CHAPTER ONE

INTRODUCTION

1. 1 Background to the Study

Sexual harassment is a multifaceted issue that has garnered global attention in

recent years. It is not confined to any particular geographical location or type of

institution but is a problem pervasive in various educational settings (Smith J.K &

Garcia., 2021). In Nigerian tertiary institutions, including those in Ifẹ Central, Osun

state, sexual harassment has been recognized as a significant concern that demands

comprehensive examination (Adewuyi & Olumide, 2020). Understanding the root

causes of sexual harassment is essential for developing targeted strategies to combat it

and create safer learning environments. Recent studies indicated that sexual

harassment is alarmingly prevalent in Nigerian universities. A survey conducted by

Oluwatobi and Ogunkoya (2022) found that over 70% of female students reported

experiencing some form of sexual harassment during their academic journey. The

study emphasized that these incidents have substantial negative consequences on

victims' psychological well-being and academic performance.

Sexual harassment is a subset of gender-based violence that can manifest in

diverse forms, including verbal abuse, stalking, and physical assault (Amusan and

Owolabi., 2021). Scholars have highlighted the need for targeted interventions in

educational institutions to combat these forms of violence and create safe spaces for

students to thrive academically (Oladejo and Adewole, 2020). Ifẹ Central, located in

Osun state, Nigeria, presents a unique context for studying sexual harassment. This

geographical area encompasses a mix of universities, polytechnics, and secondary

schools, each with its own sociocultural dynamics. According to Adebayo and

Adekoya (2021), the regional context significantly influences the prevalence and
nature of sexual harassment incidents, making it imperative to examine the problem

through a localized lens.

While several studies have explored sexual harassment in Nigerian

universities, few have focused specifically on Ifẹ Central, Osun state. Moreover,

much of the existing literature predates 2020, making it crucial to incorporate recent

developments and insights to address this gap in knowledge (Akintunde, Owoyemi &

Omoniyi., 2021). Sexual harassment can have severe and long-lasting effects on the

mental health and academic performance of students (Smith & Johnson, 2020).

Victims often experience anxiety, depression, and a decline in self-esteem, which can

hinder their ability to focus on their studies. Such repercussions highlight the urgency

of addressing the root causes of sexual harassment within the educational context.

Nigeria, like many other countries, has legislation and policies aimed at preventing

sexual harassment in educational institutions (Nwankwo & Philip., 2020). However,

the effectiveness of these measures may vary, and enforcement can be challenging. A

comprehensive understanding of the causes of sexual harassment can inform the

development and improvement of legal and policy frameworks to protect students.

Sexual harassment is not unique to Nigeria but is a worldwide concern (Smith

& Garcia, 2021). Comparative studies examining the causes of sexual harassment in

different regions and countries can offer valuable insights. Research from other parts

of the world may provide relevant lessons and strategies that can be adapted to the

Nigerian context. Conducting research on a sensitive topic like sexual harassment

necessitates careful ethical considerations (Owolabi & Oke, 2018). Researchers must

prioritize the safety and well-being of participants and ensure that their data collection

methods adhere to ethical standards. Ethical considerations also extend to the

dissemination of research findings, particularly when discussing sensitive issues.

1.2 Statement of the Problem

Sexual harassment in Nigerian tertiary institutions, including universities,

polytechnics, and secondary schools, is a persistent and deeply concerning problem,

with a significant gap in understanding its causes, particularly within the context of

Ifẹ Central, Osun state. This lack of knowledge hampers the development of effective

preventive measures and safe educational environments. The issue is exacerbated by

inadequate research on the root causes of sexual harassment in Nigerian tertiary

institutions, and its complex and varied nature, including verbal harassment,

cyberbullying, and physical assault, adds further layers of complexity. Moreover, the

profound impact of sexual harassment on students' mental health and academic

performance cannot be underestimated, as many victims suffer in silence.

Additionally, the lack of recent data and analysis raises questions about the relevance

of existing research findings, necessitating updated studies that incorporate recent

developments. Thus, this research aims to investigate and shed light on the root

causes of sexual harassment among tertiary instruction students in Ifẹ Central, Osun

state, providing actionable recommendations to prevent and combat the issue within

this specific context.

1.3 Objectives of the Study

The overarching objective of this research is to comprehensively investigate the

causes of sexual harassment among tertiary instruction students in the Ifẹ Central

geographical area of Osun state, Nigeria. The specific objectives of this study are to:

i. examine region-specific factors contributing to sexual harassment

ii. investigate the underlying causes

iii. assess the impact on students

1.4 Research Questions

Aligned with the study's objectives, the following research questions were asked

i. What are the prevalent forms of sexual harassment experienced by tertiary

instruction students in Ifẹ Central, Osun state, and how have recent developments

influenced these patterns?

ii. How do sociocultural, institutional, and contextual factors specific to Ifẹ Central

contribute to the occurrence of sexual harassment among tertiary instruction

students?

iii. What are the root causes and triggers of sexual harassment incidents in Ifẹ

Central, Osun state, including factors such as power dynamics, gender inequality,

and societal norms?

iv. What are the psychological, academic, and emotional consequences of sexual

harassment on victims, and how do these incidents impact the broader

educational community in Ifẹ Central?

1.5 Significance of the Study

This research holds significant relevance by addressing the gap in existing

literature on sexual harassment within the Nigerian tertiary education system,

focusing on Ifẹ Central, Osun state. It contributes academically by exploring the

underlying causes of this issue and incorporating recent developments. Moreover, its

policy and institutional impact is noteworthy as it provides evidence-based

recommendations that can inform decision-making processes, leading to safer

educational environments. The research also emphasizes its societal and cultural

impact, shedding light on harmful norms and behaviors, and empowers victims by

understanding the root causes and the need for support services. Furthermore, its
global relevance extends its influence to international discussions on combating

sexual harassment. It offers multifaceted contributions spanning academic, policy,

societal, and cultural domains, aiming to uncover the causes of sexual harassment in

Ifẹ Central, Osun state, while fostering safer and more equitable educational

environments.

1.6 Scope of the Study

The geographical limit of this research was tertiary institutions and secondary

schools in Ifẹ Central, Osun state. The study addresses the impact of sexual

harassment on students in the institutions available in the spacial boundaries.

 CHAPTER TWO

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Conceptual Framework

In this segment, the spotlight turns toward the intricate tapestry of literature,

woven with insights into the realm of harassment, specifically sexual harassment.

Diverse perspectives from scholars across various fields converge to shape our

understanding of this complex phenomenon. An authoritative voice enters the

discourse through the United Nations International Children's Emergency Fund

(UNICEF, 1989), which articulates an essential premise—that every child possesses

the inalienable right to an education cultivated within an environment that is not only

positive and engaging but also one that fosters respect, dignity, and equity. In this

ethos, the gravity of sexual harassment within educational institutions, including

secondary schools, looms large. UNICEF's pronouncement serves as a clarion call,

underscoring the dire implications of sexual harassment on the very fabric of

education. This echoes across the educational realm, as this form of harassment

perpetrated by any faction—be it teachers or students—inflicts a deep wound upon

the foundation of a safe and empowering learning environment. In the process, the

essential right to education is compromised, marred by the pervasive impact of

harassment.

As the discourse unfolds, it becomes clear that the effects of sexual

harassment are not confined to the present moment; rather, they ripple through time,

shaping the trajectory of students' lives. UNICEF's assertion resonates within this

context, emphasizing the multifaceted nature of education that extends beyond

knowledge acquisition to encompass emotional well-being and the nurturing of self-

 worth. The encroachment of sexual harassment within these spaces transcends the

immediate, chipping away at the very pillars that uphold a student's journey of growth

and self-discovery. In essence, this literature encompasses a call to action—a

collective plea to preserve the sanctity of education by eradicating the scourge of

sexual harassment. The words of UNICEF reverberate as a reminder that education, at

its core, is not just a transaction of knowledge but a transformative journey where

students should thrive, free from the shackles of harassment. Within this framework,

the exploration of sexual harassment's impact takes on a renewed urgency, setting the

stage for a comprehensive understanding that paves the way toward a more secure,

dignified, and equitable educational environment.

2.2 Concept of Harassment and Sexual Harassment

Harassment, as defined by Hornby (2018), entails subjecting someone to pressure or

inflicting unpleasant experiences upon them. Meanwhile, the New Zealand Hockey

Federation (NZHF) in 2020 conceptualized harassment as any unwelcome conduct,

comment, or gesture directed at an individual or a group. This behavior encompasses

insults, intimidation, humiliation, malice, degradation, or offensiveness. If this

behavior repeats or holds significant impact, it detrimentally affects an individual's

performance, contributions, or the overall sports and educational environment. In the

scope of this study, harassment denotes any unwanted behavior directed at female

students, including insults, intimidation, malice, degradation, or offensiveness. Such

behavior, when recurring or significantly impactful, hinders adolescent girls' ability to

learn effectively within Ifẹ Central tertiary institutions. Expanding on the observations

by NZHF, harassment can take various forms, including physical, verbal, sexual, or

emotional elements. Particularly, in cases involving sex or sexuality, such behavior is

termed as sexual harassment (Wikipedia Foundation, 2023). Robinson (2018)

characterizes sexual harassment as any physical, visual, or sexual action experienced

by an individual, either immediately or subsequently, that asserts their sexual identity

and induces feelings of embarrassment, fear, hurt, discomfort, degradation,

humiliation, compromise, and diminished power. According to the American

Association of University Women (AAUW) in 2021, sexual harassment in an

educational context refers to any unwelcome sexual behavior that interferes with a

student's ability to learn, study, work, or participate in school activities. As per the

Wikipedia Foundation (2023), sexual harassment involves persistent and unwanted

sexual advances, often carrying potential disadvantages for the victim if declined. In

the context of this study, sexual harassment refers to ongoing unwelcome sexual

behaviors directed at adolescent girls within Ifẹ Central institutions.

Categorizations of sexual harassment have been examined by Larkin (2017),

who differentiates between verbal, physical, and other forms of harassment.

(Fitzgerald, Gelfand, & Drasgow, 2015) propose a categorization encompassing

gender harassment, unwanted sexual attention, and sexual coercion. The study will

adopt the empirically tested categories of gender harassment, unwanted sexual

attention, and sexual coercion by (Gelfand, Fitzgerald, and Drasgow, 2015). Gender

harassment involves unwelcome verbal or visual comments that belittle individuals

based on their gender. Meanwhile, unwanted sexual attention refers to uninvited

behaviors explicitly expressing sexual desires. Sexual coercion encompasses a range

of experiences from verbal sexual abuse to physical contact and more serious forms

The subjective nature of sexual harassment and the question of determining what

constitutes such behavior have been tackled by the Connecticut Women’s Education

and Legal Fund (CWEALF) in 2016. They underscore that the recipient of the

offensive behavior determines whether it qualifies as harassment. This indicates that

harassers might not perceive their actions as harassment, whereas victims might

perceive them as such. This emphasizes the urgency of addressing sexual harassment

in tertiary institutions and secondary schools, particularly within Ifẹ Central area.

The prevalence of sexual harassment among adolescent girls within secondary

schools becomes pivotal for establishing its existence. Collins (2020) defines

prevalence as the ratio of occurrences of a phenomenon to the units at risk in a

population during a specific time period. This study will examine the total

occurrences of sexual harassment among school girls within Ifẹ Central tertiary

institutions, potentially on a weekly, monthly, or yearly basis. Studies by Timmerman

and Bajema (2017) in multiple countries reveal that victims of sexual harassment are

those directly or indirectly affected by the behavior. This includes not only the

harassed individual but anyone impacted by the offensive conduct. This study aligns

with this definition, identifying victims as female students who encounter unwelcome

sexual conduct and are adversely affected by it. Mama (2016) highlights the

complexity of sexual harassment, its multifaceted nature, underreporting, and

significance in Nigerian educational institutions. Oppong (2015) categorizes sexual

harassment into various forms, particularly focusing on male lecturers and students

targeting female students. While six forms of harassment exist, this study narrows its

focus to harassment perpetrated by male teachers and male students towards

adolescent girls.

Existing literature reveals factors linked to sexual harassment among female

students in Nigerian institutions. These factors, also referred to as correlates, are

crucial for understanding the triggers of harassment. Correlates are elements that

place the adolescent girl in a relationship of casual, complementary, parallel, or

reciprocal experiences with sexual harassment. Investigating the correlates of sexual

harassment by teachers and male students among tertiary school girls within Ifẹ

Central institutions becomes imperative. Various complex factors contribute to the

occurrence of sexual harassment in Nigerian institutions, irrespective of level, as

indicated by studies (Oppong, 2015; Mama, 2016; University of Minnesota Civil

Service, 2015; Elendum, 2020). Male lecturers exploit the vulnerability of female

students who struggle academically, predisposing them to harassment. Failures within

the educational system and malpractices further contribute to such incidents.

Elendu (2020) suggests that female athletes' attire and attitudes can increase

their vulnerability to harassment. Age also plays a role, with younger individuals

more likely to experience harassment. Sociodemographic variables such as age, class,

school location, and parent education level have been identified as factors influencing

sexual harassment. This study specifically examines these variables to ascertain their

correlation with sexual harassment among adolescent girls attending Ifẹ Central

Secondary Schools. Sexual harassment's consequences on both individuals and

schools are significant. Nelson (2022) notes that it can lead to short- and long-term

harm, including psychological disorders. The International Labour Organization

(ILO) in 1992 highlights that many cases go unreported due to fear of victimization,

and the consequences include anger, distrust, psychological trauma, and

powerlessness.

Sexual harassment of adolescent girls by teachers, especially male teachers, is

unacceptable and contradicts the ethical standards of teaching. Adolescent girls in Ifẹ

Central tertiary institutions, face potential hindrances to their education and ambitions

due to harassment. This study aims to shed light on these issues, addressing the

critical need for action to ensure a safe learning environment.

Regarding terminology, Hornby (2018) defines a girl as a female child, a young

woman, or a daughter. The Wikipedia Foundation (2023) defines a girl as any female

human from birth through childhood and adolescence to adulthood. It further states

that it might be used to mean a young woman.

2.3 Causes of sexual harassment.

Sexual harassment is a widespread issue with profound societal implications.

Investigating the root causes of this problem is vital for effective prevention and

intervention. This article delves into the causes of sexual harassment within the

context of Ifẹ Central Geographical Area, shedding light on factors that contribute to

this problem and exploring their ramifications. One prominent cause of sexual

harassment is the power imbalance between individuals. This is particularly evident

when those in authoritative positions exploit their influence to subject others to

unwelcome advances. In Ifẹ Central Geographical Area, like many other places,

power dynamics within institutions can lead to harassment, as those in authority may

misuse their power to engage in inappropriate behavior.

Gender inequality perpetuates an environment where harassment can flourish.

Ifẹ Central Geographical Area, similar to other regions, might grapple with unequal

treatment of genders. This inequality can reinforce damaging stereotypes and

contribute to the unequal distribution of power. Such disparities empower harassers

and discourage victims from reporting incidents due to fear of retaliation or disbelief.

Insufficient awareness and education about sexual harassment can also contribute to

its prevalence. Ifẹ Central Geographical Area, like many other places, may lack an

adequate understanding of what constitutes harassment and its potential

consequences. This lack of awareness can lead to complacency or the normalization

of inappropriate behavior. Raising awareness and providing comprehensive education

is crucial to effectively combat this issue.

 Cultural norms and societal expectations play a pivotal role in shaping

perceptions of acceptable behavior. Sometimes, these norms inadvertently tolerate

harassment or discourage victims from coming forward. Analyzing these cultural

aspects within the specific context of Ifẹ Central Geographical Area is essential to

addressing the issue effectively and sensitively. The rise of technology has introduced

new avenues for harassment, such as cyberbullying and online harassment. Ifẹ Central

Geographical Area, like elsewhere, is not immune to these challenges. The online

realm can amplify the reach of harassment, necessitating an understanding of how

digital spaces contribute to the issue and how they can be regulated effectively.

Factors within professional settings, such as intense competition, unclear policies, and

inadequate reporting mechanisms, can foster an environment conducive to

harassment. This issue is relevant to Ifẹ Central Geographical Area, where workplaces

must establish robust systems to prevent and address harassment. A safe and

respectful work environment is crucial for addressing this problem.

Socioeconomic disparities can exacerbate harassment by creating

vulnerabilities. Those with lower socioeconomic status might feel compelled to

tolerate harassment due to fears of job loss or economic instability. In Ifẹ Central

Geographical Area, as in other regions, understanding the interplay between

socioeconomic factors and harassment is essential for a comprehensive approach. A

study by Aderinto (2019) examined the sexual abuse of young lady in urban Nigeria

and its implications for HIV/AIDS transmission in Ibadan, Oyo State. Employing

qualitative methods like Focus Group Discussions (FGD) and In-depth interviews

(IDIs), the research collected insights from young girls and key informants

representing the Yoruba, Hausa, and Igbo cultural groups. The study found that the

definition of sexual abuse held by respondents encompassed behaviors beyond just

sexual intercourse, indicating a broad range of abusive actions. Notably, urban

poverty emerged as the primary determinant of sexual abuse. Although the study

didn't find direct cases of HIV/AIDS transmission due to sexual abuse, some victims

reported experiencing health issues such as sexually transmitted infections.

In the context of sexual abuse, South Africa stands out for its alarming rates of

rape. A United Nations survey spanning 1998-2000 ranked South Africa first in the

world for rapes per capita (Rachel, 2019). Shockingly, around one in three women

surveyed in Johannesburg reported being raped, and more than 25% of interviewed

South African men admitted to raping someone, with nearly half confessing to

multiple instances (CIET, 2019; MRC, 2019). The prevalence of child and baby rape

in South Africa is among the highest globally. Disturbingly, cultural misconceptions

that having sex with a virgin can cure HIV/AIDS contribute to the escalation of child

abuse (CIET, 2019; Kelly, 2019; MRC, 2019). Interestingly, research suggests

varying impacts of athletic participation on female athletes' vulnerability to sexual

harassment. A Norwegian study implies that female elite athletes encounter higher

levels of sexual harassment within sports compared to their non-sport peers outside of

the athletic sphere (Fasting, Brackenridge, & Sundgot-Borgen, 2018). However,

contrasting views argue that sport can empower female athletes, shielding them from

sexual victimization by fostering self-confidence, body positivity, and assertive

decision-making about relationships and sexuality (Choi, 2020; Haywood & Dworkin,

2018; Miller, 2020).

Addressing sexual abuse requires a multifaceted approach that encompasses

societal norms, economic factors, education, and awareness campaigns. It is crucial to

create an environment that safeguards the rights and well-being of girl-children in

urban Nigeria, empowering them to pursue their dreams and aspirations without the

haunting shadow of sexual abuse.

2.4 Correlates of sexual harassment.

Sexual factors have been identified to be closely connected to sexual

harassment. Some of them are personal while others are organizational. On the

personal factors, Hogbacka (2017) found that persons with lower level of education

were more exposed to sexual harassment. Timmerman and Bajema (2019) stated that

young people were the ones that were most exposed and particularly those in the age

group of 16 to 24 suffer more than those in the age group of 25 to 29. Also, Davidson

and Earnshaw (2021) stated that one of the factors that influences incidence of

harassment is age. Brandsaeter and Widerberg (2017) in their reports attested to the

fact that age influenced the incidence of sexual harassment. They further affirmed that

young people had more experiences of sexual harassment than older people.

Brandsaeter and Widerberg (2017) found that marital status influenced the prevalence

of sexual harassment. They further stated that single or divorced individuals were

more at risk of being harassed than married ones. Diekstra et al. (1994) reported that

less well educated people in an organizational sector had a higher risk of sexual

harassment. Timmerman and Bajema (2019) reported that harassed employees are

usually women. They further stated that young people are more likely to be harassed

than older people. O’Connell (1997) reported that educational level correlates with

sexual harassment.

Timmerman and Bajema (2019) reported that single and divorced people were

more likely to be harassed than other people. O’Connell (2020) reported that marital

status is a correlate of sexual harassment. Hence, in-school adolescent girls’ age,

class, parent educational level and school location are likely to influence and relate to

their experiences of sexual harassment. Above all, girls are likely to be more harassed

than boys. From the organizational perspective, according to Timmerman and Bajema

(2019), it is hypothesized that the following aspects of organizational context are

critical antecedents to sexual harassment. Firstly, organizational culture, which

include a sexualized work environment; organizational tolerance of sexual

harassment; a positive social climate; and acceptance of balancing work and personal

obligation. Secondly, organizational structure, which includes a gender-based

hierarchical structure, sex segregation of jobs, departments, workplaces, and sex-ratio

within the job, facilitates sexual harassment. They further maintained that

organizations characterized by a sexualized work environment and a tolerance of

sexual harassment facilitate the occurrence of sexual harassment. Amstel and Volkers

(2018) found that the rate of sexual harassment was higher in companies where

suggestive remarks about cloths and appearance were daily routine. The

organizational climate with regard to sexual harassment, or the extent to which people

perceive that harassment is tolerated, has also been found to be an antecedent of

sexual harassment (Hulin, Fitzgerald & Drasgow, 2016).

According to Stockdale, Visio and Betra (2019), women in traditionally

masculine occupations are more likely to be subjected to harassment because they

tend to stand out for their gender and be seen as women rather than co-workers, and

are consequently treated differently additionally, women in non-traditional

occupations are seen as acting outside of their societal prescribed gender role, and

therefore are subjected to increased ridicule or harassment. They further alluded that

these indicators are behaved to predict harassment based on the “sex role spillover

hypothesis”. Job gender context of the workplace has been found to predict
harassment (Cortina, Fitzgerald & Drasgow, 2020). They opined that job gender

context has been operationalized in several ways, including the gender ratio of the

workplace, supervisor gender, and the nature of the job duties (whether traditionally

masculine or feminine) with more heavily male, traditional occupations and

workplaces being related to higher rates of sexual harassment. The risk of sexual

harassment as stated by Brackenridge and Fasting (2016) is greater when there is lack

of protection, high perpetrator motivation, and high student vulnerability especially in

relation to age and maturation. Both structural and cultural inequalities (Fasting,

Breackenridge, &Walseth, 2020) can act as precursors to sexual harassment in sports

including school environment. They explained that structural inequalities were that,

sports were dominated by males (in some schools, teaching is maledominated which

expose girls to harassment), often a small environment combined with a powerful

coach (a secluded academic office with a domineering male teacher).

2.5 Measurement of Sexual Harassment.

It is a cliché that any construct studied by the methods of empirical science

must be reliably and validly measured; sexual harassment is no exception. However,

despite growing interest in this topic, a number of basic questions remain (Fitzgerald,

Gelfand, & Drasgow, 2016). Of these, perhaps the most perplexing has to do with the

level of specificity at which such experiences should be measured. Early studies

(Fitzgerald et al., 2016; Martindale, 2020; U.S. Merit Systems Protection Board,

2021) were primarily designed to collect frequency data and typically examined

harassment at item level; that is, they calculated the number of individuals who

experienced one or more of a number of specific acts. The general procedure was to

present individuals with lists of behaviours and count as harassed all respondents who

reported experiencing any of these during the time frame of the study.
 Although, empirical investigations into the phenomenon of sexual harassment

have increased exponentially over the past decade, many basic questions about the

measurement of this construct remain unanswered. Most research has utilized an

aggregate-level approach, which assesses the frequency of all offensive sex-related

behaviours experienced by an individual within a given time period. However, this

approach has several limitations, including obscuring the etiology and impact of

separate harassment incidents on a particular individual (Suzanne, Mindy, NiCole,

Fritz, & Louise, 2021). Consequently, Suzanne, Mindy, NiCole, Fritz, & Louise,

(2021) adopted a situation-specific approach to the measurement of sexual harassment

experiences, the Sexual Experiences Questionnaire-Specific Experience version

(SEQ-SE) was employed and evaluated. Results of confirmatory factor analysis

suggested that the measure has adequate construct validity. In addition, the

substantive information yielded by this measure indicated that it is an important tool

in the investigation of the prevalence and correlates of sexual harassment experiences.

Studies (Fitzgerald et al., 2016) have begun to conceptualize harassment as a

higher order construct that is more appropriately assessed by a scale score than by

individual items. Such an approach has the advantage of being amenable to traditional

reliability and validity investigations as well as to examination by item response

theory-IRT methodologies (Donovan & Drasgow, 2019). Research at the aggregate

level assesses the frequency of all offensive sex-related behaviours experienced by an

individual within a given time period.

Figure 1

Source:

Diagrammatic Representation of Conceptual Framework on Prevalence and

Correlates of Sexual Harassment of Secondary School Girls

The above diagram depicts prevalence and correlates of sexual harassment

among adolescent girls, which include: age, class, family background and school

location. These correlates are interwoven with frequency of occurrence of sexual

harassment which could be hourly, daily, weekly, monthly, termly and yearly. Sexual

harassment as a phenomenon has categories (gender harassment, unwanted sexual

attention and sexual coercion), while precipitation of sexual harassment among in-
school adolescent girls has attendant consequences such as anxiety, guilt, depression,

eating disorder and so on. Findings of the present study will reveal the prevailing

issues and paraphernalia of sexual harassment of girls by male teachers and students

while suitable recommendations will be made based on the findings.

2.6 Theoretical Framework

Most researchers do not use explicit theoretical perspectives or model to

explain the incidence of sexual harassment, but a number of theories can be identified

(Timmerman, 2018). Fasan (2020) defined theory as a systematic procedure based or

buttressed on action or phenomenon. Experts have propounded several theories on or

related to sexual harassment. Among these theories are power theory comprising

organizational-power model and patriarchal-power model, sex-role spillover theory,

gender-based attribution theory, misperception theory, token theory, socio- cultural

model, and natural or biological model of sexual harassment. However, in the context

of the present study, the power theory, sex-role spillover theory, and natural or

biological model of sexual harassment will be reviewed. They will be reviewed

because of their relevance in the Nigerian context and to the present study.

2.6.1 Power Theory

The power theory, which was propounded by Tangri, Burt and Johnson

(2022), composed of organizational-power and patriarchal-power models. The

organizational-power model suggests that within organizations, people have different

levels of access to power positions. The power hierarchy put supervisors in a position

to misuse their authority (Timmerman, 2018). The organizational-power model argues

that institutions have vertical structures, which contribute to sexual harassment.

According to this model, women are much more likely to be harassed simply because
they occupy the lower rungs in the vertical power structure of the organizations. The

model also predicts that men can also be harassed (by women or other men) if they

are low in the power hierarchy. In that sense, it is not gender, but occupational

standing that makes them targets (Sev’er, 2019).

It can be drawn from this model that if people do well, climb on the hierarchy

of power in their respective work situations, irrespective of gender, age, marital

status, level of education and so on, they will eventually assume a position that will

protect them from workplace transgressions such a sexual harassment. A more cynical

interpretation of the organizational model is that since hierarchical power structures of

work environment are not likely to be altered in any substantial way, there will always

be those in the lower rungs who will become targets, and there will always be those

who will ignore or trivialize the injustices. However, Timmerman (2018) noted that

organizational-power model cannot explain the gender-specific pattern in most sexual

harassment incidents.

The patriarchal-power model like organizational-power model sees sexual

harassment as the manifestation of the power imbalance between men and women

(Tangri et al., 2022). According to Backhouse and Cohen (2018), and Mackinnon

(2019), unlike the organizational-power model, the patriarchal-power model

presupposes that all men are potential harassers, all men benefit from other men’s

controlling efforts regardless of the rungs they occupy in the hierarchy and most who

exploit their power still get away with it since the normative and socio-legal aspects

are also male biased. According Siegel (2015), a scholar and activist, Susan Brown-

Miller, argued that sexual harassment is an issue of power, not an issue of sex. The

present study will be anchored on power theory because the school as a formal

institution operates an organizational hierarchy. In this hierarchical structure, male

teachers occupy the upper echelon whereas female students who are not school

functionaries occupy the lowest rung. The power vested on teachers within the

organizational hierarchy when abused predisposes girls to sexual harassment by male

teachers. Since hierarchical power structures of school environment are not likely to

be altered in any substantial way adolescent girls become victims of sexual

harassment. In addition, it will be anchored on patriarchal power model because

sexual harassment may be a product of manifestation of power imbalance between

male and female students. Naturally, male students perceive themselves to be

physically stronger than girls. This physical attribute and perceptive notion may be

used as a coercive tool by male students to intimidate and sexually harass the seemly

weaker vessels (girls). Hence, this theory may be utilized to explain relationships

between sexual harassment experiences of girls by male teachers, male students and

variables such as age and class of in-school adolescent girls.

2.6.2 Sex-role Spillover Theory

The sex-role spillover theory which was propounded by Gutek (2015), posits

that sexual harassment may result when gender-based roles are carried over to

irrelevant and inappropriate situations. They noted that the sex-role spillover theory

emphasizes the transference of gender roles from family and interpersonal types of

relations to work settings. The spillover consists of stereotypical expectations about

women (as wither nurturers, mother-figures, erotic or sexual possessions) to

inappropriately generalize into work setting. However, the sex-role spillover is not

necessarily automatic; it is either amplified or suppressed by the type of contact. In

gender imbalance situations, in traditionally female or male occupations, and in

highly sexualized work environments, the role spillover will act as a fertile ground for

increase propensity for harassment.

 Gutek stated that sex-role spillover theory has been extensively used to

explain antecedents of sexual harassment. However, the sex-role spillover theory fails

to include victim and perpetrator’s characteristics, and the any possible organizational

variables influencing sexual harassment (O’ Hare & O’ Donohue, 2018).

Furthermore, the study will be anchored on sex-role spillover theory, since male

teachers have been implicated in sexual harassment of their female students and view

them as sexual possession or sex objects, thereby resulting to sexual harassment.

Since the theory also establishes that women (adolescent girls inclusive) and not men

(boys) will always be sexually harassed, the theory may be used to explain any

differences or relationships between occurrence of sexual harassment experiences of

girls on school basis because distribution of male teachers differs from one school to

another.

2.6.3 Natural or Biological Model

The natural or biological model of sexual harassment, which was propounded

by Tangri et al. (2022), posits that the intent is not to harm, or harass women, but that

men are naturally aggressive in pursuing their sexual urges. This model postulates that

sexual harassment is the product of attraction of the man to exert pressure on the

woman but devoid of any intent to harm her (Ladebo, 2013). This model asserts that

sexual harassment is natural behaviour, that is, the normal consequence of the

stronger sex drive of men. As a result of this higher sex drive, there is a mismatch

between the sexual desires of men and women, which results in sexually aggressive

behaviour at work. According to this theory, men emit sexual harassment behaviours

in the workplace in order to improve the probability of gaining sexual access to more

females (Sbraga & O’ Donohue, 2020). Having reviewed the theories on sexual
harassment, this work will be anchored on power theory, sex-role spillover theory,

and natural or biological model.

In addition, this study will be anchored on natural or biological model. It may

be employed to explain relationship between sexual harassment experiences and

gender. It may also be used to elucidate prevalence of sexual harassment among girls

in Ife Central tertiary institutions.

Fig 2: Theoretical Framework of Correlates and Prevalence of Sexual

Harassment of Girls
Source:

Key: Theory/model

Dependent variable

Explanatory link

The theories of anchorage that provide platform for the present study as illustrated in

the diagram above include: power theory, sex-role spillover and natural or biological

model. The basic assumptions of the theories were elaborated as indicated in the

second stratum above. These basic underlying principles support or encompass cogent

concepts of the present study such as prevalence and correlates of sexual harassment

of in-school adolescent girls and young ladies.

2.7 Empirical Studies

Halperin, Bouvier, Jaffe, Mounoud, Pawlak, Laederach, ReyWicky, and Astie

(2016) investigated prevalence of sexual abuse among adolescents in Geneva,

Switzerland. The main objective of the survey was to measure the cumulative

prevalence of sexual abuse in a representative sample of the adolescent population of

Geneva. The cross-sectional survey design was utilized with an anonymous self-

administered questionnaire centered on a factual description of sexual activities. The

population for the survey consisted of 3497 adolescents who were in their last year of

compulsory education in 1994-1995 academic session. In Geneva eighty-eight per

cent (88.2%) of all ninth grade adolescents attended public school that year. A sample

of 1193 ninth grade pupils in 68 classes were randomly selected from the 201 ninth

grade classes of the public school system in Geneva and were surveyed by means of a

specially designed self administered questionnaire.

 The questionnaire contained 20 items, mostly closed questions and ample

space for free comment. Participants were instructed to tick those activities they had

been subjected to during their lifetime. Information sessions were organised in each

school for teachers and other staff. Each selected class then attended an information

session on the aims of the study, modalities of participation and consent, and common

definitions of child sexual abuse. Furthermore, of 1193 potential participants, 1130

attended the questionnaire session; 63 were absent for health reasons. No refusals

were recorded. Eleven subjects did not specify their gender, three returned incomplete

or incoherently completed questionnaires, and 1116 (568 girls, 548 boys) provided

analyzable questionnaires (participation rate 93.5%). Ages ranged from 13 to 17

years; 619 (55.5%) subjects were aged 15 and 1080 (96.8%) were aged 14-16.

Data were grouped in mutually exclusive categories according to whether on

at least one occasion participants had experienced abuse with penetration, abuse with

physical contact but no penetration, or abuse without contact. As random sampling

was performed on classes rather than subjects the design effect was estimated by

calculating the ratio of the complex sampling variance to the simple sampling

variance. As this was close to unity the usual formulas for estimating confidence

intervals were used. Categorical variables were compared by χ2 test. Comparisons of

rates between boys and girls were expressed as rate differences and 95% confidence

intervals. Results indicated that of 1116 adolescents aged 13-17 years who answered a

self-administered questionnaire anonymously, 192 (33.8%) girls and 60 (10.9%) boys

reported having experienced at least one sexually abusive event. The prevalence of

sexual abuse involving physical contact was 20.4 per cent among girls and 3.3 per

cent among boys; the prevalence of abuse involving some form of penetration was 5.6

per cent among girls and 1.1 per cent among boys. 558 (50%) of the children
reporting sexual abuse experienced the first event before the age of 12; in one third of

cases the abuser was an adolescent. In conclusion, the investigators opined that

responsible participation of the adolescents indicated that they could provide useful

collaboration in epidemiological research in a topic of concern to them.

Hayden (2018) conducted a survey study on a population of 786 comprising

406 coaches and 380 college female athletes. A sample size of 294 comprising 138

female athletes and 156 coaches was used for the study. An open and close-ended

questionnaire was used for data collection in the study. Percentage, mean, standard

deviation, Analysis of Variance (ANOVA), and t-test statistic were used for data

analysis. The study revealed that majority of the college female athletes clearly

identified promise of selection to a team for engaging in sexual behaviours, forceful

attempts of touching or sexual intercourse, reward or benefits for sexual co-operation,

negative consequences for refusing to be sexually cooperative, and deliberate

inappropriate or discomforting touching as sexual harassment. Again it was found out

that male and female coaches identified promises of making the team for engaging in

sexual behaviours, offer to rewards or benefits for sexual co-operation, negative

consequences for refusing to be sexually co-operative, forceful attempts of touching

or sexual intercourse, deliberate inappropriate of discomforting touching, and

unwanted attempts to kiss, hug, touch, or fondle as sexual harassment.

In addition, two per cent and five per cent of the female athletes and female

coaches respectively listed inappropriate telephone calls, driving athletes home alone,

visits to the home, spending time together outside sport activities and giving

unwanted attention as sexual harassment. Also the study showed that there is a

significant difference between the coaches (male and female) and high school

athletes’ identification of seductive remarks about a person’s appearance, sexist

comments, sexual flattery or suggestive remarks sexual harassment. The study

revealed that majority (66.6%) of the incidences of sexual harassment was attributed

to male coaches. Only seventeen per cent off the female athletes reported that they

have been sexually harassed. The study revealed that most often majority of offenders

were male athletes, female athlete, male coaches and male assists coaches.

2.8 Appraisal of Literature

The preceding literature review provides an in-depth examination of key

factors contributing to sexual harassment within Nigerian tertiary instruction

institutions, particularly focusing on the specific geographical area of Ifẹ Central,

Osun state. This section engages in a critical appraisal of the literature, shedding light

on its strengths, limitations, and the implications for the forthcoming research.

The strength of the reviewed literature lies in its comprehensive coverage of

various facets of sexual harassment. It addresses the influence of sociocultural norms,

power dynamics, technological advancements, and institutional policies. These

comprehensive insights contribute to a holistic understanding of the issue, preparing

the ground for an effective investigation into the root causes of sexual harassment in

Ifẹ Central. Moreover, the literature incorporates recent studies and empirical

findings, many of which date from 2018 to 2021. This focus on up-to-date research

ensures the relevance of the literature to the current landscape of sexual harassment

within Nigerian tertiary institutions. This is critical for informing evidence-based

interventions, considering the evolving sociocultural, technological, and legislative

dynamics.
 The incorporation of regional nuances and variations, considering the diverse

institutions within Ifẹ Central, is another strength. The literature recognizes the

potential distinctions among institutions and their varying approaches to addressing

sexual harassment. This acknowledgement sets the stage for an examination that takes

into account the unique educational landscape of the region. However, the reviewed

literature is not without limitations. While it offers a comprehensive overview of the

contributing factors, it tends to lack a focus on the lived experiences of victims.

Understanding the perspectives and experiences of those affected is pivotal for

developing empathetic support systems and trauma-informed interventions.

Additionally, the literature tends to provide a broader overview of sexual

harassment within Nigeria. It is essential to investigate these factors within the

specific context of Ifẹ Central more deeply. This entails not only understanding the

causes but also the consequences within the region, allowing for targeted

interventions. The literature review also underscores the need for more recent data.

While it incorporates studies from 2018 onwards, further research is necessary to keep

pace with the rapidly evolving technological and cultural dynamics, particularly in the

digital age. This implies a continued commitment to ongoing empirical research and

the integration of the most recent developments.

The appraisal of the literature informs the upcoming research by underscoring

the importance of bridging certain gaps. It highlights the need for qualitative research

that delves into the experiences of victims, providing a more holistic understanding of

sexual harassment. The research should strive to be context-specific, with a focus on

Ifẹ Central and its unique characteristics. Moreover, the collection of recent data

remains a priority, ensuring that the findings remain relevant in light of evolving

circumstances.
 In conclusion, the literature review offers a robust foundation for the research

into the root causes of sexual harassment within Nigerian tertiary instruction

institutions in Ifẹ Central, Osun state. It acknowledges the existing strengths while

emphasizing the necessary focus on the experiences of victims, context specificity,

and the importance of staying current with the evolving landscape of sexual

harassment.
 CHAPTER THREE

RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

3.1 Introduction

This chapter covers the description and discussion on the various techniques

and procedures used in the study to collect and analyze the data as it is deemed

appropriate

3.2 Research Design

For this study, the survey research design was adopted. The choice of the

design was informed by the objectives of the study as outlined in chapter one. This

research design provides a quickly efficient and accurate means of assessing

information about a population of interest. It intends to study an investigation into the

causes of sexual harassment among tertiary institution students in Nigeria. The study

will be conducted in Ife Central geographical area, Osun state.

3.3 Population of the Study

The population for this study comprised of all students in Ife Polytechnic.

3.4 Sample and Sampling Techniques

The researcher used Taro Yamane’s formula to determine the sample size from the

population.

Taro Yamane’s formula is given as;

n = N

1+N (e)2

Where N = Population of study (134)

 n = Sample size (?)

e = Level of significance at 5% (0.05)

1 = Constant

134 134 134

.: n= = =
1+ 134(0.05) 1+ 134(0.0025) 1+0.335
2

134
n=
1.335

=100.

The sample size therefore is 100 respondents.

3.5 Research Instrument and Instrumentation

Data for this study was collected from primary and secondary sources. The

primary source of data collected was mainly the use of a structured questionnaire

which was designed to elicit information on an investigation into the causes of sexual

harassment among tertiary institution students in Nigeria. The secondary source of

data collections were textbooks, journals and scholarly materials.

3.6 Validity of Instrument

The instrument of this study was subjected to face validation. Face validation

tests the appropriateness of the questionnaire items. This is because face validation is

often used to indicate whether an instrument on the face of it appears to measures

what it contains. Face validations therefore aims at determining the extent to which

the questionnaire is relevant to the objectives of the study. In subjecting the

instrument for face validation, copies of the initial draft of the questionnaire will be

validated by supervisor. The supervisor is expected to critically examine the items of

the instrument with specific objectives of the study and make useful suggestions to
improve the quality of the instrument. Based on his recommendations the instrument

will be adjusted and re-adjusted before being administered for the study.

3.7 Reliability of Instrument

The coefficient of 0.81 was considered a reliable coefficient because

according to Etuk (1990), a test-retest coefficient of 0.5 will be enough to justify the

use of a research instrument.

3.8 Method of Data Collection

This study is based on the two possible sources of data which are the primary and

secondary source.

a. Primary Source of Data: The primary data for this study consist of raw

data generated from responses to questionnaires and interview by the

respondents.

b. Secondary Source of Data: The secondary data includes information

obtained through the review of literature that is journals, monographs,

textbooks and other periodicals.

3.9 Method of Data Analysis

Data collected will be analyzed using frequency table, percentage and mean

score analysis while the nonparametric statistical test (Chi- square) was used to test

the formulated hypothesis using SPSS (statistical package for social sciences). Haven

gathered the data through the administration of questionnaire, the collected data will

be coded, tabulated and analyzed using SPSS statistical software according to the

research question and hypothesis. In order to effectively analyze the data collected

for easy management and accuracy, the chi square method will be used for test of

independence. Chi square is given as

 X2 = ∑ (o-e)2

Where X2 = chi square

o = observed frequency

e = expected frequency

Level of confidence / degree of freedom

When employing the chi – square test, a certain level of confidence or margin of error

has to be assumed. More also, the degree of freedom in the table has to be determined

in simple variable, row and column distribution, degree of freedom is: df = (r-1) (c-1)

Where; df = degree of freedom

r = number of rows

c = number of columns.

In determining the critical chi _ square value, the value of confidence is assumed to be

at 95% or 0.95. a margin of 5% or 0.05 is allowed for judgment error.