Biology of Algae Lec 6

Biology of Marine Multicellular
Primary Producers
Multicellular algae
Seaweeds (or marine macroalgae) are multicellular algae that inhabit the oceans.
Some macroalgae -filamentous diatoms, dinoflagellates, and cyanobacteria, are little more than colonies of
cells, and they belong to groups that are predominantly unicellular
The three other groups of seaweeds—

- red algae (phylum Rhodophyta),
- brown algae (phylum Phaeophyta), and
- green algae
DISTRIBUTION OF SEAWEEDS
The environmental factors that are most influential in governing the distribution
of seaweeds are light and temperature.
Some other abiotic factors critical in governing the distribution of seaweeds are the
duration of tidal exposure and desiccation (drying out), wave action and surge,
salinity, and availability of mineral nutrients.
Most species of seaweed are benthic, growing on rock, sand, mud, and coral on the
sea bottom, on other organisms, and as part of a fouling community.
Some seaweeds attach to very specific surfaces, whereas other seaweeds are rather
nonselective.
Seaweeds inhabit about 2% of the seafloor.

The areas of the world most favorable to seaweed diversity include both sides of the
North Pacific Ocean, Australia, southwestern Africa, and the Mediterranean Sea.
Effects of Light on Seaweed Distribution
The vertical and horizontal distributions of seaweeds are limited in
part by the availability of sunlight and therefore, vary by depth,
latitude, sea conditions, and season.
Effects of Temperature on Seaweed Distribution

Temperature affects the distribution of seaweeds. The greatest
diversity of algal species is in tropical waters. Farther north or south
of the equator, the number of species decreases, and the species
themselves are different.
BIOCHEMISTRY OF SEAWEEDS
Major biochemical components:

- Photosynthetic pigments: Chloroplasts in all seaweeds have chlorophyll a, which, along with
chlorophylls b (green algae), c (brown algae), and d (red algae), is responsible for photosynthesis.
Chlorophylls absorb blue and red wavelengths of light and pass green light. Carotenes, xanthophylls,
and phycobilins, absorb different wavelengths of light and pass the energy to chlorophylls for
photosynthesis. The accessory pigments protect chlorophyll molecules from damage by light.
- Composition of cell walls: The cell walls of seaweeds are primarily composed of cellulose. Many
seaweeds secrete a slimy gelatinous mucilage, made of polymers of several sugars, that covers their
cells. Some algae have a thick multilayered covering of protein called a cuticle.
- - Nature of their food reserves: When the amount of photosynthesis exceeds the immediate needs of
the seaweed, the excess sugars are converted into polymers and stored in the cells as starches.
GREEN ALGAE
Green algae (phylum Chlorophyta) are a diverse group of microbes and
multicellular organisms that contain the same kinds of pigments found in
vascular (land) plants: chlorophylls a and b and certain carotenoids.
Two of the four classes of green algae are freshwater and terrestrial microbes.
A third group, the prasinophyceans, probably represent the earliest green algae;
prasinophyceans are poorly known marine phytoplankton.
Seaweeds belong to the fourth class, the Ulvophyeae, which includes only about
1,100 species, or 13%, of green algae.
Green algae are important as seasonal sources of food for marine animals. They
also contribute to the formation of coral reefs.
Response of Green Algae to Herbivory
Tolerance, avoidance, and deterrence are three ways that organisms adapt to
predation, and the green algae provide good examples of each. Most green algae are
small annuals. Rapid growth and the release of huge numbers of spores and zygotes
prevent elimination of their populations by herbivores (tolerance)
Their small size allows them to occupy crevices on rocky shores and reefs that keep
out the larger herbivores (avoidance).
In addition to these survival tactics, coenocytic algae illustrate two adaptations to

repel herbivores (deterrence). Many coenocytic algae produce repulsive toxins
that reduce herbivory on their otherwise nutritious thalli
REPRODUCTION IN SEAWEEDS
Seaweeds can reproduce both asexually and sexually.
Fig. LIFE CYCLE OF THE SEA LETTUCE

ULVA (Green Algae)
In the sea lettuce Ulva, the diploid

sporophyte produces by meiosis two
different kinds of haploid motile spores,
designated + and -. When the spores
germinate (undergo mitosis), they grow
into haploid gametophytes that release
two kinds of motile gametes, also
designated + and -. A + gamete fuses
with a - gamete to produce a diploid
zygote. The zygote settles on the solid
bottom, germinates, and forms a new
sporophyte.
Human Uses of Green Algae
Human populations
Use seaweeds for many purposes, including their own food,
fodder for livestock, fertilizer or mulch in agriculture,
wastewater treatment, and a source of chemicals.
Used in Mariculture.
Among green algae, Ulva and other genera are used as food in
Asian cuisines. Because their cell walls contain little more than
cellulose.
RED ALGAE
Red algae (phylum Rhodophyta) are
primarily marine organisms.
About 98% of the 6,000 species are

marine, which means that red algae have
the highest diversity among the seaweeds.
Red algae are mostly benthic in

distribution. Some species can survive at
depths as great as 200 meters (660 feet) in
clear water.
Response of Red Algae to Herbivory
- The annual red algae are a seasonal food source primarily for
sea urchins, fish, molluscs, and crustaceans.
- Red algae do not produce many toxins to deter herbivores.
- Their main defenses against herbivory are making their thalli
less edible
- Some red algae deter herbivores by incorporating calcium
carbonate into the cell wall, making the thallus difficult to eat
and to digest
- As a group, red algae are able to tolerate herbivory because of
their rapid growth and annual and complex life cycles, which allow
them rapidly to replace biomass lost to grazing.
Reproduction in Red Algae
LIFE CYCLE OF A RED ALGA
Nonmotile haploid spores released

by the tetrasporophyte germinate
and grow into either male or
female gametophytes. The sperm
produced by the male
gametophyte are nonmotile. They
are carried by water currents to the
female gametophyte and fertilize
their stationary eggs. The zygote
that results develops in place into a
new generation, the diploid
carposporophyte, which remains
parasitic on the female
gametophyte. Diploid carpospores
released by the carposporophyte
disperse, settle, and germinate into
the tetrasporophyte.
Human Uses of Red Algae
Commercially valuable gelling component - Agar (from red algae)
- use is in making solid culture media for growing bacteria in
microbiology laboratories.
Another phycocolloid from red algae, carrageenan, is also used as a
thickening and binding agent in ice cream, pudding, and salad dressings and
by the cosmetic industry for various creamy preparations.
Some red algae are used by humans as a source of food (e.g., Irish
Moss, Chondrus crispus)
In addition to being a source of human food, red algae are

cultivated to produce animal feed and fertilizer in many parts of
Asia.
BROWN ALGAE
Brown algae (phylum Phaeophyta) are a multicellular group of
stramenopiles e.g. : rockweeds, kelps, and sargassum weed
The 1,500 species of brown algae are almost
exclusively (99.7%) marine inhabitants
Brown algae range in size from microscopic, filamentous forms to the
largest of all algae, the giant kelps, which can attain lengths of 100
meters (330 feet).
Distribution of Brown Algae
Brown algae for the most part are more diverse and abundant
along the coastlines of high latitudes than in the tropics. In the
western North Atlantic Ocean, along the northeastern coast of
North America, for example, there are twice as many species of brown
algae as in the Caribbean, Bahamas, and Gulf of Mexico.
Brown algae are far less diverse than red and green algae in
the tropics, but they rival the red algae in the northeast. Most
of the large kelp or kelplike brown algae are temperate forms.
Reproduction in Brown Algae
LIFE CYCLE OF FUCUS

Gametes form by meiosis in
conceptacles embedded
within receptacles at the tips
of reproductive blades.
Gametangia are released from
the conceptacles and fall to
the sea floor. Flagellated
sperm and nonmotile eggs
later are released into the
seawater, where fertilization
occurs. The zygote then settles
to the bottom and develops
into a new sporophyte
Human Uses of Brown Algae
The alginates (phycocolloids) of some brown algae are harvested for

commercial use as thickening agents in the textile, dental, cosmetic, and food
industries.
Brown algae, such as kelps, concentrate iodine from seawater in their tissues.
The concentration of iodine in some species of kelp may be 10 times that of the
surrounding seawater. Before cheaper methods of obtaining iodine were
developed, seaweeds were the main source of this trace nutrient, which is added
to table salt to prevent goiter, a thyroid gland disorder.
In some areas of the world, especially Asia, brown algae are used as food. Some
coastal countries also use brown algae as cattle feed.

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Biology of Marine Multicellular

The three other groups of seaweeds—

Seaweeds inhabit about 2% of the seafloor.

Effects of Temperature on Seaweed Distribution

Major biochemical components:

In addition to these survival tactics, coenocytic algae illustrate two adaptations to

Seaweeds can reproduce both asexually and sexually.

Fig. LIFE CYCLE OF THE SEA LETTUCE

In the sea lettuce Ulva, the diploid

About 98% of the 6,000 species are

Red algae are mostly benthic in

LIFE CYCLE OF A RED ALGA

Nonmotile haploid spores released

In addition to being a source of human food, red algae are

LIFE CYCLE OF FUCUS

The alginates (phycocolloids) of some brown algae are harvested for

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