Computer networks(rules or protocols which help in

sending and receiving data via the links which allow Computer
networks to communicate. )
 connecting computers together to enable communication
and data exchange between them.
 Computer Network is a collection of two or more
computers.
 Basics building blocks of a Computer network are
Nodes(Data communication like a modem etc) and
Links(wired or wireless connection).
 BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
o 1)network(collection of computers and devise)
o 2) nodes(devices that are connected to a network)
o 3) protocol( set of rules and standard
o 4) topology( physical and logical arrangement of nodes)
o 5) service provider networks( permission to take network capacity and functionality )
6) IP address( unique numerical identifiers )
o 7) DNS (Domian name system used to translate human readable domain names)
o 8) firewall(security devices that is used to monitor and control incoming and
outgoing network traffic)
 TYPES OF ENTERPRISE COMPUTER NETWORKS
o LAN( local area network covers small area)-personal network and workstation
o WAN(wide area network covers large geographic area)
o MAN (covers more than Lan)-(metropolitan area network 5-50km)
o SAN( storage are network)
o VPN( virtual private network)
o EPN( Enterprise private network)
o PAN( personal are network)- interconnection of personal network
o CLOUD NETWORK( they can be hosted on public or private cloud service providers)

 Open system: A system that is connected to the

network and is ready for communication.
 Closed system: A system that is not connected to the
network and can’t be communicated with.
 Types of Computer Network Architecture
o Client server architecture
o Peer to peer architecture
 Network topology
o Star(all devices are connected to single
hub(central station))
 o Mesh(connected to another device like adhoc
configuration protocol and dynamic host
configuration protocol)
o Hybrid( combination of all various types of
topologies)
o Point to point(direct sender and receiver
communication ,high bandwidth)
o Daisy chain
o Tree(hierarchical flow of data, protocol like
dhcp and standard automatic configuration)
o Ring(devices with two neighboring devices)
o Bus(every computer and network devices is
connected to single cable, bidirectional)
 OSI(open source interconnection)- transmitting
data between computers
o 7 layers
o Physical
o Datalink
o Network
o Transport
o Session
o Presentation
o Application
 Protocol
o TCP(Transmission control protocol)
o IP(internet protocol)
o UDP(user datagram protocol)
o ARP
o DHCP(dynamic host configuring protocol)
o FTP(file transfer protocol)
 Unique identifiers of network
o Hostname
o Internet protocol(ipv4(32) ipv6(128 bits))
o MAC( media access control(length 12 nibble or
6 bytes or 48 bits))
o Port(16 bits)-well known ports(0-1023)
registered port(1024-49151) ephemeral
port(49152-65535)
o Socket(unique combination of ip address and
port number)
 DNS SERVER( convert web address to ip
address)-nslookup
 ARP( address resolution protocol) -convert ip
address to physical address used in datalink
layer
 RARP (reverse of arp)
 NETWORKING ELEMENTS
o Atleast two computers
o Transmission medium
o Protocol
o Network software
 Transmission media
o Guided (wired, direct connection)
 Twisted pair cable
 Unshielded twisted pair
 Shielded twisted pair
 Optical cable
 Coaxial
 Stripline
 microstripline
o Unguided media
 Radio waves
 Microwaves
 Infrared
 space
 Transmission modes
o Simple mode(unidirectional, ex:keyboard)
o Half duplex mode(each station can both
transmit and receive but not at the same
time ex: walkie-talkie )
o Full duplex mode(both station can transmit
and receive simultaneously ex: telephone
network)
 Redundant lins- prevent nasty network failure
 Line coding – process for converting digital data
to digital signal
o 5 categories
 Unipolar(signals are either above or
below axis)
o Ex: NRZ( non return to zero)
 Polar- voltages are on both sides
  Ex: NRZ-L(nrz-level) and NRZ-I(nrz-
invert)
 Bipolar( three voltage
positive,negative, zero)
 Multilevel
 multitransition
 Broadband: to reduce effect of noise in the
environment.
o Digital
o Bidirectional
o Short distance
 Baseband: digital signal transmission on the
medium using one of the signal code like NRZ,RZ
Manchester biphase-Mcode)
o Analog
o Unidirectional
o Long distance
 TCP/IP model
o Application layer
o Transport layer(tcp/udp)
o Network/internet layer
o Data link layer
o physical
 ICMP: ICMP stands for Internet Control Message
Protocol. It is encapsulated within IP datagrams and is
responsible for providing hosts with information about
network problems.
 SSH: SSH stands for Secure Shell. It is a terminal
emulations software similar to Telnet.
  MULTIPLE ACCESS PROTOCOLS
 Data link layer is responsible for transmission of data
between two nodes
o Data link control
o Multiple access control
 Multiple Access protocol
o Random access protocol
 Aloho
 Pure aloha
 Slotted aloha
 Csma
 1-persistent
 Non-persistent
 P-persistent
 O-persistent
 Csma/cd(collision detection)
 Csma/ca(collision avoidance)
o Controlled access protocol
 Reservation
 Polling
 Token passing
o Channelization protocol
 Fdma
 Tdma
 Cdma

 P2P (peer to peer) file sharing

o Networks allows computer hardware and software
to communicate without the need for a server
o P2p architecture
 Centralized directory
 Query flooding
 Exploiting heterogeneity
 Types of framing
o Fixed size
o Variable size

 Ethernet
o Used for Lan technology.
 Bit stuffing is the insertion of non information bits into
data. Note that stuffed bits should not be confused with
overhead bits.

 Overhead bits are non-data bits that are necessary for

transmission
 Data link layer is responsible for something called
Framing, which is the division of a stream of bits from the
network layer into manageable units
 Byte stuffing: A technique used to prevent the occurrence of
a specific byte in a data stream by adding an extra byte.
 Bit stuffing: A technique used to prevent the occurrence of a
specific bit sequence in a data stream by inserting an additional
bit.
 Hamming code is a set of error-correction codes that
can be used to detect and correct the errors that can
occur when the data is moved or stored from the sender
to the receiver.
ETHERNET:
 It is a data communication network connecting various
terminal within limited geographical area
 It operates two layers physical and data link layer
 Uses CSMA/CD
 Wifi wireless communication 802.11 ac WIFI

FLOW CONTROL:
 Set of procedures that tell sender how much data it can
transmit before waiting for acknowledgement from the
receiver.
 Ex: stop and wait protocol

ERROR CONTROL:
 Detect error in transmitted frames and retransmits all the
erroneous frames.
 Ex: stop and wait ARQ
 Sliding window ARQ

SWITCHING:
 Process of transferring data packets from one device to
another in a network.
 Takes places in the data link layer.
 More efficient than network hub or repeater
 Types of switching
o Message switching- entire data block is forwarded
across the entire network.
o Circuit switching – connection established between
the source and destination beforehand, message
only send to destination only.
o Packet switching- message are broken down into
smaller parts and shared into packets, data frames
or smaller components.
 Datagram network- data frame are taken
separately and processed separately.
 Virtual circuit network- virtual connection made
between the source and destination is made
before transmitting any data.
 IP ADDRESS: unique address of the web page
 Types of IP addresses:
o IPV4
 Network address and host address
  Version 4
 32 bits
 0-255
 Binary digits separated by dot(.)
o IPV6(version 6)
 Version 6
 8 hexa decimal numbers
 Separated by colon(:)
 128 bit

 Framing in data link layer:

o Point to point connection between two computers or
devices consisting of a wire in which data is
transmitted as a stream of bits.
o The process of dividing the data into frames and
reassembling it is transparent to the user and is
handled by the data link layer.
o Two types of framing:
 Fixed: no need to provide boundaries to the
frame, the length of the frame itself acts as a
delimiter.
 Variable size:
 Length field
 End delimiter
 Medium access control is the sublayer of the data link
layer of the open system interconnection reference model
for data transmission.
o MAC Address is the physical address that works in
data link layer(48 bits)
o Types of MAC address:
 Unicast
 Multicast
 Broadcast
 Ethernet Bridging:
o Ethernet bridges represent the software analog to a physical ethernet
switch.
 DATA STRUCTURES
 BASIC TERMINOLOGIES
o PARENT NODE
o CHILD NODE
o ROOT NODE
o LEAF NODE
o Ancestor – previously connected nodes
o Descendant – next two connected nodes
o Level of node – start from 0 to n-1
o Internal node – at least one child
o Neighbour node
o Subtree
 Tree traversal techniques
 In order (left>sub tree , root, right>subtree)
 Preorder(root, left , right)
 Post order(left , right, root)
 Types of trees
 Binary tree
 Maximum two children
 Full binary tree
o Tree were only0 or 2 childrens
 Degenerate
o Internal nodes has one child
 Skewed
o Dominated from left or right
 Complete binary tree
o All are filled expect last nodes have
children
 Perfect binary tree
o Perfect binary tree internal nodehave
two children and all leaf at the same
level
 Balanced binary tree
 Ternary tree
 Where nodes have three children
nodes( left, mid, Right)
 N-ary tree or gerneric tree
 Binary search tree
 Avl tree
 Self balanced tree
  Difference between height of left and right
subtree for any node cannt more than
one(0,1,-1)
 Balance factor= height(left-right)
 Left rotation
 Right rotation
 Left-right rotation
 Right-left rotation
 Operation
o Insertion
o Deletion
o Searching

 B- tree
 Heap(OlogN) time
 Complete binary tree where the root of any
subtree has a higher value than all nodes in its
subtree
 Two types of heap
 Max heap
o The root node will be higher than the
sub tree
 Min heap
o The root node or parent node will be
smaller than the remaining subtree
 Graph
 Non linear data structure
 Vertices and edge
 Breadth first search (BFS)
 Depth first search (DFS)
 Types of graphs
 Null graph
 Trivial graph
 Undirected graph
 Directed graph
 Connected graph
 Disconnected graph
 Regular graph
 Complete graph
 Cycle graph
 Cyclic graph
 Directed acyclic graph
  Bipartite graph
 Weighted graph
 Hashing
o Process of converting input data into fixed size
string of character which is typically a
hexadecimal number.
o Hash function:
 Creates a aping between key and value,
this is done thought the use of
mathematical formulas.
 Types of hash function
 Division method
 Mid square method
 Folding method
 Multiplication method
 Handle collisions:
 Separate chaining (open hashing) –
key%n
 Open addressing (closed hashing)
o Linear probing – sequentially
arranged
o Quadratic probing
o Double hashing
 Rehashing
 Load factor increases to more than its
predefined value
 O(log n)
ALGORITHM

 Algorithm:
o Set of rules to be followed in calculations
or other problem solving operations.
o Simple
o Complex depending
o Asymptotic notation:
 Method of describing the limited
behaviour of a function
 Three analysis:
 Best case(omega)
 Average case (theta)
 Worst(o)
o Types of algorithm
 Brute force
 Recursive
 Backtracking
 Searching
 Sorting
 Hashing
 Divide and conquer
 Solving the problem using the
divide, conquer, and combine
strategy.
 Merge sort is the best example –
o(n logn)
 Quick sort – using pivot and
partitions the given array
around the picked pivot by
placing the pivot in its correct
position in the sorted array
 Greedy
 Dynamic programming
 Randomized

 Recurrence relation:
o Backbone of algorithmic analysis,
providing a systematic way to express the
time complexity of recursive algorithm
o Recursive relation:
 Substitution method
  Recurrence tree method
 Master method T(N) =At(N/B)+f(N)

 Strassen’s matrix multiplication
o Efficient than the standard method
 Split into sub matrixs
 Recurisively computes seven product
 Combine the product to form the
result
 Greedy algorithm
o Builds solution piece by piece
o Best fit for greedy
o Optimal substructure property
 Job sequencing problem
 Single processor operating
system and a set of job that
have to be completed with given
deadline constraints
 Fractional knapsack problem
 Prim’s algorithm to find minimum
spanning tree
 Activity selection problem
 Find max no of activites a
person can perform if they can
only work on one activity at a
time
 Dijkstra’s shortest path algorithm
 Kruskal minimum spanning tree

 Graph data structure:

o Non linear data structure consisting of
vertices and edges.
o Two ways
 Adjacency matrix
 Matrix of Boolean( o’s and 1’s)
 Adjacency list
 Used to store edges between
two vertices.

 Breadth first search

o Graph level by level
 Depth first search
 o Deep as possible along one branch before
backtracking
 Topological sorting
o Visit scheduling tasks with dependencies
 Bellman- ford algorithm
o Finding the shortest path from a single
source vertex to all other vertices in a
weighted graph
 Floyd warshall algorithm