Biology A level Spec

Biology A level Specification

Biological molecules
MONOMERS & POLYMERS
The biochemical basis of life is similar for all living things
Monomers are the smaller units from which larger molecules are made
Polymers are molecules made from a large number of monomers joined together
Monosaccharides, amino acids and nucleotides are examples of monomers
A condensation reaction joins two molecules together with the formation of a chemical bond
and involves the elimination of a molecule of water
A hydrolysis reaction breaks a chemical bond between two molecules and involves the use of
a water molecule
Monosaccharides are the monomers from which larger carbohydrates are made. Glucose,
galactose and fructose are common monosaccharides
A condensation reaction between two monosaccharides forms a glycosidic bond.
Disaccharides are formed by the condensation of two monosaccharides
• maltose is a disaccharide formed by condensation of two glucose molecules
• sucrose is a disaccharide formed by condensation of a glucose molecule and a fructose
molecule
• lactose is a disaccharide formed by condensation of a glucose molecule and a galactose
molecule.
Glucose has two isomers, α-glucose and β-glucose, with structures:

Polysaccharides are formed by the condensation of many glucose units

• glycogen and starch are formed by the condensation of α-glucose
• cellulose is formed by the condensation of β-glucose
The basic structure and functions of glycogen, starch and cellulose. The relationship of
structure to function of these substances in animal cells and plant cells
Biochemical tests using Benedict's solution for reducing sugars and non-reducing sugars and
iodine/potassium iodide for starch

LIPIDS
Triglycerides and phospholipids are two groups of lipid
Triglycerides are formed by the condensation of one molecule of glycerol and three molecules
of fatty acid
A condensation reaction between glycerol and a fatty acid (RCOOH) forms an ester bond
The R-group of a fatty acid may be saturated or unsaturated
In phospholipids, one of the fatty acids of a triglyceride is substituted by a phosphate-
containing group
The different properties of triglycerides and phospholipids related to their different structures
The emulsion test for lipids
Students should be able to recognise, from diagrams, saturated & unsaturated fatty acids
Students should be able to explain the different properties of triglycerides and phospholipids

PROTEINS
General properties of proteins
Amino acids are the monomers from which proteins are made. The general structure of an
amino acid as:

where NH2 represents an amine group, COOH represents a carboxyl group and R represents
a side chain. The twenty amino acids that are common in all organisms differ only in their side
group
A condensation reaction between two amino acids forms a peptide bond
• dipeptides are formed by the condensation of two amino acids
• polypeptides are formed by the condensation of many amino acids
A functional protein may contain one or more polypeptides
The role of hydrogen bonds, ionic bonds and disulfide bridges in the structure of proteins
Proteins have a variety of functions within all living organisms. The relationship between
primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structure, and protein function
Biuret test for proteins
Students should be able to relate the structure of proteins to properties of proteins named
throughout the specification
Many proteins are enzymes
Each enzyme lowers the activation energy of the reaction it catalyses
The induced-fit model of enzyme action.
The properties of an enzyme relate to the tertiary structure of its active site and its ability to
combine with complementary substrate(s) to form an enzyme-substrate complex
The specificity of enzymes
The effects of the following factors on the rate of enzyme controlled reactions – enzyme
concentration, substrate concentration, concentration of competitive and of
noncompetitive inhibitors, pH and temperature
Students should be able to appreciate how models of enzyme action have changed over time
Students should be able to appreciate that enzymes catalyse a wide range of intracellular and
extracellular reactions that determine structures and functions from cellular to whole-organism
level
Required practical 1: Investigation into the effect of a named variable on the rate of an
enzyme-controlled reaction.
Students could identify the variables that must be controlled in their investigation into rate
of reaction
Students could calculate the uncertainty of their measurements of the rate of reaction
Students could select an appropriate format for the graphical presentation of the results
of their investigation into the rate of enzyme controlled reactions
Students could use a tangent to find the initial rate of an enzyme-controlled reaction

NUCLEIC ACIDS ARE IMPORTANT INFORMATION-CARRYING MOLECULES

Structure of DNA and RNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid (RNA) are important information-carrying
molecules. In all living cells, DNA holds genetic information and RNA transfers genetic
information from DNA to the ribosomes
Ribosomes are formed from RNA and proteins
Both DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides. Each nucleotide is formed from a pentose, a
nitrogen-containing organic base and a phosphate group:

• The components of a DNA nucleotide are deoxyribose, a phosphate group and one of the
organic bases adenine, cytosine, guanine or thymine.
• The components of an RNA nucleotide are ribose, a phosphate group and one of the
organic bases adenine, cytosine, guanine or uracil.
• A condensation reaction between two nucleotides forms a phosphodiester bond.
A DNA molecule is a double helix with two polynucleotide chains held together by hydrogen
bonds between specific complementary base pairs
An RNA molecule is a relatively short polynucleotide chain
Students should be able to appreciate that the relative simplicity of DNA led many scientists to
doubt that it carried the genetic code
DNA replication
The semi-conservative replication of DNA ensures genetic continuity between generations of
cells
The process of semi-conservative replication of DNA in terms of:
• unwinding of the double helix
• breakage of hydrogen bonds between complementary bases in the polynucleotide strands
• the role of DNA helicase in unwinding DNA and breaking its hydrogen bonds
• attraction of new DNA nucleotides to exposed bases on template strands and base pairing
• the role of DNA polymerase in the condensation reaction that joins adjacent nucleotides
Students should be able to evaluate the work of scientists in validating the Watson–Crick
model of DNA replication

ATP
A single molecule of adenosine triphosphate (ATP) is a nucleotide derivative and is formed
from a molecule of ribose, a molecule of adenine and three phosphate groups

Hydrolysis of ATP to adenosine diphosphate (ADP) and an inorganic phosphate group (Pi ) is
catalysed by the enzyme ATP hydrolase.
• The hydrolysis of ATP can be coupled to energy-requiring reactions within cells.
• The inorganic phosphate released during the hydrolysis of ATP can be used to
phosphorylate other compounds, often making them more reactive.
ATP is resynthesised by the condensation of ADP and Pi . This reaction is catalysed by the
enzyme ATP synthase during photosynthesis, or during respiration
Water is a major component of cells. It has several properties that are important in biology. In
particular, water:
• is a metabolite in many metabolic reactions, including condensation and hydrolysis
reactions
• is an important solvent in which metabolic reactions occur • has a relatively high heat
capacity, buffering changes in temperature
• has a relatively large latent heat of vaporisation, providing a cooling effect with little loss of
water through evaporation
• has strong cohesion between water molecules; this supports columns of water in the
tube-like transport cells of plants and produces surface tension where water meets air

INORGANIC IONS
Inorganic ions occur in solution in the cytoplasm and body fluids of organisms, some in high
concentrations and others in very low concentrations
Each type of ion has a specific role, depending on its properties
Students should be able to recognise the role of ions in the following topics: hydrogen ions
and pH; iron ions as a component of haemoglobin; sodium ions in the co-transport of glucose
and amino acids; and phosphate ions as components of DNA and of ATP

Cells
CELL STRUCTURE
Structure of eukaryotic cells
The structure of eukaryotic cells, restricted to the structure and function of:
• cell-surface membrane
• nucleus (containing chromosomes, consisting of protein-bound, linear DNA, and one or
more nucleoli)
• mitochondria
• chloroplasts (in plants and algae)
• golgi apparatus and golgi vesicles
• ribosomes
• rough endoplasmic reticulum and smooth endoplasmic reticulum
• cell wall (in plants, algae and fungi)
• lysosomes (a membrane-bound organelle that releases hydrolytic enzymes)
• cell vacuole (in plants)
In complex multicellular organisms, eukaryotic cells become specialised for specific functions.
Specialised cells are organised into tissues, tissues into organs and organs into systems
Be able to apply their knowledge of these features in explaining adaptations of eukaryotic
cells
Structure of prokaryotic cells and of viruses
Prokaryotic cells are much smaller than eukaryotic cells. They also differ from eukaryotic cells
in having:
• cytoplasm that lacks membrane-bound organelles
• smaller ribosomes
• no nucleus; instead they have a single circular DNA molecule that is free in the cytoplasm
and is not associated with proteins
• a cell wall that contains murein, a glycoprotein
In addition, many prokaryotic cells have:
• one or more plasmids
• a capsule surrounding the cell
• one or more flagella.
Details of these structural differences are not required
Viruses are acellular and non-living. The structure of virus particles to include genetic
material, capsid and attachment protein
Methods of studying cells
The principles and limitations of optical microscopes, transmission electron microscopes and
scanning electron microscopes
Measuring the size of an object viewed with an optical microscope. The difference between
magnification and resolution
Use of the formula: magnification = size of image / size of real object
Principles of cell fractionation and ultracentrifugation as used to separate cell components
Be able to appreciate that there was a considerable period of time during which the scientific
community distinguished between artefacts and cell organelles

ALL CELLS ARISE FROM OTHER CELLS

Within multicellular organisms, not all cells retain the ability to divide
Eukaryotic cells that do retain the ability to divide show a cell cycle.
• DNA replication occurs during the interphase of the cell cycle.
• Mitosis is the part of the cell cycle in which a eukaryotic cell divides to produce two
daughter cells, each with the identical copies of DNA produced by the parent cell during
DNA replication
The behaviour of chromosomes during interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase and
telophase of mitosis. The role of spindle fibres attached to centromeres in the separation of
chromatids
Division of the cytoplasm (cytokinesis) usually occurs, producing two new cells
Be able to recognise the stages of the cell cycle: interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase
and telophase (including cytokinesis)
Be able to explain the appearance of cells in each stage of mitosis
Mitosis is a controlled process. Uncontrolled cell division can lead to the formation of tumours
and of cancers. Many cancer treatments are directed at controlling the rate of cell division
Binary fission in prokaryotic cells involves:
• replication of the circular DNA and of plasmids
• division of the cytoplasm to produce two daughter cells, each with a single copy of the
circular DNA and a variable number of copies of plasmids
Being non-living, viruses do not undergo cell division. Following injection of their nucleic acid,
the infected host cell replicates the virus particles
Required practical 2: Preparation of stained squashes of cells from plant root tips; set-up and
use of an optical microscope to identify the stages of mitosis in these stained squashes and
calculation of a mitotic index. Students should measure the apparent size of cells in the root
tip and calculate their actual size using the formula

TRANSPORT ACROSS CELL MEMBRANES

The basic structure of all cell membranes, including cell-surface membranes and the
membranes around the cell organelles of eukaryotes, is the same
The arrangement and any movement of phospholipids, proteins, glycoproteins and glycolipids
in the fluid-mosaic model of membrane structure. Cholesterol may also be present in cell
membranes where it restricts the movement of other molecules making up the membrane.
Movement across membranes occurs by:
• simple diffusion (involving limitations imposed by the nature of the phospholipid bilayer)
• facilitated diffusion (involving the roles of carrier proteins and channel proteins)
• osmosis (explained in terms of water potential)
• active transport (involving the role of carrier proteins and the importance of the hydrolysis
of ATP)
• co-transport (illustrated by the absorption of sodium ions and glucose by cells lining the
mammalian ileum)
Cells may be adapted for rapid transport across their internal or external membranes by an
increase in surface area of, or by an increase in the number of protein channels and carrier
molecules in, their membranes
Students should be able to: • explain the adaptations of specialised cells in relation to the rate
of transport across their internal and external membranes • explain how surface area, number
of channel or carrier proteins and differences in gradients of concentration or water potential
affect the rate of movement across cell membranes.
Required practical 3: Production of a dilution series of a solute to produce a calibration curve
with which to identify the water potential of plant tissue
Required practical 4: Investigation into the effect of a named variable on the permeability of
cell-surface membranes

CELL RECOGNITION AND THE IMMUNE SYSTEM

Each type of cell has specific molecules on its surface that identify it. These molecules
include proteins and enable the immune system to identify:
• pathogens
• cells from other organisms of the same species
• abnormal body cells
• toxins
Definition of antigen. The effect of antigen variability on disease and disease prevention
Phagocytosis of pathogens. The subsequent destruction of ingested pathogens by lysozymes
The response of T lymphocytes to a foreign antigen (the cellular response). • The role of
antigen-presenting cells in the cellular response. • The role of helper T cells (TH cells) in
stimulating cytotoxic T cells (TC cells), B cells and phagocytes. The role of other T cells is not
required.
The response of B lymphocytes to a foreign antigen, clonal selection and the release of
monoclonal antibodies (the humoral response).
• Definition of antibody.
• Antibody structure.
• The formation of an antigen-antibody complex, leading to the destruction of the antigen,
limited to agglutination and phagocytosis of bacterial cells.
• The roles of plasma cells and of memory cells in producing primary and secondary
immune responses
The use of vaccines to provide protection for individuals and populations against disease. The
concept of herd immunity
The differences between active and passive immunity
Structure of the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and its replication in helper T cells
How HIV causes the symptoms of AIDS. Why antibiotics are ineffective against viruses
The use of monoclonal antibodies in:
• medical diagnosis
• targeting medication to specific cell types by attaching a therapeutic drug to an antibody
• medical diagnosis
Details of the commercial or scientific production of monoclonal antibodies are not required
Ethical issues associated with the use of vaccines and monoclonal antibodies
The use of antibodies in the ELISA test
Students should be able to:
• discuss ethical issues associated with the use of vaccines and monoclonal antibodies
• evaluate methodology, evidence and data relating to the use of vaccines and monoclonal
antibodies

Organisms exchange substances with their environment

SURFACE AREA TO VOLUME RATIO
The relationship between the size of an organism or structure and its surface area to volume
ratio
Changes to body shape and the development of systems in larger organisms as adaptations
that facilitate exchange as this ratio reduces
Students should be able to appreciate the relationship between surface area to volume ratio
and metabolic rate

GAS EXCHANGE
Adaptations of gas exchange surfaces, shown by gas exchange:
• across the body surface of a single-celled organism
• in the tracheal system of an insect (tracheae, tracheoles and spiracles)
• across the gills of fish (gill lamellae and filaments including the counter-current principle)
• by the leaves of dicotyledonous plants (mesophyll and stomata)
Structural and functional compromises between the opposing needs for efficient gas
exchange and the limitation of water loss shown by terrestrial insects and xerophytic plants
The gross structure of the human gas exchange system limited to the alveoli, bronchioles,
bronchi, trachea and lungs
The essential features of the alveolar epithelium as a surface over which gas exchange takes
place
Ventilation and the exchange of gases in the lungs. The mechanism of breathing to include
the role of the diaphragm and the antagonistic interaction between the external and internal
intercostal muscles in bringing about pressure changes in the thoracic cavity
Students should be able to:
• interpret information relating to the effects of lung disease on gas exchange and/or
ventilation
• interpret data relating to the effects of pollution and smoking on the incidence of lung
disease
• analyse and interpret data associated with specific risk factors and the incidence of lung
disease
• evaluate the way in which experimental data led to statutory restrictions on the sources of
risk factors
• recognise correlations and causal relationships

DIGESTION AND ABSORPTION

During digestion, large biological molecules are hydrolysed to smaller molecules that can be
absorbed across cell membranes
Digestion in mammals of:
• carbohydrates by amylases and membrane-bound disaccharidases
• lipids by lipase, including the action of bile salts
• proteins by endopeptidases, exopeptidases and membrane bound dipeptidases.
Mechanisms for the absorption of the products of digestion by cells lining the ileum of
mammals, to include:
• co-transport mechanisms for the absorption of amino acids and of monosaccharides
• the role of micelles in the absorption of lipids

Mass transport
MASS TRANSPORT
Mass transport in animals
The haemoglobins are a group of chemically similar molecules found in many different
organisms. Haemoglobin is a protein with a quaternary structure
The role of haemoglobin and red blood cells in the transport of oxygen. The loading, transport
and unloading of oxygen in relation to the oxyhaemoglobin dissociation curve. The
cooperative nature of oxygen binding to show that the change in shape of haemoglobin
caused by binding of the first oxygens makes the binding of further oxygens easier. The
effects of carbon dioxide concentration on the dissociation of oxyhaemoglobin (the Bohr
effect)
Many animals are adapted to their environment by possessing different types of haemoglobin
with different oxygen transport properties
The general pattern of blood circulation in a mammal. Names are required only of the
coronary arteries and of the blood vessels entering and leaving the heart, lungs and kidneys
The gross structure of the human heart. Pressure and volume changes and associated valve
movements during the cardiac cycle that maintain a unidirectional flow of blood
The structure of arteries, arterioles and veins in relation to their function
The structure of capillaries and the importance of capillary beds as exchange surfaces. The
formation of tissue fluid and its return to the circulatory system
Students should be able to:
• analyse and interpret data relating to pressure and volume changes during the cardiac
cycle
• analyse and interpret data associated with specific risk factors and the incidence of
cardiovascular disease
• evaluate conflicting evidence associated with risk factors affecting cardiovascular disease
• recognise correlations and causal relationships
Required practical 5: Dissection of animal or plant gas exchange system or mass transport
system or of organ within such a system
Mass transport in plants
Xylem: the tissue that transports water in the stem and leaves of plants. The cohesion-tension
theory of water transport in the xylem
Phloem: the tissue that transports organic substances in plants. The mass flow hypothesis for
the mechanism of translocation in plants. The use of tracers and ringing experiments to
investigate transport in plants
Students should be able to:
• recognise correlations and causal relationships
• interpret evidence from tracer and ringing experiments and to evaluate the evidence for
and against the mass flow hypothesis

Genetic Information, Variation and Relationships Between Organisms

DNA, GENES AND CHROMOSOMES
In prokaryotic cells, DNA molecules are short, circular and not associated with proteins
In the nucleus of eukaryotic cells, DNA molecules are very long, linear and associated with
proteins, called histones. Together a DNA molecule and its associated proteins form a
chromosome
The mitochondria and chloroplasts of eukaryotic cells also contain DNA which, like the DNA of
prokaryotes, is short, circular and not associated with protein
A gene is a base sequence of DNA that codes for:
• the amino acid sequence of a polypeptide
• a functional RNA (including ribosomal RNA and tRNAs)
A gene occupies a fixed position, called a locus, on a particular DNA molecule
A sequence of three DNA bases, called a triplet, codes for a specific amino acid. The genetic
code is universal, non-overlapping and degenerate
In eukaryotes, much of the nuclear DNA does not code for polypeptides. There are, for
example, non-coding multiple repeats of base sequences between genes. Even within a gene
only some sequences, called exons, code for amino acid sequences. Within the gene, these
exons are separated by one or more non-coding sequences, called introns

DNA AND PROTEIN SYNTHESIS

The concept of the genome as the complete set of genes in a cell and of the proteome as the
full range of proteins that a cell is able to produce
The structure of molecules of messenger RNA (mRNA) and of transfer RNA (tRNA)
Transcription as the production of mRNA from DNA. The role of RNA polymerase in joining
mRNA nucleotides
• In prokaryotes, transcription results directly in the production of mRNA from DNA.
• In eukaryotes, transcription results in the production of premRNA; this is then spliced to
form mRNA
Translation as the production of polypeptides from the sequence of codons carried by mRNA.
The roles of ribosomes, tRNA and ATP
Be able to relate the base sequence of nucleic acids to the amino acid sequence of
polypeptides, when provided with suitable data about the genetic code
Be able to interpret data from experimental work investigating the role of nucleic acids
Students will not be required to recall in written papers specific codons and the amino acids
for which they code

GENETIC DIVERSITY CAN ARISE AS A RESULT OF MUTATION OR DURING MEIOSIS

Gene mutations involve a change in the base sequence of chromosomes. They can arise
spontaneously during DNA replication and include base deletion and base substitution. Due to
the degenerate nature of the genetic code, not all base substitutions cause a change in the
sequence of encoded amino acids. Mutagenic agents can increase the rate of gene mutation
Mutations in the number of chromosomes can arise spontaneously by chromosome non-
disjunction during meiosis
Meiosis produces daughter cells that are genetically different from each other
The process of meiosis only in sufficient detail to show how:
• two nuclear divisions result usually in the formation of four haploid daughter cells from a
single diploid parent cell
• genetically different daughter cells result from the independent segregation of homologous
chromosomes
• crossing over between homologous chromosomes results in further genetic variation
among daughter cells
Be able to:
• complete diagrams showing the chromosome content of cells after the first and second
meiotic division, when given the chromosome content of the parent cell
• explain the different outcome of mitosis and meiosis
• recognise where meiosis occurs when given information about an unfamiliar life cycle
• explain how random fertilisation of haploid gametes further increases genetic variation
within a species

GENETIC DIVERSITY AND ADAPTATION

Genetic diversity as the number of different alleles of genes in a population
Genetic diversity is a factor enabling natural selection to occur
The principles of natural selection in the evolution of populations.
• Random mutation can result in new alleles of a gene
• Many mutations are harmful but, in certain environments, the new allele of a gene might
benefit its possessor, leading to increased reproductive success
• The advantageous allele is inherited by members of the next generation
• As a result, over many generations, the new allele increases in frequency in the
population
Directional selection, exemplified by antibiotic resistance in bacteria, and stabilising selection,
exemplified by human birth weights.
Natural selection results in species that are better adapted to their environment. These
adaptations may be anatomical, physiological or behavioural
Be able to:
• use unfamiliar information to explain how selection produces changes within a population
of a species
• interpret data relating to the effect of selection in producing change within populations
• show understanding that adaptation and selection are major factors in evolution and
contribute to the diversity of living organisms
Required practical 6: Use of aseptic techniques to investigate the effect of antimicrobial
substances on microbial growth

SPECIES AND TAXONOMY

Two organisms belong to the same species if they are able to produce fertile offspring.
Courtship behaviour as a necessary precursor to successful mating. The role of courtship in
species recognition
A phylogenetic classification system attempts to arrange species into groups based on their
evolutionary origins and relationships. It uses a hierarchy in which smaller groups are placed
within larger groups, with no overlap between groups. Each group is called a taxon (plural
taxa)
One hierarchy comprises the taxa: domain, kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and
species
Each species is universally identified by a binomial consisting of the name of its genus and
species, eg, Homo sapiens
Recall of different taxonomic systems, such as the three domain or five kingdom systems, will
not be required
Students should be able to appreciate that advances in immunology and genome sequencing
help to clarify evolutionary relationships between organisms

BIODIVERSITY WITHIN A COMMUNITY

Biodiversity can relate to a range of habitats, from a small local habitat to the Earth
Species richness is a measure of the number of different species in a community
An index of diversity describes the relationship between the number of species in a
community and the number of individuals in each species

Calculation of an index of diversity ( d) from the formula

Where N = total number of organisms of all species

and n = total number of organisms of each species
Farming techniques reduce biodiversity. The balance between conservation and farming

INVESTIGATING DIVERSITY
Genetic diversity within, or between species, can be made by comparing:
• the frequency of measurable or observable characteristics
• the base sequence of DNA
• the base sequence of mRNA
• the amino acid sequence of the proteins encoded by DNA and mRNA.
Be able to interpret data relating to similarities and differences in the base sequences of DNA
and inthe amino acid sequences of proteins to suggest relationships between different
organisms within a species and between species
Be able to appreciate that gene technology has caused a change in the methods of
investigating genetic diversity; inferring DNA differences from measurable or observable
characteristics has been replaced by direct investigation of DNA sequences
Knowledge of gene technologies will not be tested
Quantitative investigations of variation within a species involve:
• collecting data from random samples
• calculating a mean value of the collected data and the standard deviation of that mean
• interpreting mean values and their standard deviations
Students will not be required to calculate standard deviations in written papers

Energy Transfers in and Between Organisms (A-level Only)

PHOTOSYNTHESIS (A2)
The light dependent reaction in such detail as to show that:
• chlorophyll absorbs light, leading to photoionisation of chlorophyll
• some of the energy from electrons released during photoionisation is conserved in the
production of ATP and reduced NADP
• the production of ATP involves electron transfer associated with the transfer of electrons
down the electron transfer chain and passage of protons across chloroplast membranes
and is catalysed by ATP synthase embedded in these membranes (chemiosmotic theory)
• photolysis of water produces protons, electrons and oxygen
The light-independent reaction uses reduced NADP from the light-dependent reaction to form
a simple sugar. The hydrolysis of ATP, also from the light-dependent reaction, provides the
additional energy for this reaction
The light-independent reaction in such detail as to show that:
• carbon dioxide reacts with ribulose bisphosphate (RuBP) to form two molecules of glycerate
3-phosphate (GP). This reaction is catalysed by the enzyme rubisco
• ATP and reduced NADP from the light-dependent reaction are used to reduce GP to triose
phosphate
• some of the triose phosphate is used to regenerate RuBP in the Calvin cycle
• some of the triose phosphate is converted to useful organic substances
Be able to identify environmental factors that limit the rate of photosynthesis
Be able to evaluate data relating to common agricultural practices used to overcome the
effect of these limiting factors
Required practical 7: Use of chromatography to investigate the pigments isolated from leaves
of different plants, eg, leaves from shade-tolerant and shade-intolerant plants or leaves of
different colours
Required practical 8: Investigation into the effect of a named factor on the rate of
dehydrogenase activity in extracts of chloroplasts

RESPIRATION (A2)
Respiration produces ATP
Glycolysis is the first stage of anaerobic and aerobic respiration. It occurs in the cytoplasm
and is an anaerobic process
Glycolysis involves the following stages:
• phosphorylation of glucose to glucose phosphate, using ATP
• production of triose phosphate
• oxidation of triose phosphate to pyruvate with a net gain of ATP and reduced NAD
If respiration is only anaerobic, pyruvate can be converted to ethanol or lactate using reduced
NAD. The oxidised NAD produced in this way can be used in further glycolysis
If respiration is aerobic, pyruvate from glycolysis enters the mitochondrial matrix by active
transport
Aerobic respiration in such detail as to show that:
• pyruvate is oxidised to acetate, producing reduced NAD in the process
• acetate combines with coenzyme A in the link reaction to produce acetylcoenzyme A
• acetyl coenzyme A reacts with a four-carbon molecule, releasing coenzyme A and
producing a six-carbon molecule that enters the Krebs cycle
• in a series of oxidation-reduction reactions, the Krebs cycle generates reduced
coenzymes and ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation, and carbon dioxide is lost
• synthesis of ATP by oxidative phosphorylation is associated with the transfer of electrons
down the electron transfer chain and passage of protons across inner mitochondrial
membranes and is catalysed by ATP synthase embedded in these membranes
(chemiosmotic theory)
• other respiratory substrates include the breakdown products of lipids and amino acids,
which enter the Krebs cycle
Required practical 9: Investigation into the effect of a named variable on the rate of respiration
of cultures of single-celled organisms

ENERGY AND ECOSYSTEMS (A2)

In any ecosystem, plants synthesise organic compounds from atmospheric, or aquatic,
carbon dioxide
Most of the sugars synthesised by plants are used by the plant as respiratory substrates. The
rest are used to make other groups of biological molecules. These biological molecules form
the biomass of the plants
Biomass can be measured in terms of mass of carbon or dry mass of tissue per given area.
The chemical energy store in dry biomass can be estimated using calorimetry
Gross primary production (GPP) is the chemical energy store in plant biomass, in a given
area or volume
Net primary production ( NPP) is the chemical energy store in plant biomass after respiratory
losses to the environment have been taken into account,
ie NPP = GPP – R
where GPP represents gross production and R represents respiratory losses to the
environment.
This net primary production is available for plant growth and reproduction. It is also available
to other trophic levels in the ecosystem, such as herbivores and decomposers
The net production of consumers (N), such as animals, can be calculated as:
N = I – ( F + R)
where I represents the chemical energy store in ingested food, F represents the chemical
energy lost to the environment in faeces and urine and R represents the respiratory losses to
the environment
Primary and secondary productivity is the rate of primary or secondary production,
respectively. It is measured as biomass in a given area in a given time eg kJ ha–1 year–1
Be able to appreciate the ways in which production is affected by farming practices designed
to increase the efficiency of energy transfer by:
• simplifying food webs to reduce energy losses to non-human food chains
• reducing respiratory losses within a human food chain

NUTRIENT CYCLES (A2)

Nutrients are recycled within natural ecosystems, exemplified by the nitrogen cycle and the
phosphorus cycle
Microorganisms play a vital role in recycling chemical elements such as phosphorus and
nitrogen
• The role of saprobionts in decomposition
• The role of mycorrhizae in facilitating the uptake of water and inorganic ions by plants
• The role of bacteria in the nitrogen cycle in sufficient detail to illustrate the processes of
saprobiotic nutrition, ammonification, nitrification, nitrogen fixation and denitrification
- Names of individual species of bacteria are not required
The use of natural and artificial fertilisers to replace the nitrates and phosphates lost by
harvesting plants and removing livestock
The environmental issues arising from the use of fertilisers including leaching and
eutrophication

Organisms Respond to Changes in their Internal and External Environments (A-

level Only)
STIMULI, BOTH INTERNAL AND EXTERNAL, ARE DETECTED AND LEAD TO A
RESPONSE
Survival and response
Organisms increase their chance of survival by responding to changes in their environment
In flowering plants, specific growth factors move from growing regions to other tissues, where
they regulate growth in response to directional stimuli
The effect of different concentrations of indoleacetic acid (IAA) on cell elongation in the roots
and shoots of flowering plants as an explanation of gravitropism and phototropism in flowering
plants
Taxes and kineses as simple responses that can maintain a mobile organism in a favourable
environment
The protective effect of a simple reflex, exemplified by a threeneurone simple reflex. Details of
spinal cord and dorsal and ventral roots are not required
Required practical 10: Investigation into the effect of an environmental variable on the
movement of an animal using either a choice chamber or a maze
Receptors
The Pacinian corpuscle should be used as an example of a receptor to illustrate that:
• receptors respond only to specific stimuli
• stimulation of a receptor leads to the establishment of a generator potential
The basic structure of a Pacinian corpuscle
Deformation of stretch-mediated sodium ion channels in a Pacinian corpuscle leads to the
establishment of a generator potential
The human retina in sufficient detail to show how differences in sensitivity to light, sensitivity
to colour and visual acuity are explained by differences in the optical pigments of rods and
cones and the connections rods and cones make in the optic nerve
Control of heart rate
Myogenic stimulation of the heart and transmission of a subsequent wave of electrical activity.
The roles of the sinoatrial node (SAN), atrioventricular node (AVN) and Purkyne tissue in the
bundle of His
The roles and locations of chemoreceptors and pressure receptors and the roles of the
autonomic nervous system and effectors in controlling heart rate

NERVOUS COORDINATION
Nerve impulses
The structure of a myelinated motor neurone
The establishment of a resting potential in terms of differential membrane permeability,
electrochemical gradients and the movement of sodium ions and potassium ions
Changes in membrane permeability lead to depolarisation and the generation of an action
potential. The all-or-nothing principle
The passage of an action potential along non-myelinated and myelinated axons, resulting in
nerve impulses
The nature and importance of the refractory period in producing discrete impulses and in
limiting the frequency of impulse transmission
Factors affecting the speed of conductance: myelination and saltatory conduction; axon
diameter; temperature
Synaptic transmission
The detailed structure of a synapse and of a neuromuscular junction
The sequence of events involved in transmission across a cholinergic synapse in sufficient
detail to explain:
• unidirectionality
• temporal and spatial summation
• inhibition by inhibitory synapses
A comparison of transmission across a cholinergic synapse and across a neuromuscular
junction
Be able to use information provided to predict and explain the effects of specific drugs on a
synapse
Recall of the names and mode of action of individual drugs will not be required

SKELETAL MUSCLES ARE STIMULATED TO CONTRACT BY NERVES AND ACT AS

EFFECTORS
Muscles act in antagonistic pairs against an incompressible skeleton
Gross and microscopic structure of skeletal muscle. The ultrastructure of a myofibril
The roles of actin, myosin, calcium ions and ATP in myofibril contraction
The roles of calcium ions and tropomyosin in the cycle of actinomyosin bridge formation
The role of troponin is not required
The roles of ATP and phosphocreatine in muscle contraction
The structure, location and general properties of slow and fast skeletal muscle fibres

HOMEOSTASIS IS THE MAINTENANCE OF A STABLE INTERNAL ENVIRONMENT

Principles of homeostasis and negative feedback
Homeostasis in mammals involves physiological control systems that maintain the internal
environment within restricted limits
The importance of maintaining a stable core temperature and stable blood pH in relation to
enzyme activity
The importance of maintaining a stable blood glucose concentration in terms of availability of
respiratory substrate and of the water potential of blood
Negative feedback restores systems to their original level
The possession of separate mechanisms involving negative feedback controls departures in
different directions from the original state, giving a greater degree of control
Be able to interpret information relating to examples of negative and positive feedback
Control of blood glucose concentration
The factors that influence blood glucose concentration
The role of the liver in glycogenesis, glycogenolysis and gluconeogenesis
The action of insulin by:
• attaching to receptors on the surfaces of target cells
• controlling the uptake of glucose by regulating the inclusion of channel proteins in the
surface membranes of target cells
• activating enzymes involved in the conversion of glucose to glycogen
The action of glucagon by:
• attaching to receptors on the surfaces of target cells
• activating enzymes involved in the conversion of glycogen to glucose
• activating enzymes involved in the conversion of glycerol and amino acids into glucose
The role of adrenaline by:
• attaching to receptors on the surfaces of target cells
• activating enzymes involved in the conversion of glycogen to glucose
The second messenger model of adrenaline and glucagon action, involving adenylate
cyclase, cyclic AMP (cAMP) and protein kinase
The causes of types I and II diabetes and their control by insulin and/or manipulation of the
diet
Be able to evaluate the positions of health advisers and the food industry in relation to the
increased incidence of type II diabetes
Required practical 11: Production of a dilution series of a glucose solution and use of
colorimetric techniques to produce a calibration curve with which to identify the concentration
of glucose in an unknown ‘urine’ sample
Control of blood water potential
Osmoregulation as control of the water potential of the blood
The roles of the hypothalamus, posterior pituitary and antidiuretic hormone (ADH) in
osmoregulation
The structure of the nephron and its role in:
• the formation of glomerular filtrate
• reabsorption of glucose and water by the proximal convoluted tubule
• maintaining a gradient of sodium ions in the medulla by the loop of Henle
• reabsorption of water by the distal convoluted tubule and collecting ducts

Genetics, Populations, Evolution and Ecosystems (A-level Only)

INHERITANCE
The genotype is the genetic constitution of an organism
The phenotype is the expression of this genetic constitution and its interaction with the
environment
There may be many alleles of a single gene
Alleles may be dominant, recessive or codominant
In a diploid organism, the alleles at a specific locus may be either homozygous or
heterozygous
The use of fully labelled genetic diagrams to interpret, or predict, the results of:
• monohybrid and dihybrid crosses involving dominant, recessive and codominant alleles
• crosses involving sex-linkage, autosomal linkage, multiple alleles and epistasis

Use of the chi-squared (Χ2) test to compare the goodness of fit of observed phenotypic ratios
with expected ratios

POPULATIONS
Species exist as one or more populations
A population as a group of organisms of the same species occupying a particular space at a
particular time that can potentially interbreed
The concepts of gene pool and allele frequency
The Hardy–Weinberg principle provides a mathematical model, which predicts that allele
frequencies will not change from generation to generation. The conditions under which the
principle applies
The frequency of alleles, genotypes and phenotypes in a population can be calculated using
the Hardy–Weinberg equation:

p2 + 2pq + q2 = 1
where p is the frequency of one (usually the dominant) allele and q is the frequency of the
other (usually recessive) allele of the gene

EVOLUTION MAY LEAD TO SPECIATION

Individuals within a population of a species may show a wide range of variation in phenotype.
This is due to genetic and environmental factors. The primary source of genetic variation is
mutation. Meiosis and the random fertilisation of gametes during sexual reproduction produce
further genetic variation
Predation, disease and competition for the means of survival result in differential survival and
reproduction, ie natural selection
Those organisms with phenotypes providing selective advantages are likely to produce more
offspring and pass on their favourable alleles to the next generation. The effect of this
differential reproductive success on the allele frequencies within a gene pool
The effects of stabilising, directional and disruptive selection
Evolution as a change in the allele frequencies in a population
Reproductive separation of two populations can result in the accumulation of difference in
their gene pools. New species arise when these genetic differences lead to an inability of
members of the populations to interbreed and produce fertile offspring. In this way, new
species arise from existing species
Allopatric and sympatric speciation
The importance of genetic drift in causing changes in allele frequency in small populations
Be able to explain why individuals within a population of a species may show a wide range of
variation in phenotype
Be able to explain why genetic drift is important only in small populations
Be able to explain how natural selection and isolation may result in change in the allele and
phenotype frequency and lead to the formation of a new species
Be able to explain how evolutionary change over a long period of time has resulted in a great
diversity of species

POPULATIONS IN ECOSYSTEMS
Populations of different species form a community. A community and the non-living
components of its environment together form an ecosystem. Ecosystems can range in size
from the very small to the very large
Within a habitat, a species occupies a niche governed by adaptation to both abiotic and biotic
conditions
An ecosystem supports a certain size of population of a species, called the carrying capacity.
This population size can vary as a result of:
• the effect of abiotic factors
• interactions between organisms: interspecific and intraspecific competition and predation
The size of a population can be estimated using:
• randomly placed quadrats, or quadrats along a belt transect, for slow-moving or
non-motile organisms
• the mark-release-recapture method for motile organisms. The assumptions made when
using the mark-release-recapture method
Ecosystems are dynamic systems
Primary succession, from colonisation by pioneer species to climax community
At each stage in succession, certain species may be recognised which change the
environment so that it becomes more suitable for other species with different adaptations. The
new species may change the environment in such a way that it becomes less suitable for the
previous species
Changes that organisms produce in their abiotic environment can result in a less hostile
environment and change biodiversity
Conservation of habitats frequently involves management of succession
Be able to show understanding of the need to manage the conflict between human needs and
conservation in order to maintain the sustainability of natural resources
Be able to evaluate evidence and data concerning issues relating to the conservation of
species and habitats and consider conflicting evidence
Be able to use given data to calculate the size of a population estimated using the mark-
release-recapture method
Required practical 12: Investigation into the effect of a named environmental factor on the
distribution of a given species

The Control of Gene Expression (A-level Only)

ALTERATION OF THE SEQUENCE OF BASES IN DNA CAN ALTER THE STRUCTURE
OF PROTEINS
Gene mutations might arise during DNA replication. They include addition, deletion,
substitution, inversion, duplication and translocation of bases
Gene mutations occur spontaneously. The mutation rate is increased by mutagenic agents.
Mutations can result in a different amino acid sequence in the encoded polypeptide
• Some gene mutations change only one triplet code. Due to the degenerate nature of the
genetic code, not all such mutations result in a change to the encoded amino acid
• Some gene mutations change the nature of all base triplets downstream from the
mutation, ie result in a frame shift
Be able to relate the nature of a gene mutation to its effect on the encoded polypeptide

GENE EXPRESSION IS CONTROLLED BY A NUMBER OF FEATURES

Most of a cell’s DNA is not translated
Totipotent cells can divide and produce any type of body cell
During development, totipotent cells translate only part of their DNA, resulting in cell
specialisation
Totipotent cells occur only for a limited time in early mammalian embryos
Pluripotent cells are found in embryos; multipotent and unipotent cells are found in mature
mammals and can divide to form a limited number of different cell types
• Pluripotent stem cells can divide in unlimited numbers and can be used in treating human
disorders
• Unipotent cells, exemplified by the formation of cardiomyocytes
• Induced pluripotent stem cells (iPS cells) can be produced from adult somatic cells using
appropriate protein transcription factors
Be able to evaluate the use of stem cells in treating human disorders
Regulation of transcription and translation
In eukaryotes, transcription of target genes can be stimulated or inhibited when specific
transcriptional factors move from the cytoplasm into the nucleus. The role of the steroid
hormone, oestrogen, in initiating transcription
Epigenetic control of gene expression in eukaryotes
Epigenetics involves heritable changes in gene function, without changes to the base
sequence of DNA. These changes are caused by changes in the environment that inhibit
transcription by:
• increased methylation of the DNA, or:
• decreased acetylation of associated histones
The relevance of epigenetics on the development and treatment of disease, especially cancer
In eukaryotes and some prokaryotes, translation of the mRNA produced from target genes
can be inhibited by RNA interference (RNAi)
Be able to interpret data provided from investigations into gene expression
Be able to evaluate appropriate data for the relative influences of genetic and environmental
factors on phenotype
Gene expression and cancer
The main characteristics of benign and malignant tumours
The role of the following in the development of tumours:
• tumour suppressor genes and oncogenes
• abnormal methylation of tumour suppressor genes and oncogenes
• increased oestrogen concentrations in the development of some breast cancers
Be able to evaluate evidence showing correlations between genetic and environmental
factors and various forms of cancer
Be able to interpret information relating to the way in which an understanding of the roles of
oncogenes and tumour suppressor genes could be used in the prevention, treatment and
cure of cancer

USING GENOME PROJECTS

Sequencing projects have read the genomes of a wide range of organisms, including humans
Determining the genome of simpler organisms allows the sequences of the proteins that
derive from the genetic code (the proteome) of the organism to be determined. This may have
many applications, including the identification of potential antigens for use in vaccine
production
In more complex organisms, the presence of non-coding DNA and of regulatory genes means
that knowledge of the genome cannot easily be translated into the proteome
Sequencing methods are continuously updated and have become automated

GENE TECHNOLOGIES ALLOW THE STUDY OF ALTERATION OF GENE FUNCTION

ALLOWING A BETTER UNDERSTANDING OF ORGANISM FUNCTION AND THE DESIGN
OF NEW INDUSTRIAL AND MEDICAL PROCESSES
Recombinant DNA technology
Recombinant DNA technology involves the transfer of fragments of DNA from one organism,
or species, to another. Since the genetic code is universal, as are transcription and translation
mechanisms, the transferred DNA can be translated within cells of the recipient (transgenic)
organism
Fragments of DNA can be produced by several methods, including:
• conversion of mRNA to complementary DNA (cDNA), using reverse transcriptase
• using restriction enzymes to cut a fragment containing the desired gene from DNA
• creating the gene in a ‘gene machine’
Fragments of DNA can be amplified by in vitro and in vivo techniques
The principles of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) as an in vitro method to amplify DNA
fragments
The culture of transformed host cells as an in vivo method to amplify DNA fragments
• The addition of promoter and terminator regions to the fragments of DNA
• The use of restriction endonucleases and ligases to insert fragments of DNA into vectors.
Transformation of host cells using these vectors
• The use of marker genes to detect genetically modified (GM) cells or organisms
Students will not be required to recall specific marker genes in a written paper
Be able to interpret information relating to the use of recombinant DNA technology
Be able to evaluate the ethical, financial and social issues associated with the use and
ownership of recombinant DNA technology in agriculture, in industry and in medicine
Be able to balance the humanitarian aspects of recombinant DNA technology with the
opposition from environmentalists and anti-globalisation activists
Be able to relate recombinant DNA technology to gene therapy
Differences in DNA between individuals of the same species can be exploited for
identification and diagnosis of heritable conditions
The use of labelled DNA probes and DNA hybridisation to locate specific alleles of genes
The use of labelled DNA probes that can be used to screen patients for heritable conditions,
drug responses or health risks
The use of this information in genetic counselling and personalised medicine
Be able to evaluate information relating to screening individuals for genetically determined
conditions and drug responses
Genetic fingerprinting
An organism’s genome contains many variable number tandem repeats (VNTRs). The
probability of two individuals having the same VNTRs is very low
The technique of genetic fingerprinting in analysing DNA fragments that have been cloned by
PCR, and its use in determining genetic relationships and in determining the genetic
variability within a population
The use of genetic fingerprinting in the fields of forensic science, medical diagnosis, animal
and plant breeding
Be able to explain the biological principles that underpin genetic fingerprinting techniques
Be able to interpret data showing the results of gel electrophoresis to separate DNA
fragments
Be able to explain why scientists might use genetic fingerprinting in the fields of forensic
science, medical diagnosis, animal and plant breeding