully leverage subsidies, underscoring
that subsidies alone are insufficient without concurrent technological support. The table
thus provides a comprehensive overview, offering valuable insights for policymakers, fleet
managers, and organizations aiming to transition to electric mobility.
RocaPuigros et al. [68] offer a broader perspective with their stock dynamics model,
illustrating how electrification combined with shared and autonomous vehicles can reshape
energy consumption and emissions patterns in transportation systems. Their findings
underscore the importance of a holistic approach to adopting new mobility technologies.
Further insights are provided by Kumar et al. [62], who discuss how diverse business
models can facilitate EV commercialization, emphasizing the role of service orientation
and innovation in driving market acceptance. Similarly, AL Mansour [63] focuses on con-
sumer attitudes, highlighting how digital features, financial incentives, and environmental
awareness significantly influence EV purchasing decisions.
Additional studies like that of Uthathip [64] assess the implications of EV penetration
on national energy systems, suggesting that EV adoption impacts energy consumption
patterns and GHG emissions strategies. This is complemented by the work of Cavalett
Cherubini et al. [65], who advocate for a diversified approach to transportation decar-
bonization, including both EVs and biofuels.
Collectively, these studies provide a comprehensive view of the factors influencing EV
adoption, including consumer behavior, policy impacts, technological innovations, and mar-
ket strategies. They underscore the necessity of integrating consumer insights, technological
readiness, and strategic policy frameworks to facilitate a sustainable transition to electric
mobility. Future research should continue to address these interconnected elements, focusing
on overcoming barriers to adoption and enhancing the appeal of EVs to a broader audience.
4.2. Impact of Electric Transportation on the Energy Sector: Focus on the Petroleum Industry
The rise of electric transportation is transforming the energy sector, bringing signif-
icant implications for the petroleum industry. The increasing adoption of EVs directly
reduces the demand for petroleum products. According to the IEA, the global EV fleet
is projected to displace approximately six million barrels of oil per day by 2030 [1]. This
substantial reduction in petroleum demand presents a significant challenge for the oil
industry, traditionally reliant on transportation fuels as a major revenue source [69].
The decline in petroleum demand driven by EV growth is prompting major oil com-
panies to reassess their business models. Companies like BP and Shell are increasingly
investing in renewable energy sources and EV charging infrastructure [70]. For instance,
Shell aims to operate over 500,000 EV charge points globally by 2025 [71]. These strategic
shifts are designed to diversify revenue streams and mitigate the financial impact of reduced
oil consumption [72].
Furthermore, the environmental benefits of reduced petroleum consumption are
substantial. The shift from internal combustion engine vehicles to EVs results in lower
greenhouse gas emissions and decreased air pollution [10]. According to the IEA, by 2035,
the widespread adoption of EVs could reduce CO2 emissions by 1.8 gigatonnes, with
further reductions expected through 2040 [1]. This transition supports global efforts to
combat climate change and promotes cleaner air in urban areas [73].
Government policies also play a crucial role in accelerating EV adoption and sub-
sequently impacting the petroleum sector. Policies such as subsidies for EV purchases,
stringent emission regulations, and investments in charging infrastructure are driving the
shift toward electric mobility [52]. For example, the European Union’s Green Deal aims to
reduce net greenhouse gas emissions by at least 55% by 2030 [74], significantly impacting
oil demand in the region.
Additionally, market dynamics are evolving, with oil prices potentially experiencing
increased volatility due to fluctuating demand [75]. As more consumers transition to EVs,
the traditional correlation between economic growth and oil demand may weaken, leading
to new pricing and supply strategies in the petroleum industry [76].
Norway serves as a pertinent case study, exemplifying the impact of EV adoption on
the petroleum sector. With EVs accounting for over 54.3% of new car sales in 2020, the
country has seen a marked decrease in gasoline and diesel consumption [52]. In response,
Norwegian oil companies are investing heavily in offshore wind energy projects and other
renewable ventures to adapt to the changing market landscape [77].
Further illustrating the intersection of energy policies and transportation, Durdağ
and Şahin [78] examine how energy policies in Turkey impact the road transportation
sector, with a particular focus on energy-related costs and their influence on economic and
social life. Their research highlights the reliance on petroleum products in Turkish road
transport and provides a detailed analysis of energy consumption and cost distribution. The
study suggests that adopting alternative fuels, improving energy efficiency, and leveraging
combined transport methods can significantly reduce energy costs across the supply chain.
These findings underscore the need for strategic energy management in the transport sector
to enhance economic efficiency and minimize environmental impact.
Overall, the rise of electric transportation is reshaping the petroleum industry by
reducing oil demand, prompting economic shifts, and contributing to environmental sus-
tainability [79]. As the transition to electric mobility accelerates, the petroleum sector must
adapt through strategic investments and innovations to remain viable in the evolving energy
landscape [80].
4.3. Environmental Impact of EV Adoption

EV adoption is a critical step in mitigating environmental degradation, prominently
through the reduction of greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions and other pollutants. This sub-
section explores the multifaceted environmental impacts of EV adoption, examining how
these vehicles influence air quality, carbon footprints, and overall ecological sustainability
across various sectors and regions. Through a series of comprehensive tables and studies,
we assess the immediate and long-term environmental benefits of electrifying transporta-
tion, ranging from individual vehicle emissions to broader global impacts. This analysis
highlights the potential of EVs to advance environmental goals while also examining the
complexities and challenges inherent in their full lifecycle, providing a balanced view of
their sustainable promise and the associated trade-offs.
4.3.1. Overview of Carbon Emissions Reduction in Vehicle Types and Technologies

The adoption of EVs offers a transformative opportunity for substantial reductions in
carbon emissions across diverse transportation sectors. This shift is especially impactful
in areas such as heavy-duty trucks, taxis, and public buses, where electrification not only
reduces emissions but also improves operational efficiency. These benefits highlight the
potential of EVs to contribute significantly to sustainability goals.
In Table 10, we provide a detailed overview of studies that quantify these impacts across
various vehicle types. The table focuses on the substantial emissions reductions and efficiency
gains achieved through electrification in different sectors, offering insights into greening
operations and optimizing fleet management. Each study emphasizes the importance of
selecting appropriate EV technologies and strategies to maximize environmental benefits.
Table 10. Overview on carbon emissions reduction in vehicle types and technologies.

Investigating electric heavy-duty trucks within Substantial emissions reductions Actionable insights for greening
[81]
industrial settings. and efficiency gains. operations through EV integration.
Evaluating the electrification of app-based taxi Notable environmental and Compelling case for urban mobility
[82]
fleets in Delhi. economic gains. systems to transition towards EVs.
Comparing vehicle technologies for taxis in EVs offer a cost-effective route to Importance of selecting the right EV
[83]
Hong Kong. reducing carbon emissions. technologies for transport organizations.
Evaluating the decarbonization potential of electric Electrification as a profitable and Insights for integrating EVs into public
[84]
buses in Turkey’s urban transport. sustainable approach. transport systems.
Finds EVs the most efficient,
Analyzing city buses with various energy Importance of EVs for sustainable public
[85] emphasizing potential for
storage systems. transport improvements.
emission reductions.
Valuable insights into reducing
Introducing an innovative route optimization Route optimization as a strategic tool for
[86] energy consumption and
model for electric garbage trucks in Istanbul. electric fleet management.
environmental impact.
Evaluating energy consumption and CO2 Significant influence of regional driving
[87] emissions of various powertrains under real-world BEVs exhibited superior efficiency. characteristics on the environmental
driving conditions in Northern Thailand. benefits of EV adoption.
Assessing the potential of BEPVs in China for
Strong emissions reduction Compelling argument for integrating EVs
[88] electricity conservation and carbon
potential of BEPVs. into sustainability strategies.
emissions reduction.
Developing an urban-scale carbon emissions
Improves emissions accounting and Methodology for optimizing the
[89] estimation model based on real-world
showcases operational efficiencies. environmental performance of EV fleets.
ride-hailing EV data.
For instance, Dou et al. [81] highlight significant emissions reductions in heavy-duty
industrial trucks, emphasizing the role of EVs in enhancing green operations. Similarly,
Rajagopal et al. [82] and Mingolla [83] provide insights into the urban context, showcasing
how taxis can reduce their carbon footprint and operational costs through electrification.
Further contributions like those from Kumbaroglu et al. [84] and Lebkowski [85]
discuss the integration of EVs into public transport systems, pointing out the profitability
and sustainability of such initiatives. These studies not only confirm the environmental
advantages but also outline the practical aspects of implementing EV technologies in public
and commercial transport sectors.
Moreover, innovative approaches like Erdinc’s [86] route optimization for electric
garbage trucks and Huang’s [89] emission estimation models leverage advanced method-
ologies to enhance the environmental performance of EV fleets, demonstrating how targeted
technological solutions can optimize operational efficiencies and sustainability outcomes.
These analyses collectively underscore the critical role of tailored technological adop-
tion in achieving significant environmental improvements. By transitioning to electric
powertrains, different sectors can not only meet regulatory emissions targets but also
foster a sustainable operational model that aligns with global environmental objectives.
Future research should continue to focus on overcoming barriers to adoption, optimizing
technology integration, and expanding the scope of EV benefits to more vehicle types and
operational scenarios.
4.3.2. Regional and Global Impacts of EV Adoption

Building on vehicle-specific emission reductions, this section shifts to examining the
regional and global impacts of EV adoption. This perspective is crucial for highlighting
both the localized benefits and broader implications for global carbon reduction strategies.
Table 11 presents studies exploring the effectiveness of EVs in different geographical
contexts, showing how varied regional strategies can significantly influence the success of
global environmental goals and highlighting diverse findings that illustrate the critical role
of EVs in mitigating environmental impacts on both regional and global scales.
Table 11. Regional and global impacts of EV adoption.

CO2 mitigation in China’s Yangtze Supports region-specific sustainable
[90] Significant CO2 and health benefits.
River Delta. practices.
Carbon footprint reductions in Qatar’s Substantial transportation carbon Stresses the role of government incentives
[91]
gas-based grid. footprint cuts. in similar contexts.
Fleet electrification in Greek Notable environmental and social Advocates electrification for urban
[92]
urban areas. benefits. sustainability.
Electric vs. fossil-fueled vehicles in Highlights EVs’ role in urban
[93] EVs are advantageous in urban delivery.
urban delivery. sustainability.
Forecasting new energy vehicle EV adoption impacts the Necessitates strategic policies for
[94]
ownership in China. decarbonization of transport. sustainable mobility.
Technological advancements cut energy Integrating smart tech with EVs
[95] GLOSA tech in PHEVs.
use and emissions. amplifies benefits.
EV rollout in China via integrated Significant CO2 reductions with Highlights EV adoption’s potential for
[96]
model. minimal economic impact. sectoral emissions cuts.
Integrating truck–drone delivery Significant last-mile emissions Drones with EVs enhance delivery
[97]
systems. reductions. sustainability.
Forecasting EV sales in Portugal and EV adoption needs careful infrastructure
[98] Peak power demand challenges.
grid impact. planning.
EV vans in Great Britain: CO2 /NOx Significant emissions cuts and Advocates rapid electric van transition for
[99]
reductions and savings. economic savings. sustainability.
For instance, the studies by Yijing [90] and Al Buenain [91] discuss the considerable
reductions in carbon emissions in China’s Yangtze River Delta and Qatar, respectively,
highlighting how region-specific policies and energy contexts can shape the effectiveness
of EV adoption. Further analysis by Kouridis [92] and Pilati [93] offers insights into the
integration of EVs within urban fleets in Greece and the sustainable parcel delivery chal-
lenges in urban environments. These studies underscore the potential of EVs to foster
urban sustainability and reduce operational carbon footprints through tailored electrifica-
tion strategies. Additionally, the work of Chen [94] and Guo [96] delves into the broader
implications of widespread EV adoption in China, suggesting that comprehensive policy
frameworks are essential to support sustainable mobility transitions and achieve significant
sectoral emissions reductions. Jia’s [95] exploration of GLOSA technology in plug-in hybrid
electric vehicles further emphasizes the role of technological advancements in enhancing
the environmental benefits of EVs.
Research works of [97,98] introduce innovative concepts such as integrating drone
technology with truck deliveries and the infrastructural challenges posed by increasing EV
sales in Portugal. These studies highlight how cutting-edge solutions and infrastructure
planning are crucial for maximizing the environmental benefits of EVs. Collectively, these
findings not only reinforce the necessity of adopting EVs for carbon reduction but also high-
light the importance of regional considerations and advanced technological integrations in
realizing these environmental benefits.
4.3.3. Analysis of Carbon Emissions Reduction in Vehicle Types and Technologies

EVs have become a pivotal solution for reducing carbon emissions in the transportation
sector. This section examines the carbon footprint of EVs compared to internal combustion
engine (ICE) vehicles, using the Nissan Leaf and a comparable Nissan ICE vehicle as case
studies. The analysis includes both component-wise and vehicle-wise carbon footprint
calculations and discusses the methodologies used in these calculations. Previous studies
have shown that the environmental impact of EVs, like the Nissan Leaf, is significantly
influenced by factors such as battery production, electricity grid composition, and vehicle
usage patterns [100].
Lifecycle assessment (LCA) is a comprehensive approach used to evaluate the environ-
mental performance of vehicles from production to end-of-life. This methodology includes
stages such as raw material extraction, manufacturing, use phase, and end-of-life. In the
raw material extraction phase, the emissions from extracting and processing raw materials
are evaluated. The manufacturing phase involves assessing the emissions from vehicle and
battery production processes. The use phase measures the emissions during the vehicle’s op-
erational life, including fuel or electricity consumption. Finally, the end-of-life stage considers
the emissions from vehicle disposal, recycling, and potential second-life applications.
With this methodology in mind, we begin by examining the manufacturing phase
emissions of EVs. The manufacturing phase of EVs like the Nissan Leaf typically results
in higher GHG emissions compared to ICE vehicles, primarily due to the energy-intensive
process of battery production. For instance, the production of a 40 kWh battery for the Nissan
Leaf contributes significantly to its initial carbon footprint. According to the IVL Swedish
Environmental Research Institute, the emissions from battery production are estimated to
be around 61 kg CO2 e/kWh [101], resulting in approximately 2.44 tonnes of CO2 -equivalent
emissions for the battery alone. In contrast, the manufacturing emissions for a comparable
ICE vehicle, such as a Nissan Sentra, are generally lower due to the absence of a large
battery. The International Council on Clean Transportation (ICCT) reports that the total
manufacturing emissions for ICE vehicles are significantly less than for EVs [102].
Moving on to the use-phase emissions, EVs like the Nissan Leaf produce zero tailpipe
emissions, which is a significant advantage over ICE vehicles. The Carbon Brief analysis
shows that the Nissan Leaf can save approximately 2 to 3 tonnes of CO2 -equivalent annually
in the UK, assuming the current electricity mix [14]. Conversely, a typical ICE vehicle emits
about 4.6 metric tonnes of CO2 per year based on an average fuel economy of 22 miles per
gallon and annual mileage of 11,500 miles, as reported by the U.S. Environmental Protection
Agency [103], resulting in approximately 55.2 tonnes of CO2 over a 12-year lifespan.
Considering the entire lifecycle, including manufacturing, use, and end-of-life phases,
EVs generally have lower GHG emissions compared to ICE vehicles. The ICCT conducted a
comprehensive LCA and found that medium-sized BEVs registered today have 60–68% lower
lifecycle GHG emissions in the United States compared to their gasoline counterparts [104].
For the Nissan Leaf, the cumulative GHG emissions over a 150,000 km (approximately
93,205 miles) lifetime are significantly lower than those of a comparable ICE vehicle. The
Carbon Brief [14] estimates that the Nissan Leaf’s lifecycle emissions are around 29 tonnes
of CO2 -equivalent, whereas a comparable ICE vehicle emits approximately 57 tonnes of
CO2 -equivalent over the same distance. Table 12 summarizes the comparative emissions for
the Nissan Leaf EV and a comparable Nissan ICE vehicle across different lifecycle stages.
Table 12. Comparative emissions summary, based on [105].
Lifecycle Stage Nissan Leaf EV Nissan ICE Vehicle (e.g., Nissan Sentra) Notes
Higher CO2 , water use, EV production is more resource-intensive due
Lower CO2 , water use, harmful
Production harmful substances, and to battery materials like nickel, manganese,
substances, and electric energy.
electric energy. cobalt.
Higher energy use; 3.21 tons EVs use more energy due to inefficiencies but
Lower energy use; 3.75 tons CO2 /year;
Operation CO2 /year; more harmful emit less CO2 during use; ICE vehicles are
fewer harmful substances.
substances. more efficient but emit more CO2 .
EV production demands more natural
Natural Six times more resources
Significantly fewer resources needed. resources, increasing its environmental
Resources needed.
footprint.
More industrial waste EVs produce more waste during production
Waste Products Less industrial waste generated.
generated. due to the use of ores with low metal content.
EVs have a higher impact during production
Overall Higher production burden, Lower production burden, higher
but lower during operation; the overall impact
Environmental lower operational burden. operational burden.
depends on the lifecycle stage balance.
Figure 11 illustrates the comparative lifecycle GHG emissions of a mid-size BEV and
ICEV under two scenarios, showing significant differences. The chart illustrates the compara-
tive lifecycle GHG emissions of a mid-size BEV and ICEV under two scenarios for BEVs: a
base case and a high-GHG minerals case. Emissions are categorized into vehicle manufactur-
ing, battery assembly, battery minerals, electricity, and the fuel cycle (well-to-wheel).
The data highlights that BEVs, even in the high-GHG minerals case, have significantly
lower overall emissions compared to ICEVs, primarily due to the absence of fuel cycle
emissions. The base case BEV scenario shows total lifecycle emissions of approximately
19. tCO2 e, while the high-GHG minerals case increases this to about 21.1 tCO2 e. In contrast,
the ICEV exhibits a much higher total lifecycle emission of 41.9 tCO2 e, driven predominantly
by the fuel cycle emissions [106]. This comparison underscores the environmental benefits of
BEVs over ICEVs, even when accounting for variations in mineral extraction and processing
emissions. The reduction in emissions for BEVs can be further enhanced with cleaner
electricity grids and advancements in battery technology, reinforcing the importance of
transitioning to EVs for climate mitigation.
As detailed in [1], Figure 12 compares the global average lifecycle emissions for
different vehicle powertrains across three scenarios, highlighting the advantages of BEVs.
The chart compares the global average lifecycle emissions for different vehicle powertrains
(e.g., ICEV, HEV, PHEV, and BEV) across three scenarios: 2023, Stated Policies 2035, and
Announced Pledges 2035. The emissions are categorized into car production, battery
production, well-to-tank, tank-to-wheel, and grid decarbonization impact.
Emission Categories
Vehicle manufacturing
40 Batteries-assembly and other
Batteries-minerals
Electricity
35 Fuel cycle (well-to-wheel)
Emissions (tCO2e) per vehicle lifetime
30
25 35.9 tCO2e
20
15 11.7 tCO2e
11.7 tCO2e
10
1.4 tCO2e 2.8 tCO2e
1.2 tCO2e 1.2 tCO2e
5
5.4 tCO2e 5.4 tCO2e 6 tCO2e
0
Battery electric vehicle Battery electric vehicle Internal combustion
Base case High-GHG minerals case engine vehicle
Figure 11. Comparison of LCGHG emissions between a mid-size BEV and ICE vehicle—adapted
from [106].
Emission Categories
2023
Car production
Announced 2035
Battery production
Stated 2035
Well-to-tank
Tank-to-wheel
Announced 2035
2023
Grid decarbonisation impact

Stated 2035
Announced 2035
40
Stated 2035
2023
Announced 2035
1.9 tCO2e
Emissions (tCO2e) per vehicle lifetime
Stated 2035
2023
30.9 tCO2e
30
4.2 tCO2e
26.3 tCO2e 5.6 tCO2e
26.4 tCO2e 26.4 tCO2e 15.8 tCO2e 4.8 tCO2e
22.4 tCO2e 22.4 tCO2e

20 13.4 tCO2e 10.6 tCO2e
13.4 tCO2e 14.0 tCO2e
14.5 tCO2e
11.7 tCO2e
10 8.8 tCO2e
11.5 tCO2e 9.8 tCO2e 7.7 tCO2e 5.2 tCO2e
8.1 tCO2e 7.5 tCO2e 5.9 tCO2e
6.9 tCO2e 6.4 tCO2e
5.3 tCO2e
1.3 tCO2e 0.8 tCO2e 0.8 tCO2e 3.2 tCO2e 3.2 tCO2e
3.7 tCO2e 3.7 tCO2e 3.7 tCO2e 3.7 tCO2e 3.7 tCO2e 3.7 tCO2e 4.4 tCO2e 4.4 tCO2e 4.4 tCO2e 3.3 tCO2e 2.9 tCO2e 2.9 tCO2e
0
ICEV HEV PHEV BEV
Figure 12. Comparison of worldwide average lifecycle emissions by powertrain under the Stated
Policies and Announced Pledges Scenarios from 2023 to 2035—adapted from [1].
The analysis demonstrates that BEVs, sold in 2023, emit roughly half the GHG over
their lifetime compared to ICEVs. This trend continues to improve with grid decarboniza-
tion, as BEVs are projected to have significantly lower emissions by 2035. In the Stated
Policies Scenario, BEVs in 2035 will have emissions about two-and-a-half times lower than
ICEVs, and in the Announced Pledges Scenario, the difference increases to over three
times. Well-to-tank emissions are expected to decrease significantly, by up to 75% in the
Announced Pledges Scenario, due to cleaner electricity generation.
The chart also highlights that larger vehicles, while generally having higher emissions,
benefit substantially from electric powertrains, which mitigate much of the impact. This
comprehensive lifecycle analysis underscores the importance of continued investment in
renewable energy and cleaner electricity to maximize the environmental benefits of EVs,
affirming that BEVs offer significant emissions reductions compared to conventional ICEVs
and other hybrid powertrains.
4.3.4. Lifecycle Environmental Impacts

In concluding our exploration of EVs’ environmental impacts, it is crucial to consider
their full lifecycle implications. This holistic perspective assesses everything from produc-
tion and operational impacts to end-of-life recycling, offering a comprehensive view of EVs’
sustainability. Table 13 delves into studies evaluating the total environmental footprint of
EVs across various phases of their lifespan, highlighting essential trade-offs and benefits.
Table 13. Lifecycle environmental impacts.

Lifecycle energy use and GHG
emissions of various vehicle types in Overall environmental benefits of EVs, Insights on lifecycle impacts and
[107]
China, highlighting EV battery especially with cleaner electricity. sustainability for China’s transport sector.
production impacts.
Lifecycle environmental impacts of fleet Highlights the link between vehicle
Expands LCA to include infrastructure
[108] electrification on asphalt concrete technology and infrastructure
sustainability.
pavement in the U.S. sustainability.
Electric buses reduce non-renewable
Comparing lifecycle impacts of different Benefits of electric buses for sustainable
[109] energy demand and global warming
bus technologies in Bolzano, Italy. urban mobility.
potential.
Indicates that shared electric bicycles can
Significant net GHG reduction benefits,
[110] LCA of shared electric bicycles in China. aid urban sustainability, important for
with efficient recycling practices.
shared mobility ecosystems.
Emissions reductions from Need for strategic EV implementation
LCA of various vehicle technologies in
[111] electrification depend on regional considering local energy contexts, offering
India.
energy grid composition. insights for policymakers.
Insights for understanding the
Assessing emissions impact of various EVs significantly reduce CO2 emissions,
[112] environmental benefits of transitioning to
vehicle types in China using LCA. especially with more renewable energy.
electric mobility.
Comparative analysis of EVs and ICEVs Informs stakeholders about EV
Provides a nuanced view of EVs’
[113] in the US, focusing on battery performance complexities, aiding
environmental and economic benefits.
degradation over time. data-driven vehicle selection decisions.
Building on this overview, the table includes detailed studies such as those by Peng [107]
and Barkh [108], which explore specific aspects of lifecycle impacts. For example, Grazi-
eschi’s [109] study on bus technologies in Italy confirms that electric buses significantly
reduce global warming potential and non-renewable energy demand, supporting their adop-
tion in public transport. Similarly, Zhu’s [110] assessment of electric bicycles emphasizes
the role of efficient recycling practices in enhancing the environmental benefits of shared
mobility platforms.
Additionally, Peshin’s [111] work on vehicle technologies in India emphasizes the
importance of aligning EV deployment with local energy grid compositions to optimize
emissions reductions. This is echoed by Wang’s [112] analysis, which suggests that the
integration of EVs with renewable energy sources is pivotal for realizing their full potential
in reducing carbon emissions. Yang’s [113] comparative analysis further illuminates the
long-term sustainability of EVs compared to internal combustion engine vehicles, partic-
ularly focusing on battery degradation and its implications for lifecycle environmental
performance.
Collectively, these studies underscore the multifaceted nature of EVs’ environmental
impact, demonstrating that while there are significant benefits, strategic considerations are
necessary to maximize these advantages. As we move forward, the continued research
and adaptation of policies based on local contexts and technological advancements will be
essential to fully harness the potential of EVs for a sustainable future.
4.3.5. Contribution of CO2 and Energy Consumption in Recycling EV Batteries

Recycling EV batteries, particularly lithium-ion batteries (LIBs), involves a complex,
energy-intensive process aimed at reducing GHG emissions and conserving resources. The typ-
ical lifespan of these batteries spans 5 to 10 years, undergoing more than 1000 charge/discharge
cycles, after which they are retired at around 80% of their original capacity. These retired
batteries can be either recycled or repurposed for second-life applications, where they can
continue functioning for over a decade with reduced capacity [114].
Recycling processes for EV batteries can be broadly categorized into pyrometallurgical,
hydrometallurgical, and direct physical methods, each having distinct environmental im-
pacts. Pyrometallurgical recycling involves high-temperature processing, often exceeding
1000 °C, which is energy-intensive and results in significant CO2 emissions. Specifically,
this method produces approximately 2.17 × 10 −11 in overall environmental impact when
recycling 1000 kg of batteries, largely due to the fossil fuel energy consumed during the
process and the pyrolysis of graphite anodes [115]. Although this method offers high
economic value, its ecological value is relatively poor due to its substantial GHG emissions.
In contrast, hydrometallurgical recycling, which uses chemical leaching at lower tem-
peratures, is less energy-intensive and generates fewer emissions. This method has an
overall environmental impact of −1.50 × 10−12 when recycling 1000 kg of batteries [115].
However, it does produce a considerable amount of toxic waste and solutions, posing
significant environmental challenges. Direct physical recycling, while still in the experi-
mental stage and not yet suitable for large-scale application, shows the highest potential
for reducing emissions, with approximately 37.2 kg CO2 -eq/kWh, offering about a 32%
reduction in emissions compared to traditional methods [116].
The energy consumption and CO2 emissions associated with recycling processes are
crucial for understanding the environmental footprint of EVs. For instance, the energy
required for recycling one battery pack is approximately 7.64 kWh for pyrometallurgical
recycling and 7.76 kWh for hydrometallurgical recycling [115]. The CO2 emissions from
these processes are similarly substantial, with each battery pack contributing approximately
0.224 kg CO2 [115].
Beyond the direct recycling process, the infrastructure for charging EVs also plays
a significant role in the overall environmental impact. Charging equipment, particularly
DC fast chargers, involves considerable energy use and material consumption during
production. While specific emissions data for the manufacturing of chargers alone are
scarce, the overall lifecycle emissions, including production, operation, and disposal,
highlight their substantial carbon footprint [117]. The operational emissions of charging
infrastructure vary significantly depending on the electricity mix. In regions where fossil
fuels dominate the energy supply, the associated emissions are higher compared to areas
with a greater reliance on renewable energy sources [10].
Charging infrastructure can be categorized into three types: Level 1, Level 2, and DC
fast chargers. Level 1 chargers use standard 120V AC outlets and consume about 1 kW of
power, taking 40–50 h to charge a battery electric vehicle (BEV) from empty [118]. Level
2 chargers, operating at 240V in residential settings or 208V in commercial applications,
provide 3.3–19.2 kW per hour and typically require 4–10 h to fully charge a BEV [119]. DC
fast chargers, which use three-phase 480V power, deliver outputs ranging from 50 kW to
350 kW, capable of charging a BEV to 80% in 20 min to an hour [118].
The LCA of charging stations considers various stages, including manufacturing,
installation, maintenance, and disposal. These stages involve significant material and
energy inputs, contributing to the overall environmental impact [117]. Regular maintenance
and eventual disposal further add to this footprint.
To mitigate the environmental impact, advancements in recycling technologies and
the integration of renewable energy sources are essential. Using renewable energy to power
both recycling facilities and charging infrastructure can significantly reduce the carbon
footprint of EVs. Strategies such as solar-powered charging stations are being explored to
enhance sustainability and minimize environmental impacts [118].
In conclusion, both the recycling of EV batteries and the infrastructure for charging
play pivotal roles in the overall environmental impact of EVs. By improving recycling
methods and integrating renewable energy, the industry can support the broader adoption
of EVs as a sustainable transportation solution, thereby reducing the carbon footprint and
promoting a cleaner environment. Table 14 summarizes the key aspects, including energy
consumption, CO2 emissions, overall environmental impact, advantages, disadvantages,
charging times, and environmental mitigation strategies of different recycling methods and
charging infrastructure for EV batteries.
Table 14. Summary of energy consumption, CO2 emissions, and environmental impact of recycling
methods and charging infrastructure for EV batteries.
Aspect Pyrometallurgical Hydrometallurgical Direct Physical Charging Infrastructure

Process High-temp processing Chemical leaching Direct separation Level 1, 2, DC fast chargers
Not specified 1 kW (L1), 3.3–19.2 kW (L2),
Energy Use 7.64 kWh/pack [115] 7.76 kWh/pack [115]
(experimental) 50–350 kW (DC) [118]
Varies by energy mix; higher in
CO2 Emissions 0.224 kg CO2 /pack [115] Not specified 37.2 kg CO2 -eq/kWh [116]
fossil fuel-dominant regions [10]
Environmental 2.17 × 10−11 −1.50 × 10−12 32% lower than Significant from manufacturing,
Impact (normalized) [115] (normalized) [115] traditional [116] operation, disposal [117]
Less energy-intensive, High potential for
Advantages High economic value Quick charging (DC)
fewer emissions emission reduction
High GHG emissions, Experimental, not for
Disadvantages Toxic waste High material and energy inputs
energy-intensive large-scale
40–50 h (L1), 4–10 h (L2),
Charging Time N/A N/A N/A
20 min–1 h (DC) [118]
Mitigation Improve recycling tech, Renewable energy, better Tech advancements, Solar-powered stations,
Strategies use renewable energy waste management scaling up renewable integration
Note: N/A = Not Applicable.
4.3.6. Impact of Tires on Carbon Footprint in EVs

Building on the broader environmental impacts, the sustainability of EVs extends to
the production and use of their components. Tires, as a critical component of EVs, play
a significant role in influencing their overall carbon footprint. This part of our analysis
delves into the lifecycle emissions of tires, focusing on innovative materials like silica and
graphene, and advanced emission control strategies.
Traditional tire production primarily utilizes carbon black, a material known for its
durability and performance-enhancing properties. However, its production is energy-
intensive and carbon-rich. Studies indicate significant environmental benefits when re-
placing carbon black with alternative materials such as silica or graphene, which can
substantially reduce the carbon footprint associated with tire manufacturing.
• Carbon Black vs. Silica: LCAs reveal that silica-based tires emit approximately
11,639.36 kg CO2 eq per ton, which is a reduction of 526.78 kg CO2 eq compared
to all-carbon black systems. This transition not only reduces the Global Warming
Potential (GWP) by about 4.3% but also enhances the performance of tires in terms of
lower rolling resistance and better wet grip [120].
• Cumulative Energy Demand (CED): Traditional tires exhibit higher energy consump-
tion due to inefficient material use. Conversely, ecological tires made with silica have
a lower energy demand, benefiting from more sustainable manufacturing processes
that further contribute to reducing the carbon footprint of EVs [121].
Innovations in tire materials play a critical role in its impact on the carbon footprint of
EVs. Graphene, noted for its exceptional strength and conductivity, offers further reductions
in lifecycle carbon emissions when used as a replacement for carbon black in tire production.
• Carbon Black vs. Graphene: Integrating graphene into tire production can decrease
carbon emissions by up to 23.46% when graphene fully replaces carbon black. This
potential reduction is pivotal, considering that the raw material stage of production,
where carbon black is heavily used, contributes most significantly to the overall
emissions. By substituting carbon black with 25%, 50%, 75%, and 100% graphene,
the emissions can be reduced by 5.92%, 11.62%, 17.76%, and 23.46%, respectively.
Remarkably, graphene can reduce the emissions of the carbon black component itself
by up to 98.81% [122].
While material innovations provide significant reductions in carbon emissions, ad-
vancements in vehicle control strategies also play a crucial role in addressing non-exhaust
emissions from tires.
• Tire Emission Control: Advanced control strategies have been developed to reduce
tire emissions in EVs effectively. For instance, the implementation of tire particle
control strategies can decrease particulate emissions by over 90% while ensuring ride
comfort. This reduction is critical for mitigating microplastic pollution and reducing
the indirect environmental impacts of EVs [123].
The tire industry’s impact on the EV carbon footprint is multifaceted, including direct
emissions from production and indirect effects from tire wear. Innovations in materials like
silica and graphene, along with advanced vehicle control strategies, help mitigate these
impacts. As EV adoption grows, optimizing tire production and use becomes essential for
achieving environmental sustainability goals. Table 15 shows a summary of innovative
tire materials on EV carbon footprint. Addressing the environmental impact of EV tires
through innovative materials and advanced control strategies is crucial for enhancing the
overall sustainability of EVs.
Table 15. Impact of innovative tire materials on EV carbon footprint.
GWP of GWP of CO2 Cumulative

Material
Description Traditional Tires Ecological Tires Reduction Energy Notes Source
Comparison
(kg CO2 eq) (kg CO2 eq) (kg CO2 eq) Demand
Lifecycle
Silica tires reduce
Carbon Black comparison of Lower with
12,166.14 11,639.36 526.78 rolling resistance and [120]
vs. Silica carbon black and silica
energy use.
silica in tires
Replacing carbon Graphene improves
Up to 23.46% Depends on
Carbon Black black with Similar to carbon Lower with strength, thermal
reduction with replacement [122]
vs. Graphene graphene in tire black graphene conductivity, and tire
full replacement level
production performance.
Tire Strategy to
Over 90% Strategy improves
Emission minimize tire Not directly
Not applicable Not applicable reduction in comfort while [123]
Control wear emissions affected
particulates reducing emissions.
Strategy in EVs
As these advancements continue to develop, they hold the promise of significantly

reducing the carbon footprint associated with tire production and use. Having compre-
hensively covered the environmental impacts of EV adoption, the next subsection will
delve into the technological and operational challenges in EV integration, exploring the
complexities and innovative solutions necessary for effective implementation.
4.4. Technological and Operational Challenges in EV Integration

Integrating EVs into transportation networks and energy systems presents a com-
plex array of technological and operational challenges that go beyond simple vehicle
deployment. This subsection explores the intricate dynamics involved in the effective
implementation of EV technologies, covering the development of advanced battery sys-
tems, efficient charging infrastructures, and the optimization of fleet management and
software solutions. Innovations in energy storage, smart charging strategies, and digital
management tools are crucial for addressing these challenges. Each table and accompany-
ing discussion highlight both the current limitations and forward-thinking approaches that
promise to enhance the reliability, efficiency, and overall effectiveness of EV integration,

paving the way for a more sustainable automotive future.
4.4.1. Battery Technologies and Energy Storage Solutions

Advancements in battery technology and energy storage solutions play a crucial role in
addressing operational challenges. The effective integration of these technologies is critical
for enhancing the efficiency, reliability, and overall performance of EVs. Table 16 presents
a comprehensive analysis of current advancements in battery swap technology, routing
algorithms that consider battery health, and predictive models for battery requirements in
diverse operational conditions.
Table 16. Advanced battery technologies and energy storage solutions.

Recommends policies to foster BST adoption
Battery swap technology (BST) adoption in China;
[6] BST alleviates range anxiety. for enhanced operational efficiency and user
user attitudes and safety concerns.
satisfaction.
EV routing approach incorporating battery health, Nuanced solution to routing by Supports fleet longevity and reliability,
[7]
addressing degradation and state of charge. considering battery health. aligning with sustainable operational goals.
Predictive model for battery electric bus energy Optimized routing and Assists transit planners and fleet managers in
[124] consumption; vehicular, operational, topological, operational strategies for designing sustainable and efficient urban
and external parameters. greater energy efficiency. transit networks.
Deep learning for precise battery State of Health Enhances safety and reliability Vital for maintaining EV performance and
[125]
estimation under varying conditions. of EV usage. lifecycle sustainability.
Viability of electric heavy-duty vehicles in Insights into infrastructural Highlights tailored solutions for cold climates
[126]
Icelandic conditions. needs for wide-scale adoption. to promote EV integration.
The studies outlined in Table 16 collectively shed light on the transformative impact of
advanced battery technologies and energy storage solutions on the operational dynamics
of EVs. Adu-Gyamfi et al. [6] emphasize the critical role of battery swap technology in
mitigating range anxiety, highlighting the necessity for supportive policies that encourage
widespread adoption and address user concerns related to safety and convenience. This
technology not only enhances user satisfaction but also improves vehicle uptime and
operational efficiency.
Longhitano’s [7] innovative routing algorithm integrates considerations of battery
health, such as degradation and state of charge, which underpins the sustainability of
EV operations by extending battery life and ensuring efficient energy use. Similarly, the
predictive model presented in Abdelaty and Mohamed’s study [124] for the energy needs
of battery electric buses incorporates environmental and operational variables to optimize
routing and charging strategies, thereby supporting fleet managers in achieving more
sustainable urban mobility.
Moreover, Hong’s [125] application of deep learning for estimating the State of Health
of batteries enhances the safety and operational reliability of EVs, ensuring that the vehicles
operate within their optimal battery capacity and contribute to the longevity of the vehicle’s
life cycle. Alonso-Villar’s [126] study further illustrates the need for EV technologies to be
adaptable to various environmental conditions, particularly in challenging climates like
Iceland, underscoring the importance of developing region-specific solutions to foster the
broader integration of EVs across different sectors.
In addition to battery advancements, supercapacitors (SCs) have emerged as a comple-
mentary energy storage solution with unique advantages and applications. Şahin et al. [127]
provide a comprehensive review of supercapacitor technology, emphasizing its high power
density, rapid charge–discharge cycles, and long lifecycle, which make SCs particularly
well-suited for applications requiring quick bursts of energy, such as regenerative braking
in EVs. The integration of SCs with traditional batteries in hybrid energy storage systems
(HESSs) offers a promising solution for optimizing both power and energy density in EVs,
enhancing performance, and extending battery life.
Building on these advancements, Ting and Şahin [128] introduce a novel DC-DC
boost converter designed for EVs, featuring dual inputs supported by an ultracapacitor.
This design is particularly effective in managing high current demands during sudden
acceleration, thereby reducing strain on the battery and potentially extending its lifespan.
The converter operates in three modes—conventional boost, ultracapacitor-assisted, and
recharging mode—ensuring stable power distribution across various driving conditions.
The results demonstrate the converter’s potential to enhance EV performance and reliability,
especially in urban environments with frequent stop-and-go traffic.
These collective insights not only highlight the crucial role of advanced battery and
supercapacitor technologies in facilitating the widespread adoption of EVs but also under-
score the need for continuous innovation in this field to meet the growing demands of an
electrified transportation future.
4.4.2. Strategies for Recycling Batteries and Recovering Cobalt and Lithium
The increasing adoption of EVs has led to a surge in the production and disposal
of lithium-ion batteries. Effective recycling strategies are crucial for recovering valuable
materials such as cobalt and lithium, which are essential for battery production. This
sub-subsection examines current practices, technologies, and future directions for battery
recycling and material recovery.
Battery recycling involves the collection, disassembly, and processing of spent batteries
to recover valuable materials. The process is complex due to the varied chemistry of
batteries, which includes lithium, cobalt, nickel, manganese, and other materials [129].
Current recycling practices face challenges such as the high cost of recycling, safety concerns,
and the need for efficient and environmentally friendly methods [130]. Several technologies
are employed to recover cobalt and lithium from spent batteries.
Hydrometallurgical processes involve the use of aqueous solutions to extract metals
from batteries. It is known for its high recovery rates and lower energy consumption
compared to traditional methods. Hydrometallurgy is particularly effective in recovering
lithium and cobalt with minimal environmental impact [131]. Pyrometallurgical processes,
on the other hand, use high temperatures to smelt battery materials, separating metals
from other components. While effective, pyrometallurgy is energy-intensive and can result
in significant emissions [115]. Advances in this field aim to reduce the environmental
footprint of the process [132]. Direct Recycling is an emerging method that involves the
direct recovery and reconditioning of battery materials without breaking them down into
their elemental forms. This process can be more cost-effective and environmentally friendly,
preserving the integrity of battery components for reuse [133].
Recycling batteries and recovering cobalt and lithium offer substantial economic and
environmental benefits. Recycling reduces the need for mining raw materials, which can be
costly and environmentally damaging [134]. By recovering valuable metals, recycling can
lower the cost of battery production and create new business opportunities in the recycling
sector [135]. Environmentally, effective recycling minimizes the impact of mining activities,
reducing habitat destruction, water pollution, and carbon emissions [136]. It also decreases
the volume of waste sent to landfills, promoting a circular economy where materials are
reused and repurposed [137].
Government policies and regulations play a pivotal role in promoting battery recycling.
For example, the European Union’s Battery Directive mandates the recycling of batteries
and sets targets for the recovery of specific materials [138]. Similarly, countries like China
and the United States have introduced policies to meet climate change targets [139].
Despite advancements, current recycling practices still have gaps that need addressing.
Research is required to develop more efficient and cost-effective recycling technologies for
the growing volume of spent batteries [140]. Innovations in material recovery can enhance
the yield and purity of recovered metals, making recycling more economically viable [141].
Focus should be on creating a circular economy for EV batteries, where materials are reused,
reducing the demand for new raw materials and minimizing environmental impact.
Developing effective recycling strategies and recovering cobalt and lithium are crucial
for the sustainable growth of the EV industry. By tackling economic, environmental, and
technological challenges in battery recycling, we can ensure a steady supply of critical
materials and reduce EVs’ environmental footprint. Future research and policy support
will be vital in promoting a circular economy for battery materials [142].
4.4.3. EV Charging Strategies and Technologies

Building on advancements in battery technologies, the next step in EV integration is
to implement efficient charging strategies. Essential for infrastructure availability, energy
optimization, and cost reduction, Table 17 highlights innovative strategies and technologies
aligned with sustainability goals, from renewable energy integration to leveraging V2G
systems and AI for enhanced grid stability.
Table 17. Overview on EV charging strategies and technologies.

Integration of renewable energy sources into EV Highlights role in bolstering
[143] Aligns with global renewable energy goals.
charging stations; strategic placement. sustainability of EV ecosystems.
Optimization framework for EV charge Enhances energy efficiency and Emphasizes smart charging strategies for
[144]
scheduling. cost-effectiveness. scalability and grid stability.
Improves efficiency and grid Demonstrates AI’s transformative potential in
[145] Smart charging coordination framework using AI.
stability. EV charging.
V2G integration in EV sharing systems with Enhances profitability and Highlights V2G’s potential to improve
[146]
stochastic optimization. socio-environmental outcomes. economic and environmental efficiency.
Comprehensive review of EV fast-charging Critical need for adaptable charging
Strategic insights into charging
[147] technologies and infrastructure under various technologies for cost and performance
infrastructure efficiency.
conditions. optimization.
Tool for assessing the load shifting capabilities of Facilitates the exploration of EV fleets contribute to grid stability and
[148]
EVs. flexible charging opportunities. energy efficiency.
These studies underscore the transformative potential of smart charging technologies

and the pivotal role they play in the EV ecosystem. For instance, Sun et al. [143] highlight
how the strategic placement of charging stations powered by renewable energy can achieve
optimal financial and environmental outcomes, thus reinforcing the alignment with global
sustainability targets.
Mahyari’s [144] optimization framework for EV charge scheduling further illustrates
the importance of efficient energy management, suggesting that such approaches can
significantly enhance the cost-effectiveness and energy efficiency for fleet operators, thereby
supporting the scalability of EV adoption and maintaining grid stability.
In a similar vein, Tuchnitz [145] showcases how AI can revolutionize EV charging
strategies, making them more adaptable to the needs of the power grid and enhancing
overall system efficiency. This integration of AI into charging coordination could set a new
standard for how energy resources are managed within the EV charging network.
Zhang’s exploration [146] of V2G technology within EV sharing systems reveals how
these systems can enhance the profitability and environmental benefits of EV operations, pre-
senting a compelling case for the dual benefits of economic efficiency and socio-environmental
sustainability.
Additionally, Zentani et al. [147] provide a comprehensive overview of the technical
challenges associated with fast charging under various operational conditions, including
extreme weather, emphasizing the critical need for adaptable charging technologies to
optimize performance and costs.
Lastly, Wulff’s [148] development of a tool to assess the load shifting capabilities of
EVs underscores the importance of flexible charging strategies that can adapt to the fluctuat-
ing dynamics of energy demand, thus contributing positively to grid stability and energy
efficiency.
Further expanding on the infrastructure needed for EV integration, Şahin [149]

presents a novel approach to PV-powered EV charging systems that enhances efficiency
and stability. The study introduces a Hybrid Modulated Filter Compensation (HMFC)
scheme, which ensures maximum energy utilization from photovoltaic (PV) arrays while
minimizing inrush current transients and voltage fluctuations. The HMFC scheme sta-
bilizes the DC-bus voltage and integrates a multi-loop error-driven PID control strategy,
which allows for fast charging and minimizes the impact of varying PV conditions such as
shading or cloud cover. The system’s robustness was validated through digital simulations
under various fault conditions, confirming its effectiveness in maintaining stable operation.
Moreover, Şahin [149] explores the integration of dual PV arrays with V2G systems,
highlighting the scheme’s capability to optimize power delivery even under fluctuating
environmental conditions. This approach not only enhances the efficiency of the battery
charging process but also supports the broader integration of renewable energy into EV
charging infrastructure. The study suggests that such PV-powered systems could be
particularly beneficial in regions with high solar potential, maximizing the utilization of
solar energy for EV charging.
In addition to the advancements in PV-powered systems, Sahin [150] examines the
hydrogen refueling process for fuel cell electric vehicles (FCEVs). This study highlights the
design of a vehicle with an 80 kW fuel cell and a 2.64 kWh lithium-ion battery, simulated
to refuel 4.34 kg of hydrogen in 280 s, enabling a travel distance of 650 km. The findings
demonstrate that FCEVs are competitive with conventional vehicles regarding range and
refueling time, while offering significant environmental benefits, especially when utilizing
green hydrogen. This research underscores the importance of developing robust hydrogen
refueling infrastructure to support the widespread adoption of FCEVs, complementing the
advancements in battery electric vehicle (BEV) charging strategies.
These collective insights not only highlight the crucial role of charging strategies in
facilitating the widespread adoption of EVs but also underscore the need for continuous
innovation in this field to meet the growing demands of an electrified transportation future.
4.4.4. Managing and Optimizing EV Charging Infrastructure

Building on innovative charging strategies, the focus now shifts to the intricate pro-
cesses of managing and optimizing EV charging infrastructure. The transition to a fully
integrated electric mobility system requires not only robust technological solutions but also
strategic management to ensure operational efficiency and grid reliability. Table 18 show-
cases diverse approaches ranging from strategic electrification planning and optimized
charge scheduling to the data-driven management of electric buses. These studies highlight
the critical role of thoughtful management in maximizing the potential of EV infrastructure,
thereby enhancing the overall efficiency of transport systems and reducing the environ-
mental footprint. Collectively, these studies underscore the complexity and necessity of
effective management strategies in the operation of EV charging infrastructures.
Among the various strategies outlined in Table 18, Alp et al. [151] discuss how strate-
gic fleet electrification planning can integrate vehicle adoption with the development of
charging infrastructure, offering both economic and environmental benefits. This strategic
approach is vital for organizations aiming to transition their fleets to electric while ensuring
that infrastructural developments keep pace with vehicle deployments.
Klein’s work [152] on optimizing scheduling to balance operational efficiency with
infrastructure demand introduces a model that minimizes peak charging times, thus easing
the load on the electrical grid and reducing operational costs. This balance of technological
advancement and operational pragmatism is essential for the sustainable integration of
EVs into existing systems.
Table 18. Management and optimization in EV charging infrastructure.

Highlights economic and
Strategic fleet electrification planning integrating Crucial for organizations transitioning fleets to
[151] environmental benefits of
vehicle adoption and infrastructure. electric.
coordinated efforts.
Optimal scheduling balancing efficiency and Model minimizes peak charging Balances technological advances with practical
[152]
infrastructure strain. demand. EV integration.
Tailored charging for electric buses optimizing Personalized strategies enhance Custom solutions boost public transport
[153]
efficiency under constraints. public transport efficiency. efficiency.
Data-driven insights for tuning corporate EV fleet Emphasizes data in sustainable electrification
[154] Guides planning via analytics.
charging strategies. strategies.
Optimizes logistics and Addresses the complexities of integrating EVs
[155] Solutions for routing and charging in mixed fleets.
charging tactics. in logistics.
Operational implications of electric buses with Assists public transit authorities Critical for advancing sustainable urban
[156]
different charging infrastructures. in decision-making. mobility.
Integrated energy management strategy for EVs Highlights EVs’ positive contributions to
[157] Optimizes costs and energy use.
and power grid interaction. energy systems.
Scheduling strategy for electric buses considering Enhances efficiency and reduces
[158] Improves public transport fleet management.
travel times and energy needs. transit delays.
Environmental impacts of various EV charging Emission reduction through Advocates charging alignment with cleaner
[159]
behaviors. strategic scheduling. power periods.
Unsupervised learning for optimal placement of Enhances strategic Supports urban planning integration of
[160]
smart charging stations. infrastructure planning. charging solutions.
Multi-agent deep deterministic policy gradient Streamlines charging process
Supports efficient urban mobility and smart
[161] (MADDPG) for EV charging station and optimizes travel time in
city infrastructure development.
recommendations. smart environments.
Dynamic EV routing focused on mid-journey Emphasizes need for adaptive urban electric
[162] Enhances routing efficiency.
recharging needs. mobility planning.
Economic benefits of V2G technologies considering Illustrates cost savings and Highlights V2G’s role in economic and energy
[163]
advanced battery models and price volatility. operational benefits. resilience.
Moreover, Zhao’s [153] proposal of a tailored charging approach for electric buses
illustrates the customization required to optimize efficiency despite operational constraints,
which boosts the overall efficiency of public transportation systems. Similarly, Goncalves’s
study [154] uses data-driven insights to fine-tune corporate EV fleet charging strategies,
reinforcing the crucial role of analytics in sustainable electrification efforts.
These examples highlight how thoughtful management and innovative optimization
strategies are crucial for overcoming the challenges posed by the integration of EVs into
complex transportation and energy systems. As these systems evolve, continuous innova-
tion in management strategies will be paramount in ensuring that the transition to electric
mobility is both efficient and sustainable. Moving forward, the integration of advanced
management technologies, such as AI and machine learning, will further enhance the
operational efficiencies and environmental benefits of EVs, paving the way for a more
sustainable future in urban mobility and beyond.
4.4.5. Software Solutions for EV Fleet Management

The seamless integration of EVs into urban environments and logistical operations
hinges not only on physical infrastructure but also on sophisticated software solutions
capable of managing the complex dynamics of EV fleets. As we delve deeper into digital
innovations, it becomes clear that software solutions are indispensable for effectively man-
aging EV fleets, ensuring they are efficient, scalable, and adaptable to various operational
demands. Table 19 highlights several cutting-edge software solutions that facilitate the
management of electric fleets, including optimizing routing and charging strategies and
enhancing overall operational efficiency.
Table 19. Summary on software solutions for EV fleet management.

Framework for managing electric drayage truck Optimizes logistics and charging, Highlights smart software solutions’
[8] operations and charging at ports through dynamic reducing costs and boosting cargo potential in sustainable fleet
programming. efficiency. management.
Innovative routing approach for a heterogeneous Uses simulated annealing for scalability,
Demonstrates the role of algorithmic
[9] electric taxi fleet to maximize profitability and enhancing operational efficiency and
strategies in sustainable urban mobility.
consider charging needs. profitability.
Evolutionary algorithm for optimizing EV routing, Shows the efficiency of tailored software Points to more resilient and efficient
[164]
addressing specific EV recharging needs. solutions for electric fleet management. urban transport systems.
Wu’s [8] dynamic programming approach for electric drayage trucks at ports ex-
emplifies how intricate programming can drastically enhance the logistics and charging
strategies, thereby reducing costs and increasing efficiency. This framework is pivotal in
streamlining operations at critical transport hubs, demonstrating the significant benefits
that can be realized through targeted software interventions.
Nafarieh’s work [9] on routing for electric taxis integrates complex algorithms to
address the varied needs of a heterogeneous fleet, enhancing profitability while maintaining
sustainability. This approach underlines the capability of advanced software to adapt to
the operational requirements of diverse fleet configurations, ensuring optimal performance
and profitability.
Additionally, Iwankowicz’s development [164] of an evolutionary algorithm for EV
routing addresses the specific challenges of recharging and operational efficiency, paving the
way for smarter, more responsive urban transport systems. By tailoring software solutions
to the unique dynamics of EVs, these innovations offer a glimpse into a future where fleet
management is not only automated but also inherently adaptive and more efficient.
As EVs continue to spread urban landscapes and commercial fleets, the role of sophis-
ticated software solutions in managing these assets becomes increasingly crucial. These
technological advancements ensure that electric fleets are not just feasible but operate at peak
efficiency, marking a significant step forward in the quest for sustainable urban mobility.
4.5. Policy Recommendations and Future Directions

As EVs capture the attention of consumers and industries worldwide, robust policy
frameworks are becoming increasingly crucial for accelerating their adoption and ensuring
their sustainable integration into transportation networks. Effective policy and regulatory
strategies are essential for navigating the complexities of transitioning to electric mobility
while addressing environmental and economic considerations.
4.5.1. Comprehensive Policy Frameworks

Research by Neagoe et al. [165], highlighted in Table 20, underscores the critical role
of comprehensive policy frameworks in guiding the adoption and efficient use of EVs
across various sectors. Their robust framework encompasses socio-technical, economic,
and environmental aspects, addressing the multifaceted challenges of electrifying and
decarbonizing road logistics. This approach facilitates the transition to alternative fuel
vehicles and aligns with broader sustainable transport objectives. The table provides an
overview of various policy approaches and their implications, emphasizing the need for
informed, strategic policymaking to create a conducive environment for EV adoption and
achieve broader sustainability targets.
Table 20. Policy and regulatory frameworks for EV adoption.

Explores socio-technical, economic, and Guides policymakers and organizations
Framework for decarbonizing road logistics,
[165] environmental facets, offering a in crafting strategies for sustainable
focusing on alternative fuel vehicles including EVs.
multidimensional approach. transport goals.
Highlights the tangible impact of Offers perspective for organizations
Efficacy of carbon emissions regulations and
[166] regulatory strategies on emissions aligning with carbon regulations while
pricing on fleet management.
reductions. optimizing operations.
Sustainable Transport Index to assess EV adoption Offers insights into sustainability Underscores informed policy-making in
[167]
policies in Tunisia. impacts of policy decisions. fostering electric mobility.
Electrification of on-demand fleets in Chinese Highlights the role of targeted policy
Provides insights for enhancing urban
[168] megacities, focusing on policy targets and interventions and strategic
mobility solutions.
charging coordination. infrastructure planning.
Emphasizes the importance of
Role of transition intermediaries in steering the Highlights their critical contribution to
[169] intermediaries in bridging policy
shift to low-carbon mobility. sustainable transport transitions.
intentions and implementation.
Modeling impacts of transitioning higher Provides a comprehensive view of
Relevant policy and organizational
[170] education institution fleets to EVs, focusing on institutional fleet electrification’s
strategy implications.
carbon footprint and economics. potential.
Explores innovative urban logistics
Sustainable framework for urban freight delivery Aims to reduce delivery costs and
[171] strategies leveraging green
with cargo cycles and electric vans. environmental footprints.
transportation modes.
4.5.2. Specific Policy Studies

Khammassi’s introduction of a Sustainable Transport Index [167] in Tunisia provides
a practical tool for evaluating the effectiveness of EV adoption policies, highlighting the
importance of policy decisions informed by comprehensive sustainability assessments.
This approach ensures that policies are not only effective but also aligned with long-term
environmental and social goals.
Bauer’s study [168] on the electrification of on-demand fleets in Chinese megacities
highlights the need for precise policy targets and coordinated infrastructure development.
This research emphasizes the pivotal role of government intervention in facilitating the
transition to electric mobility, particularly in urban settings where demand and impact are
significant.
Furthermore, Nordt’s exploration of the role of transition intermediaries [169] shows
how these agents effectively translate policy into practice, acting as crucial catalysts in the
shift toward sustainable transportation. Their role is especially vital in ensuring that the
theoretical benefits of policies are realized in practical, operational improvements across
the transportation sector.
The multi-scale analysis by Juang [170] of institutional fleet transitions to EVs within
the context of higher education showcases the broader implications of such moves for
sustainability. This study provides a template for other institutions and organizations
looking to transition their fleets, highlighting the dual benefits of reduced carbon footprints
and economic viability.
Lastly, Shojaei’s framework [171] for sustainable urban freight delivery using a mix
of cargo cycles and electric vans offers innovative solutions to urban logistics challenges.
By integrating electric mobility into existing urban infrastructures, this approach not only
reduces environmental impacts but also enhances the efficiency of urban freight operations,
paving the way for a more sustainable urban future.
4.5.3. Systemic and Regulatory Impacts

Building on the policy frameworks discussed above, it is crucial to examine the broader
systemic and regulatory impacts on EV integration into transportation systems. Table 21
highlights how comprehensive regulatory strategies and systemic changes can enhance
EV adoption across various sectors, from ride-hailing to commercial transport. This shift
emphasizes the need for a fully integrated electric mobility ecosystem rather than just
individual policy measures.
Table 21. Systemic and regulatory impacts on EV adoption.

Framework for efficient operation of electric Highlights systemic benefits of
Provides actionable insights for urban
[172] ride-hailing fleets, including fleet rebalancing integrated fleet and charging
mobility service providers.
and optimized charging strategies. management.
Synergies between EV fleet integration and Crucial role of renewable energy in
Emphasizes the need for harmonized
[173] renewable energy sources in commercial supporting fleet electrification, enhancing
energy and transport policies.
transport. EV sustainability.
Focuses on electrification and efficiency
Potential pathways for significant CO2 Highlights the pivotal role of policy and
improvements, presenting a
[174] emission reductions in European road regulatory frameworks in transitioning to a
comprehensive overview of systemic
transport by 2050. low-carbon transport sector.
changes required.
Forward-looking insights into green urban
Optimized vehicle routing strategy for cold
Aims to minimize environmental logistics, presenting a model for integrating
[175] chain distribution using mixed fleets,
impacts and operational costs. EVs into specialized distribution networks
including EVs.
for sustainable and efficient operations.
Yu’s study [172] on electric ride-hailing fleets presents a framework that optimizes
fleet operations and enhances urban mobility efficiency, serving as a blueprint for other
providers to follow. Pietracho’s study [173] underscores the need for integrated energy
and transport policies to support EV adoption powered by renewable energy, maximizing
environmental benefits. Similarly, Krause’s analysis [174] emphasizes systemic changes
required for substantial emission reductions in European road transport by 2050, focusing
on electrification, efficiency improvements, and regulatory transformations.
Moreover, Chen’s study [175] on optimizing vehicle routing for cold chain distribution
with mixed fleets demonstrates strategies to reduce environmental impacts and costs,
highlighting the adaptability of EV technologies in various contexts. These examples
collectively emphasize the need for holistic policy and systemic changes to facilitate EV
adoption and integration into a sustainable transportation ecosystem.
4.5.4. Summary of Research

In conclusion, Figure 13 provides a detailed visual summary of the multifaceted im-
pacts of EV adoption, using a multi-tiered bubble diagram to illustrate key themes derived
from a wide array of studies. The sizes of the primary bubbles are scaled proportionally
to illustrate the relative volume of research dedicated to each main theme, indicating the
concentration of scholarly attention and the number of papers published within each area.
Nested within these bubbles are smaller ones representing specific topics and keywords.
The diagram covers technological advancements, operational hurdles, policy developments,
and future projections. It provides a comprehensive view of the interconnected aspects of
EV adoption. This visualization summarizes the research and helps identify trends, gaps,
and potential areas for future study.
Advanced
Policy and
Battery
Regulatory
Technologies Frameworks
Technological and Policy

Operational Recommendations
Challenges in EV and Future
Directions
Systemic
Integration
Software and
Solutions for Regulatory
Fleet Impacts
Management
Future
V2G Systems
Directions in
and
Technologies EV Charging Electric
Mobility
Infrastructure &
Network Integration of
EV Adoption Impact
Integration Renewable
Energy
V2G
Infrastructure
Planning
Fleet Charging
Strategies
Analysis
Environmental Energy, Economy,

Fleet Data
Analysis Charging
and Market
Logistics
Impacts Fleet
Dynamics
Electrifi-
Energy cation
Efficiency and
Consumption
Carbon
Reduction Economic
Analysis and Operational
Lifecycle Cost Savings Cost
Environmental
Impacts Market
Adoption and
Lifecycle Consumer Strategic Fleet
Environmental Behavior Management
Impacts
Figure 13. Summary of research on the impact of EV adoption.
5. Conclusions and Future Research

This systematic review, analyzing 88 pivotal papers, offers a comprehensive explo-
ration of current research on the impact of EV adoption from technological, environmental,
organizational, and policy perspectives. The findings underscore the significant role EVs
play in fostering sustainable mobility and aligning with global climate goals by reducing
carbon emissions.
5.1. Key Findings

• Technological Advancements : EV technology is advancing steadily. Improvements in
battery life, charging infrastructure, and energy efficiency are driving adoption rates.
However, ongoing innovation and investment are crucial to address challenges like
limited battery range and the need for more robust charging networks.
• Policy and Regulatory Frameworks : Strong policy support is crucial for accelerating
EV adoption. Effective strategies include incentives, subsidies, and clear regulatory
frameworks. While these approaches have successfully stimulated market expansion
in various regions, their varying effectiveness underscores the need for tailored policies
that consider local market conditions and technological maturity.
• Economic and Organizational Impacts : Despite higher upfront costs compared to
traditional vehicles, EVs offer potential lifecycle cost savings. Organizations, espe-
cially those with large fleets, can benefit from these cost efficiencies, improved fleet
management capabilities, and a more sustainable corporate image.
• Environmental Benefits: The shift to EVs, especially when coupled with a transition to
renewable energy sources, significantly reduces GHG emissions. Additionally, EVs
contribute to improved urban air quality and noise reduction, creating a healthier
urban environment.
• Challenges and Barriers: Despite clear advantages, challenges remain that impede
broader EV adoption. These include the high initial cost of EVs, limitations in battery
technology and charging infrastructure, and the cultural and behavioral changes
needed to adapt to electric mobility.
5.2. Future Research Directions

This review also highlights several areas where further research is necessary to opti-
mize the integration of EVs into modern transportation systems and energy grids:
• Long-term Sustainability Assessments : Comprehensive LCAs considering the envi-
ronmental impact of battery production and disposal are crucial for understanding
EVs’ long-term sustainability.
• Technological Integration : Research is needed to explore how EV technology can
seamlessly integrate with smart grids and renewable energy systems. Focusing on
technological integration can enhance overall sustainability and energy efficiency.
• Economic Analyses : Detailed cost-benefit analyses comparing EVs with traditional
vehicles across various operational scenarios and market conditions are necessary.
These studies can inform economic forecasts and support the development of robust
business models for EV adoption.
• Behavioral Studies: Insights into consumer behavior and organizational change man-
agement can assist in designing effective policies and business strategies. Under-
standing these factors can help stakeholders create incentives and approaches that
encourage broader EV adoption.
• Policy Evolution: As the market for EVs evolves, so must the policies that support
their adoption. Continuous monitoring and evaluation of existing policies, along with
the development of new strategies to address emerging challenges, are crucial for
maintaining momentum and overcoming future hurdles.
• Global Comparative Studies: Expanding research to include more comparative studies
across different countries and regions can provide deeper insights into the global
landscape of EV adoption. Examining variables that influence adoption rates in
diverse contexts can inform the development of universally applicable strategies.
5.3. Limitations
A formal risk of bias assessment tool was not employed due to the observational
nature of the included studies. However, the selection prioritized studies with robust
methodologies to mitigate potential bias.
5.4. Conclusions
The transition to electric mobility presents numerous benefits and opportunities. How-
ever, realizing this potential fully requires coordinated efforts across the technology, policy,
and market domains. This systematic review serves as a foundational resource for stakehold-
ers engaged in the ongoing dialogue and decision-making processes related to EV adoption.
It highlights critical areas where further research and policy development are needed to
support this transformative shift in transportation and shape a more sustainable future.
Author Contributions: Conceptualization, R.Z.; methodology, R.Z.; validation, R.Z. and V.A.; formal
analysis, R.Z., V.A., A.M.A. and M. A.; investigation, R.Z.; resources, R.Z.; data curation, R.Z.;
writing—original draft preparation, R.Z.; writing—review and editing, R.Z., V.A., A.M.A. and M.A.;
supervision, V.A.; project administration, V.A.; funding acquisition, V.A. All authors have read and
agreed to the published version of the manuscript.
Funding: This research received no external funding.
Data Availability Statement: The original contributions presented in the study are included in the
article, further inquiries can be directed to the corresponding author.
Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflicts of interest.
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Systematic Review

Electric Vehicle Adoption: A Comprehensive Systematic Review

Department of Industrial Engineering, College of Engineering, American University of Sharjah,

World Electr. Veh. J. 2024, 15, 375. https://doi.org/10.3390/wevj15080375 https://www.mdpi.com/journal/wevj

In the realm of environmental sustainability, adopting EVs plays a pivotal role in

The current body of literature on EV adoption tends to focus on specific aspects,

Identification of studies via databases and registers

Records removed before

Duplicate records removed

Reports sought for retrieval Reports not retrieved

Reason 1: Not aligned with

Studies included in qualitative

synthesis (thematic analysis) and

Figure 3. PRISMA flow diagram.

b. Literature Screening: Adhering to PRISMA 2020 guidelines, we meticulously re-

2.1. Selection Process

2.2. Data Collection Process

2.3. Data Items and Outcomes Sought

3.1. Co-Occurrence Map Based on Text Data

Figure 4. Co-occurrence map of text data.

Figure 5. Terms directly connected with “Electrification”.

Table 1. Top 10 terms by occurrences and relevance in EV adoption literature.

Rank Term Occurrences Relevance

3.2. Co-Occurrences Map Based on Keywords

Figure 6. Co-occurrence map of all keywords.

Using VOSviewer (VOSviewer 1.6.20) along with a thesaurus, we standardized these

Table 2. Top 10 keywords by occurrences.

Rank Keyword Occurrences Total Link Strength

a spectrum that spans technological, environmental, and economic dimensions. These

Figure 7. Co-occurrence map of author keywords.

Figure 8. Co-occurrence map of index keywords.

3.3. Co-Occurrence Map Based on Country of Co-Authorship

Figure 9. Countries of co-authorships.

Table 3 presents the leading countries in EV adoption research, ranked by document

Rank Country Documents Citations Total Link Strength

3.4. Co-Occurrence Map Based on Authorship

Table 4. Top 10 authors by citations.

Rank Author Documents Citations Total Link Strength

3.5. Data Analysis on Article Sources

Top 10 Sources by Number of Publications

Transportation Research Part C: Emerging

World Electric Vehicle Journal

Journal of Cleaner Production

Transportation Research Part D: Transport

4.1. Impacts of EV Adoption on Energy, Economy, and Market Dynamics

4.1.1. Energy Efficiency and Consumption

Table 5. Overview on energy efficiency and consumption of EVs.

Ref. Focus Key Findings Implications

4.1.2. Analysis of Energy Efficiency and Consumption

Table 6. Energy consumption and savings by vehicle type.

• Impact of Power Generation Mix: The environmental benefits of EVs, particularly in

Region ICEV Emissions (Tons) BEV Emissions (Tons) Comparison

4.1.3. Impact of EVs on the Economy

Table 8. Economic analysis and cost savings.

Ref. Focus Key Findings Implications

Ref. Focus Key Findings Implications

4.1.4. Strategic Insights and Market Dynamics in EV Adoption

Table 9. Strategic insights and market dynamics in EV adoption.

Ref. Focus Key Findings Implications