SELECTION OF MAGNET WIRE TOPOLOGIES WITH REDUCED AC

LOSSES FOR THE WINDINGS OF ELECTRIC DRIVE TRAINS

A Seminar report

submitted to APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University in partial

fulfillment of requirements for the award of the degree

Bachelor of Technology
in
Electrical and Electronics Engineering

by

ASHIK T BINOY
(LKGR21EE014)

DEPT. OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING KIDANGOOR
2024­2025
 DECLARATION

I ASHIK T BINOY hereby declare that the seminar report “ Selection of

Magnet Wire Topologies With Reduced AC Losses for the Windings of
Electric Drive”, submitted for the partial fulfillment of the requirements for the
award of degree of Bachelor of Technology of APJ Abdul Kalam Technological
University, Kerala is a bonafide work done by me under the supervision of Prof.
Reshma S .

This submission represents my ideas in my own words and where ideas or

words of others have been included, I have adequately and accurately cited and
referenced the orginal source.

I also declare that I have adhered to ethics of academic honesty and integrity
and have not misrepresented or fabricated any data,idea,fact or source in my
submission. I understand that any violation of the above will be a cause for
disciplinary action by the insitute and or the university can also evoke penal action
from the source which have thus not been properly cited or from whom proper
permission has not been obtained.

Place: Kidangoor Ashik T Binoy

Date :
 DEPT. OF ELECTRICAL & ELECTRONICS ENGINEERING
COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING KIDANGOOR

This is to certify that the report entitled “Selection of Magnet Wire Topologies
with Reduced AC Losses for the Windings of Electric Drive” submitted by ASHIK T
BINOY ( LKGR21EE014), to the APJ Abdul Kalam Technological University in partial
fulfillment of the B.Tech. degree in Electrical and Electronics Engineering is a bonafide
record of the seminar work carried out by him under our guidance and supervision.

Prof. Reshma S Prof. Soumya K.G

(Seminar Guide) Head of depatrment
(Seminar Coordinator )

Assistant Professor Assistant Professor

Dept.of EEE Dept. of EEE

College of Engineering Kidangoor College of Engineering Kidangoor
 ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

A successful seminar is a fruitful culmination of effort by many people, some directly

involved and some indirectly, by providing support and encouragement. Firstly, I would
like to thank the Almighty for giving me the wisdom and grace for making my seminar
memorable one. I thank Him for steering me to the shore of fulfilment under his protective
wings.
I express my sincere gratitude to Dr Indhu P Nair, Principal of college of
engineering Kidangoor for giving me an opportunity to present my seminar. Iwould like to
thank Prof. Soumya K.G Head of Department and our seminar coordinator, EEE College
of Engineering Kidangoor for her constant support and encouragement throughout the
seminar work.
With a profound sense of gratitude, I would like to express my heartfelt thanks to my
guide Prof. Reshma S, Assistant Professor, EEE College of Engineering Kidangoor for
her expert guidance, cooperation and immense encouragement. I am highly indebted to her
commendable support and evincing keen interest in this work. Last but not the least I also
extend my thanks to the entire faculty and staffs of the Department of Electrical and
Electronics Engineering, College of Engineering Kidangoor who encouraged me throughout
this work.
I also express my thanks to my loving parents, sister and friends, for their support
and encouragement in the successful completion of this seminar work.

ASHIK T BINOY

1
 Abstract
In high speed electrical machines, one of the main challenges that can be faced is
the high frequency losses in the machine windings due to both skin and proximity effects.
The skin effect causes AC current to concentrate near the surface of the conductor's at
higher frequencies, effectively reducing the conductor's cross­ sectional area for current
flow. This increases the conductor's Ac resistance and leads to higher energy losses.
Simultaneously, the proximity effect occurs when conductors are close together, such as in
a winding, causing the magnetic field from one conductor to influence current distribution
in neighbouring conductors. This uneven distribution further amplifies the losses within
the winding.
To mitigate these effects a novel topology for enhancing efficiency, reducing heat
generation , and improving overall performance, while considering factors such as
frequency range, current density, and winding geometry is described. Using finite element
modelling (FEM), the conductors are subdivided into multiple strands to calculate the
losses in each conductor and in each layer. Further, four coil designs are prototyped using
different magnet wires or arrangements. Moreover, the design and performance are
compared with highlighting the pros and cons of each case. Eventually, recommendations
are provided based on the obtained results for a better selection of magnet wire.
The study effectively addresses the critical challenge of high frequency losses in
electric machine windings, specifically due to skin and proximity effects. Through a
thorough analysis using finite element modeling (FEM), various magnet wire topologies
were evaluated to minimize AC losses to improve the overall efficiency and performance of
high speed electric machines. The findings offer a practical framework foe selecting
suitable magnet wire topologies in electric drive trains, balancing factors such as efficiency,
operational cost, and performance demands in high frequency applications.

2
Contents

Acknowledgement...................................................................................................1

Abstract...................................................................................................................2

List of Figures.........................................................................................................4

List of Tables..........................................................................................................5

1 Introduction........................................................................................................6

2 Reducing AC Losses In Electric Drive Train Windings .......................6

2.1 Different type of winding topologies

a. Hairpin wires..........................................................................6
• Advantages of using hairpin wires............................7
b. Single round conductor.......................................................7
• Advantage of using single round conductors.........7
c. Litz wire...................................................................................8
• Advantage of using litz wire................................,.......8

2.2 Winding design & AC copper loss

a. Number of conductors....................................................10
b. Fill factor...................................................................................11
c. Number of strands..........................................................13
d. Conductor arrangements.............................................14

2.3 Core design & AC copper loss

a. Adjacent slot effects......................................................16

b. Slot opening shape.......................................................18
c. Core material..................................................................19

3 Conclusion...........................................................................................................21

References ...........................................................................................22

3
List of Figures

2.1 Hairpin wire ..................................................................................................6

2.2 Single round conductors................................................................................8

2.3 Litz wire.........................................................................................................9

2.4 Current density with respect to number of conductors.................................11

2.5 Power loss with respect to number of conductors........................................11

2.6 Current density with respect to fill factor.................................................... 12

2.7 Power loss with respect to fill factor........................................................... 13

2.8 Current density of flat copper conductor .......................................... 13

2.9 Current density with respect to number of strands.....................................14

2.10 Power loss with respect to number of strands.............................................14

2.11 Current density with respect to conductor arrangement(vertical )..............15

2.12 Current density with respect to conductor arrangement(horizontal)...........15

2.13 Power loss with respect conductor arrangement.......................................16

2.14 Current density with respect to adjacent slot effects.............................17

2.15 Power loss with respect adjacent slot effects.................................17

2.16 Slot opening shape........................................................................18

2.17 Power loss with respect to slot opening shape...........................19

2.18 BH curve........................................................................................20

2.19 Power loss with respect to Core material...................................20

4
List of tables

2.1 Comparison between different winding topology...................................9

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 Selection of Magnet Wire Topologies With Reduced AC Losses for Electric Drive Trains

Chapter 1

Introduction

Nowadays clean transportation is vital for the fight against climate change . The
industrial sector is increasingly focused on solution for zero­ emission transportation and
eco­friendly electric vehicles , driven by the replacement of fossil­fuel­powered motor with
zero carbon green energy system. Electric vehicles (EV's) are rapidly evolving, with
significant improvements in the driving range and charging times. These advancements
depend mainly on the efficiency and energy density of the electric power­trains.
A crucial component in electric machine design is the magnet wire, which defines
the electrical loading capacity. Poor selection or allocation of conductors inside the slots
cause excessive amount of losses and poor fill factor (critical metric that quantifies the
efficiency of wire placement within the stator or rotor slots), highlighting the need for
reliable and economically efficient coil manufacturing.
High speed electrical machines are key technologies for EV applications, where high
frequency currents (upto 1KHz or higher) result in additional losses due to skin and
proximity effects, mainly in open or semi­closed slot geometries [1]. the global push
towards sustainable and green transportation has accelerated the adoption of electric
vehicles (EVs) as a key solution to reduce greenhouse gas emission and dependence on
fossil fuels. In the context of electric vehicles, the performance of the motor directly
influences vehicle efficiency, driving range, and power output. Reducing losses in the
winding becomes particularly important because the motor often operate at frequency upto
1KHz and beyond. Therefore, selecting appropriate magnet wire topologies that minimize
these losses is crucial for improving the performance of electric drive trains

The primary objective of this study is to compare different magnet wire topologies and
arrangements across a wider frequency range (upto 2KHz) including rectangular hairpin
wires, single round wires, litz wires .

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Chapter 2

Reducing AC Losses In Electric Drive­Train Windings

A crucial component in electric machine design is the magnet wire, which defines the
electrical loading capacity. Poor selection or allocation of conductors can leads to excessive
losses and poor fill factor, highlighting the need for reliable and economically efficient coil
manufacturing. Firstly classify the frequency range into low frequency, medium frequency
and high frequency range. Different wiring topologies are used in different frequency
range for example in medium frequency range hairpin wires are used and for high
frequency application litz wire topology is mainly used . Different type of winding
topologies are
• Hairpin wires
• Single round conductor
• Litz wires

2.1 a. Hairpin wires

Enameled rectangular hairpin copper wires are a strong conductor for low and
medium frequency electrical machines, owing to their highly automated manufacturing
process. This technology is gaining popularity in various drive applications, including
electric vehicle. Compared to round or stranded conductors, rectangular wires has an
advantage of higher fill factor (typically ranging from 60% to 70%), resulting in lower
losses at low frequency. However, they may not be the optimal choice for high frequency
application due to excessive AC losses.

Fig 2.1 : Hairpin wire

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• Advantages of using hairpin wires

• High fill factor (above 73%) :­ Hairpin wires have a higher fill factor due to their
unique rectangular shape and arrangement. It is arranged in a compact, space­
efficient manner, allowing for more copper material to be packed into the smaller
area.
• Small winding head :­ Hairpin wires have fewer wire ends than traditional round
or stranded conductors, which reduce the size of winding head .
• Good speed torque :­ Hairpin wires have a large cross­sectional area, reducing
electrical resistance and resulting in improving speed­torque performance.

2.1 b. Single round conductor

The single round wire is commonly used in electrical machines due to its affordability
and high flexibility, making it an ideal choice for various slot shapes, such as trapezoidal
design. Single round conductor is used in stator windings, rotor windings, armature
windings, field windings, and coil windings. Future trends in single round conductor
development focus on high­temperture materials, integration with power electronics,
advanced insulation materials, improved windings designs, and energy efficiency. Single
round conductor remains a popular choice for electrical machines due to its cost­
effectiveness and simplicity, while ongoing research and development aim to enhance its
performance and efficiency. However, one of the primary drawbacks of such wire is that it
has a limited copper fill factor, resulting in increased DC resistance and compromised
thermal conductivity.

Advantages of using single round conductors

• Simple and cost effective :­ Round wires are straight forward to produce , with a
simple circular cross­section and it can be easily bent and shaped to fit various slot
designs.
• Easy to wind and assemble :­ It has smooth surface, allowing for easy winding
and reducing risk of wire damage.
• Good for low to medium voltage frequency :­ At low frequency it has low skin
effect and proximity effect which reduce losses in a frequency range in between 5Hz
­10KHz.

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Fig 2.2 : Single round conductors

2.1 c. Litz wire

When machine winding carry high­ frequency current, conductors are often divided
into insulated multi­strands to ensure uniform current distribution across each conductor's
cross­ section. To further reduce eddy current losses, strands can be transposed along the
wire's length, such as by twisting, resulting in litz wire. This type of wire, comprising
twisted insulated thin strands, has been a practical solution to mitigate AC losses in
electrical machine conductors, particularly during high frequency operation. Beyond
electrical machines, Litz wire is crucial in designing various electromagnetic devices ,
including inductors and transformers . However, a significant challenge with multi­strand
wires is their limited fill factor, especially with a large number of twisted strands.
Typically the fill factor of round extruded shapes for these wires ranges from 35%­45%.

Advantages of using litz wire

• Reduced weight :­ Some litz wires have a hollow core reducing material usage and
weight and the use of thin strands decreases the overall weight of the wire.
• More efficient :­ By dividing the conductor into multiple strands, the skin effect is
minimized, allowing for more uniform current distribution and by transposing the
strands reduce eddy current losses and increasing the efficiency.
• Low resistance :­ Some litz wire construction use high conductivity materials, like
silver or copper to reduce resistance and also because of transposing the skin &
proximity effect is reduced and resistance is also reduced.
• Increased current­ carry capacity:­Lower AC resistance enables higher capacity.

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Fig 2.3 : Litz wire

Table 2.1 comparison between different winding topology

Litz wire Single round wire Hairpin wire

Multiple thin insulted Single, soild wire with a U shaped wire with
wire circular cross­section rectangular cross­section

Reduce skin effect Higher skin effect and Reduces skin effect and
and proximity effect proximity effect proximity effect

Suitable for high Suitable for low frequency Suitable for medium
frequency application application frequency application

More expensive than Lower cost than litz wire Higher cost than single
single round wire round wire

More flexible Less flexible More compact than litz

wire

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2.2 Winding design and AC copper loss

Winding design plays a crucial role in electrical machine performance,
efficiency, and reliability. Key factors affecting winding design include conductor size and
material, number of turns, winding configuration, coil shape, insulation type and
thickness, and winding pitch. AC copper loss, a significant component of total losses,
affects machine efficiency and lifespan, comprising resistive loss, skin effect, proximity
effect, and eddy currents. To minimize Ac copper loss, winding design optimization
techniques are employed, such as optimizing conductor size and material, minimizing
winding resistance, reducing skin and proximity effects. Advanced materials and
technologies, such as high­temperture super­conductors and nano­structured materials,
offer improved thermal and electrical performance.

2.2 a. Number of conductors

The number of conductors has a significant role in winding design and AC
copper loss in electrical machines. Increasing the number of conductors reduce AC copper
loss by decreasing conductor resistance and minimizing skin and proximity effect.
However, excessive conductors increase winding complexity, cost, and thermal
management challenges. Simulations were conducted to analyse the impact of varying
conductor numbers on winding losses, while maintaining identical slot area and ampere­
turns (ATs). Fig 2.4 illustrates the simulation setup where conductor numbers were
(2,4,8,10) and simulation current adjusted accordingly (100A, 50A, 25A, 20A). Maximum
current density decreases significantly as conductor numbers are increased (51% reduction
from 2 to 10 conductors). Core losses remain relatively unaffected by conductor numbers.
Copper losses decreases substantially at high frequency with increased conductor
numbers .

In Fig 2.5 both copper and core losses are calculated as a function of frequency for
different number of conductors at same ampere­turn (ATs) value. Copper loss decrease
with more conductors and core losses remain relatively constant. However at high
frequency (2KHz), the 2­conductors model exhibits lower losses due to the proximity effect
increasing faster than the skin effect. Optimizing conductor numbers can significantly
reduce winding losses, especially at high frequency.

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Fig 2.4: Current density

Fig 2.5: Power loss

2.2 b. Fill factor

In the winding of electric motors, the fill factor is a critical metric that quantifies
the efficiency of wire placement within the stator or rotor slots. It is defined as the ratio of
the cross­sectional area of the winding space available in the slots. A higher fill factor
indicates a more efficient use of space, allowing for more copper wire to be packed into the
slots, which enhances the motor's electrical performance by reducing resistance and
improving current­carrying capacity. Conversely,a lower fill factor suggests wasted space,
leading to increased heat generation and reduced efficiency due to higher resistance and
potential overheating. Factors influencing the fill factor include the diameter of the wire,

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insulation thickness, winding technique, and the geometry of the slots. Achieving an
optimal fill factor is essential for maximizing torque and power output while minimizing
losses and thermal issues, thereby enhancing the overall performance and lifespan of the
machine

Studies are undertaken to investigate the effect of fill factor on coil performance
[1], by varying the layer heights while maintaining the same number of conductors. In Fig
2.6 illustrates the current density distribution under different fill factor for the same
number of conductors . Three designs were analysed with different conductor area A1, A2,
A3

• Area A1: 90% fill factor largest conductor area

• Area A2: 60% fill factor moderate conductor area

• Area A3: 40% fill factor smallest conductor area

Under DC excitation, current density increases with decreasing layer height

(3.16 A/mm2 to 5.26 A/mm2 ), at high frequency excitation (1KHz) maximum current
density unexpectedly decreases despite reduced cross­ sectional area and the total loss vary
with frequency. Up to 250 Hz A1 with highest fill factor has lowest losses. From 250­470Hz
it exhibits relatively lower losses. Above 470 Hz coil with lowest height has the best
performance.

Fig 2.6: Current density

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Fig 2.7: Power loss

2.2 c. Number of strands

At high frequency, skin and proximity effects significantly increase losses. To

address this, stranded wires can be a viable alternative. Two multi­ strand coils were
simulated. The first coil has 10 number of strands and the second one has 45 number of
strands. The current density of both stranded wires is compared to a solid single flat
copper wire. Fig 2.8 illustrates the current density distribution of a solid flat copper
conductor . At 1KHz, conductor with 10 number of strands will reduces the maximum
current density by 35.7%(21.3 A/mm2 to 13.7 A/mm2). By increasing the number of strands
to 45, however, increases current density in upper conductor (upto 28.1 A/mm 2). Fig 2.9
shows the current density of stranded wires and this current density is compared with the
current density of flat copper wire [1]. Fig 2.10 shows power loss v/s frequency for the three
cases single round conductor has lowest losses up to 750 Hz. Conductor with 10 number of
strands has lower losses above 750 Hz and the conductor with 45 number of strand has
relatively better performance above 1500 Hz. Stranded wires can effectively reduce high
frequency losses, but optimal strand count depends on frequency. Solid flat type conductors
are best for low frequency application (<750Hz), for medium frequency applications
(750Hz­1500Hz) conductor with 10 number of strand is optimal and in high frequency
application (>1500Hz) conductor with 45 number of strand performs relatively better.

Fig 2.8: Current density of flat copper conductor

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Fig 2.9: Current density

Fig 2.10: power loss

2.2 d. Conductor arrangements

Conductor arrangements and winding design significantly impact electrical
machine performance, efficiency, and reliability. The configuration of conductors, including
spacing, orientation, and distribution, influences electrical losses, thermal management,
and electromagnetic compatibility. By understanding the interplay between conductor
arrangements, winding design, and losses, designers can develop high­performance
electrical machines. Stranded wires inside electrical machines slot can be arranged
randomly or in regular shapes. For precise comparison, two regular arrangements were
simulated using identical conductors and strands. In the first case, the conductor are
stacked vertically in one column with 8­horizontal layers and one 45 strands conductors in
each layer as shown in Fig 2.11. In second case the conductors are arranged vertically in 4
layers with two 45 strands conductors in each layer as shown in Fig 2.12. Vertical
arrangement increases maximum current density by 75% at 1 KHz. Horizontal layering

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reduces copper losses within main frequency range (100Hz­2KHz). Vertical arrangement
only shows lower copper losses above 5 KHz Fig(2.13) illustrates copper losses v/s
frequency in horizontal arrangement lowest losses will occur in low frequency range. In
vertical arrangement higher losses will occur in low frequency range and in high frequency
range losses is less after 5 KHz.

Fig 2.11: Current density horizontally laid

Fig 2.12: Current density vertically laid

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Fig 2.13 : Power loss

2.3 Core design and AC copper loss

Core design plays a crucial role in minimizing AC copper losses in electrical
machines. The core material, geometry, and design parameters significantly impact the
magnetic flux distribution affecting Ac copper loss. Key design parameters include
adjacent slot, slot opening shape,and core material. Optimizing core design reduces AC
copper losses by minimizing magnetic flux density, permeability, and flux leakage.
Techniques include selecting low­loss silicon steel, optimizing core geometry, winding
configuration, air gap, and slot design. AC copper loss components influenced by core
design are resistive loss, skin effect loss, proximity effect loss, and eddy current loss.
Materials like nano­crystalline and amorphous alloys further reduce losses. Core design
considerations include thermal management, mechanical stress, electromagnetic
compatibility, cost, and manufacturability. Applications benefiting from optimized core
design include electric vehicles, renewable energy systems, industrial automation, and
power generation and distribution. Effective core design minimizes AC copper loss,
enhancing electrical machine performance, efficiency, and reliability.

2.3 a. Adjacent slot effects

The impact of side slots on core and copper loss in electrical machines is notable.
Side slots can alter the magnetic flux distribution within the core, potentially increasing
eddy current losses due to localized variations in the flux. Additionally, they may affect
hysteresis losses, as the core material experiences different mag­ netization cycles. For
copper loss side slots influence the current distribution in the winding, which can lead to
uneven current flow and increased resistive losses. Furthermore, the geometry of side slots
may exacerbate skin and proximity effects, resulting in higher effective resistance and,
consequently increased copper losses and enhance the efficiency of electrical machines.

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Accordingly, the core is placed between two similar cores and the side coils are carrying the
same current. In Fig 2.14 (a), the side slots have a current direction similar to the
investigated coil, that is why there are no flux lines in the side teeth of the investigated
coil. As a result, the associated core losses are much lower as noticed in Fig 2.14 (a). On the
other hand, when the side slots have a reversed current direction as shown in Fig 2.14 (b),
the flux lines flow normally through the side teeth. Thus, the core losses are closer to the
single core case. As for the net copper loss, the conduction loss seems to be unaffected by
proximity of the side coils as seen in Fig 2.15.

Fig 2.14: Effect of current in the side slots on the magnetic flux density of the core .

(a) Same current direction. (b) Opposite current direction.

Fig 2.15: Power loss

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2.3 b. Slot opening shape

The slot opening dimensions have a major impact on the leakage flux, which in
turn can affect the AC copper losses. The shape and configuration of slots significantly
influence magnetic performance, thermal management. In contrast, narrower openings
better contain the magnetic field, enhancing coupling and improving efficiency. Large or
open slots promote airflow, aiding in heat dissipation and preventing overheating, but may
compromise magnetic performance. In the case of semi or closed slots tend to produce
quieter operation. In this section, three common designs for the slot opening are simulated
in Fig 2.16, which are open, semi­closed, and closed slots. Also, the copper losses are
calculated for each slot shape as shown in Fig 2.17 It is observed that the copper losses
have almost the same profile up to 800 Hz for all the cases. However, above this frequency,
the closed slot design seems to have slightly lower copper losses. This is because the coil
upper layer is exposed to lower leakage flux. Additionally, in terms of the saturation state
of the teeth of the closed slot, the tooth flux density is already increased to a level where
the permeability starts to drop. This reduces total leakage flux as well. On the other hand,
the semi­closed slot causes the highest copper losses, because the coil is exposed to
relatively higher leakage flux as shown in Fig 2.16.

Fig 2.16 : Slot opening shape

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Fig 2.17: Power loss

2.3 c. Core material

The choice of core material in electrical machines profoundly influences their
performances, efficiency, and operational characteristics. Materials with high magnetic
permeability, such as silicon steel and ferrites, enhance magnetic field strength, improving
inductance and reducing energy losses. Hysteresis losses, which occur due to the lagging of
magnetic flux density behind the applied magnetic field, vary significantly among
materials; those with lower hysteresis losses, like amorphous steel, contribute to greater
efficiency, particularly in high frequency applications. Additionally, the electrical
conductivity of core material impacts eddy current losses by restricting circulating
currents. Temperature stability is also crucial factor that maintain their magnetic
properties at elevated temperatures ensure consistent performance in fluctuating thermal
conditions. Mechanical properties, such as strength, are important for maintaining
structural integrity under operational stresses, reducing the risk of damage.

The simulation of the single core is conducted for different materials to

investigate their impact on the AC copper losses. The B­H curves of these materials are
shown in Fig 2.18 These materials have different saturation levels starting from above 2 T
for the cobalt iron (HIPERCO50) down to lower than 0.5 T for the soft ferrites.
Additionally, the corresponding copper losses are calculated at Fig 2.19 As can be seen
from Fig 2.19 , the losses in the air core coil seem to be quite limited and the losses curve is
nearly horizontal, i.e. slightly affected by the higher frequency excitation. Using soft
magnetic materials with a saturation level lower than 1.5 T will result in a limited
increase in the AC losses, specially at high frequency. Moreover, when the core magnetic
material has a saturation level above 1.5 T, the AC copper losses increase exponentially
with frequency.

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Fig 2.18 : BH curve

Fig 2.19: Power loss

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Chapter 3

Conclusion

The comprehensive analysis of AC losses in various magnet wire topologies for

high speed electric drive trains is highlighted in this seminar .The study's primary
contribution lies in its exhaustive examination of various parameters , providing a valuable
reference for estimating conductor losses based on winding details. With higher number of
layers, the AC losses decrease by nearly 60%. However, the fill factor decreases and
consequently the DC losses increase. Besides, a higher manufacturing cost will be required.
That is why a trade­off is necessary to select an optimal number of conductors based on the
application frequency.

Using flat solid coils is the perfect option at low frequency up to 700 Hz, which is
the typical range for many types of electrical machines. Above 700 Hz, a multi­strand wire
with 10 thick strands can have a remarkably better performance up to 1500 Hz. Due to its
higher resistivity, using aluminium instead of copper near the slot opening can limit the
AC losses. The hybrid coil combines the low losses with low weight and cost. So, it is the
optimal choice at high frequency domain for high speed electric drive trains.

Finally, many factors can affect the selection of magnet wire for electrical
machines depending on the application requirements such as frequency, wire flexibility,
production time, weight, and cost, or compact structure. So, when it comes down to
selection of wire, each option offers distinct advantages in particular scenarios.

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References

1. Ahmed selema, Mehmet gulec, Mohamed n. Ibrahim, Ruud sprangers,, and Peter
sergeant “Selection of Magnet Wire Topologies With Reduced AC Losses for the
Windings of Electric Drivetrains” IEEE Journals vol 10, 2022

2. Y. Amara, P. Reghem, and G. Barakat, ‘‘Analytical prediction of eddy-current loss in

armature windings of permanent magnet brushless ACmachines,’’ IEEE Trans.
Magn., vol. 46, no. 8, pp. 3481–3484, Aug. 2010,

3. S. Iwasaki, R. P. Deodhar, Y. Liu, A. Pride, Z. Q. Zhu, and J. J. Bremner‘‘Influence of

PWM on the proximity loss in permanent-magnet brushless AC machines,’’ IEEE Trans.
Ind. Appl., vol. 45, no. 4, pp. 1359–1367,Jul. 2009

4. C. R. Sullivan, ‘‘Cost-constrained selection of strand diameter and number in a Litz-wire

transformer winding,’’ IEEE Trans. Power Electron., vol. 16,no. 2, pp. 281 –288, Mar.
2001,

5. Y. Zhao, D. Li, T. Pei, and R. Qu, ‘‘Overview of the rectangular wire windings AC
electrical machine,’’ CES Trans. Electr. Mach. Syst., vol. 3, no. 2, pp. 160 –169, Jun.
2019,

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