LESSON NOTES ON INSTRUCTIONAL TECHNOLOGY (EDU 100.

2)

What is Educational Technology?

According to the Association for Educational Communications and Technology (AECT) 2008,
Educational technology is the study and ethical practice of facilitating learning and improving
performance by creating, using and managing appropriate technological processes and resources.

What is Technology of Education and Technology in Education?

Technology of Education refers to the systematic application of the scientific knowledge in the
design, implementation and evaluation of learning systems. Or

Technology of Education is systematic application of innovative processes and methodologies to

solve educational problems, and help learners acquire and use knowledge.

Innovative teaching processes include blended learning, 21st century teaching skills,
individualized instruction, programmed instruction, team teaching approach, collaborative
learning strategy and active learning approach.

Innovative evaluation techniques include presentation, paperless examination, online discussion,

recorded demonstrations, among others.

Technology in Education is the application of technology to any of the processes involved in

operating institutions that houses educational enterprise.

Technology in education also refers to the use of digital tools in education. It is in reality the
incorporation of Information and Communication Technology (ICT) into the classroom.

Technology is classified as hardware and software.

Hardware are the machine or physical aspect of educational technology, examples include
computer, mobile phones, projectors, printers, scanners, cameras, interactive whiteboards,
cassettes, among others.

Software are programmes and applications that run inside the hardware, examples include online
learning platforms, social media applications, Internet, browsers, PowerPoint, word processors
such as Microsoft word, video and audio files, among others.

What is Instructional Technology? Instructional technology is the systematic process of

analyzing and identifying instructional problems and creating and using appropriate instructional
interventions and environments to solving the identified instructional problems.

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 Differences between Educational Technology and Instructional Technology

Educational Technology Instructional Technology

1. It has a wider concept including It is part of Educational Technology

instructional technology
2. Goals are decided in the context of Goals are determined in the context of the
the needs of a nation local needs

3. Behavioral outcomes are Behavioral outcomes are determined

determined keeping in view the keeping in view the specific expectations
ultimate needs of a nation of the learners

4. Attempt are made to discover the Competencies and skills of the learners in
competencies and skills of learners a locality are discovered
all over the nations
5. Selection of educational media is A given class or school is the unit for the
made for making teaching and selection of educational media for making
learning more effective in several teaching and learning more effective
schools of a region
6. Teaching material is produced on a Limited material is produced according to
large scale local needs

7. Feedback is obtained at national Feedback is obtained at local level

level

Importance of Technology in Education

1. Creates a More Engaged Environment and encourage active participation in your classroom.
2. Incorporates Different Learning Styles
3. Improves Collaboration within and outside the classroom
4. Prepares Children for the Future
5. Connects teachers with their students and improve communications among students, teachers,
and parents.
6. Expand teachers’ knowledge of subject matter
7. Encourages critical thinking skills.
8. Personalized Learning Opportunities

System Approach to Instruction, Meaning and its Relevance to Instruction

Introduction
We come across many system, without system, no activity will be complete. For example, the
university system contains different sections (office of the provost - registrar - bursar - library -
students affairs, etc), department, faculties that are working together for the attainment of a
common educational goal, that is, to train the manpower needs of the society.

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What is a System?
A system is a set of interrelated and interdependent components forming an integrated whole.
A system refers to an object, event, process or a combination of these, consisting of entities that
interact cooperatively to achieve a purpose.

Features or Characteristics of a System

1. A system is made up of sub-systems or components that are interrelated and interdependent
2. A system is goal-oriented
3. Systems are dynamic an complex
4. A system is tie bound, such that a change in one affects the other
5. They function as integrated body that works together to achieve a common goal
6. It is integrated whole comprising inter related.
7. All systems have an input, process, output and feedback mechanisms
8. Has a purpose, process and content

Types of System
1. Natural System: Natural systems are created by the nature. For example, Solar system, body,
seasonal system.
2. Artificial System: Artificial system are man-made system. It consists of:
Open system: An open system is a system that interact regularly or exchanges feedback with
its external environment. An open systems interacts with other systems through the free
passing of information. Example is the school system, instructional system, etc.
Closed system: A closed system does not that interact with its external environment. All
system input and output are internal. Closed systems operate on their own with little or no
influence from the outside world. Examples are bureaucracies and autocratic system of
government.

What is System Approach to Instruction?

System approach to instruction is a problem-solving process in which the problem solver engages
in series of steps to solve an identified educational problem.

System approach to instruction is the adoption of step-to-step method to identify the problems of
instruction and the components/parts required to prepare, present and evaluate the instructional
solutions.

Characteristics of System Approach to Instruction

1. Centers on the learner
2. Emphasize on evaluation
3. Interrelated and independent elements
4. Fast feedback
5. Evaluation of resources

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A schematic representation of the system approach to instruction

There are five basic parameters in system approach which are:

1. Input: Input refers to what is put into a system. Inputs are teachers, students, curriculum,
content, instructional material.
2. Process: Process refers to the operations, interactions, learning process and activities that go
on in a school system. It includes instructional methods, strategies and approaches a teacher
uses in the classroom.
3. Output: Output is the product of a system. Examples are students’ performance, job
satisfaction, among others.
4. Feedback: This helps to control the system. Positive feedback encourages system
performance. Negative feedback helps to amend system processes and inputs for better output
in future.
5. Environmental Context: This is the physical and social environment where the system
operates. It is called a supra-system. Environment provides feedback to the learner and
teacher.

Major Steps or phases involved in Systems Approach to Instruction

System Analysis: This is the process of collecting and interpreting facts about a system or its part
in order to identify the system/instructional problems, goals or needs, learners needs and entry
behaviour, and tasks/topics required to achieve system/instructional goals.

System Design: This involves formulating instructional objectives and specifying learning
experience, learning materials and delivery modes or methods required to accomplish the
instructional objectives. System design leads to the production of a blueprint, template or lesson
plan that specifies the lesson duration, sequence, interactions and evaluation procedure.

System development: System development involves the creation of all the materials, such as
lesson notes, instructional media, games, learning environment, evaluation or test questions
required for instruction.

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System Operation (implementation): System operation involves delivering the instructional
interventions to the learners or target audience. This is where the actual teaching and learning
process take place.

System Evaluation: System evaluation is done to ascertain if the stated instructional objectives
has been achieved. There are two types of evaluation, Formative evaluation and summative
evaluation Formative (continuous assessment) evaluation occurs during instruction or after
completing a topic or course unit using assignments, quizzes or tests. Summative evaluation occurs
at the end of the entire course using final examination. Formative evaluation facilitates immediate
improvement while the summative evaluation facilitates decision making on selection of
media/modes or any resources after a period of time.

Relevance of a system approach to instruction

1. It helps us to know that every system has a purpose, process, content and output.
2. To understand how different sub-units in a system works
3. To know how component parts of a system work together for the attainment of a common
goal
4. Helps us to plan and design instructions
5. It helps us to identify and solve existing educational problems
6. Helps us to select the most appropriate teaching strategies
7. Helps us to evaluate the effectiveness of the learning systems
8. Improving the instructional system
9. Improve the quality of education

Summary
System approach to instruction is a holistic approach to solving problems in education system in
a system perspective, which helps teachers to improve educational quality.

Lesson Note on Communication and Teaching

What is Communication?
Communication is the information, ideas, thoughts, and emotions exchange from one person to the
other.
In the teaching and learning process, communication is the interaction or the exchange of ideas
between the teachers and students, and among students.
Instructional communication is the communication type that happens in the classroom between the
teacher and students.

Methods/Forms of Communication
1. Oral or verbal communication: This involves communication through spoken words;
examples are face-to-face, phone, radio, virtual communication, and others.
2. Non-verbal communication: This involves communicating using body language, gestures,
facial expression, sound symbols, dressing mode, scent, and others.
3. Written communication: This involves using letters, books, email, magazines, the Internet,
and other media during communication.

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4. Pictorial communication: This involves communicating using pictures or visual materials.
Examples are graphs, charts, pictures, maps, logos, and others.

Communication Circuit
The communication circuit describes the relationship among all the components of
communication.

Channel
Sender Message Facilitator/barrier Receiver

Feedback

Communication is a process because it involves at least two people in continuous and interactive
processes. It has no beginning or end.
The following components must be present in a communication circuit
1. Sender: this is the source of the information or message. A sender is an individual who
constructs, encodes, and sends out a message through the right channel.
2. Message: this is the content of the communication. It contains facts, knowledge, belief, skills,
values, or learning experiences delivered to the receiver (learner). The aim of the message might
be to persuade, inform, entertain or modify behaviour.
3. Channel: this is the medium or vehicle that carries the message. The channel is primarily our
sense organs, and secondarily other media such as radio, Internet, and web 2.0 tools. Selecting the
right channel for communication requires the consideration of factors like; availability of channels,
purpose, suitability, types of receiver, type of message, preference of sender and receiver, cost,
and others.
4. Receiver: A receiver is a person who receives, interprets, or decodes the message that the sender
sent.
5. Feedback: This is the response or answer given to the sender by the receiver to affirm that he
decodes the message.
6. Communication facilitators or barriers: Variables that may favorably or adversely affect
communication.

Models of Communication
Communication models explain the different patterns or styles of the communication process that
people engage in. You should consider the methods and channels of communication before
choosing any model to use. There are three categories of communication models:
1. Linear Model of Communication: A one-way communication where a sender sends a message
and receivers absorb the message without feedback. Often used for mass communication such as

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television, radio, newspaper, and others. Examples are the Shannon and Weaver model and Berlo’s
communication model.
2. Transactional Model of communication: This occurs during interpersonal communication where
the sender and receiver interchange roles as communicators and simultaneously provide feedback.
The feedback, which may be non-verbal like gestures, body language, is taken as a new message.
Examples of this model include Becker’s Mosaic Model and Helical model.
3. Interactive model: This deals with exchanging ideas/ messages from a sender to a receiver and
vice versa through a technology channel. Both the sender and the receiver serve as the message
source, and in turn, encode and decode the message with appropriate feedback. It is a human-
computer communication process in both verbal and non-verbal ways. Examples are
messages/ideas exchange through the Internet, social media, interactive television, chat rooms,
telephone, webinars, and others. An example of this model is Schramm’s Interactive model.

Schannon and Weaver Model

This is a linear communication model developed by Edward Shannon and Warren Weaver in 1949

Sender Message Receiver

Channel

Source Transmitter Destination

Noise Factor

In this model, the sender sends the message, and the transmitter encodes it to produce signals that
pass through the channel to the receiver, such as coaxial cables, wires, and others. The main idea
here is that in any situation, there is noise that can interfere with the signals' detection. Examples
include mechanical fault in a transmitter, channel, or receiver. Schannon and Weaver's model
mirrors the functioning of radio, telephone, TV technologies, and traffic lights. This model does
not emphasize how communication psychological and cultural aspects, like attitude and group
membership, affect communication. It emphasizes the physical or mechanical aspect of message
transmission.
.

The Berlo’s SMCR Model of Communication

Berlo’s model consists of four main components that include Source, Message, Channel, and
Receiver. Each of these components has sub-components or variables that describe factors that
affect each component during communication. According to Berlo’s model, communication
depends on many factors like communication skills, attitude, knowledge, socio-cultural system,
the content, structure, or element of the message; senses of the receiver, and others. It was
developed in 1960 by David Berlo.

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 Encodes Decodes

Source Message Channel Receiver

Communication Content Hearing Communication

Skills Skills
Element Seeing
Attitude Attitude
Treatment Touching
Knowledge Knowledge
Structure Smelling
Socio-cultural Socio-cultural
Tasting context
context Code

The model stressed that the source and the receiver must be at the same level for communication.
Therefore, the ability of the source/sender to encode/send a meaningful message and the receiver's
ability to decode/understand the message depends on such factors as their communication skills,
attitude, knowledge, and socio-cultural context under which the communication takes place.
Communication skills – are the skills required to communicate effectively, which include the
ability to read, write, speak, listen, and others.
Attitudes – This includes someone’s attitudes towards self, the audience, and the subject during
communication. For example, a student who dislikes a particular teacher may not pay attention
when such a teacher is teaching.
Knowledge–This deals with the level of knowledge someone has on a particular topic or subject
area. A teacher can teach effectively when h/she has good knowledge of the subject matter.
Socio-cultural system – This includes someone’s beliefs, values, religion, laws culture, and
general views about the society that affect the type of message he communicates.

The message organization depends on factors like the code, content, treatment, element, and
structure.
Code: The format in which the message is sent such as textual, audio, video, verbal, non-verbal,
among others.
Content: The idea within the message, or the main lesson a teacher delivers,
Treatment: Treatment deals with sentence arrangement, different levels of written material, and
final product appearance. For example, when the letters in a document are too tiny, those who have
eye problems may have difficulties reading such a document.
Element: this includes the different things that make up a particular message like the 44 basic
sounds in the English language or its 26 alphabets, comma, periods, and others.
Structure: These are the syntactic, phonetic and semantic rule that governs written or spoken
languages).
The channel: This consists of the five human sense organs (the eye, ears, nose, tongue, and skin).

What is Noise or Barriers to Communication?

Noise is a potential interruption to the flow of information.
Examples of Communication Noise

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Environment Noise: This involves sounds, looks, stimuli from the environment that physically
disrupts communication. Examples include; very loud speakers, construction site sound, noise
from moving vehicles or airplanes, and others.
Physiological-impairment Noise: physical conditions such as deafness or blindness that impede
effective communication and interfere with a message that is being clearly and accurately received.
Semantic Noise: this occurs when a speaker and the listener have different interpretations of the
meanings of certain words. For example, the word weed can represent an undesirable plant on a
farm or a euphemism for marijuana.
Syntactical Noise: Mistakes in grammar, such as an abrupt change in verb tense in a sentence can
disrupt communication.
Organizational Noise: Poorly structured messages can also be a barrier. For example, a receiver
who receives unclear directions may not figure out how to reach his destination.
Cultural Noise: This results from different beliefs, values, languages, and religions in different
cultures. An example includes wishing a non-Christian person a merry Christmas. It is necessary
that each person involves in a conversation understands the culture of the other party.
Psychological Noise: This has to do with the mental, internal or emotional state of the body, such
as someone’s intelligent quotient, thoughts, and feelings. Examples of feelings include; hunger,
tiredness, anger, sadness, and others.

Sensory Channels and Communication

Sensory channels are the human sense organs (sense of sight, hearing, touch, smell, and taste)
through which people can send and receive messages. The sensory channels are:
Visual Channels: this uses the sense of sight, the eye to communicate. Messages communicated
through these channels include facial expressions, gestures, posture, pictures, and written words.
Auditory Channels: These channels use the sense of hearing and balancing to communicate.
Examples of messages received through the auditory channels are spoken words, sounds,
telephone communications, and audio recordings (such as podcasts, radio).
Olfactory Channel: This uses the sense of smell, the nose to communicate. An example of the
message here includes a taste of food or object (salty, sour, sweet, or bitter taste).
Gustatory Channel: this uses the sense of taste, the tongue to communicate. Examples of
messages here include the taste of food or object (salty, sour, sweet, or bitter taste)
Tactile Channel: This involves the use of the sense of touch, the skin, to communicate. Example
of messages here includes touch sensations, therapeutic touch, handshake, among others.
Combined Channels: These involve using more than one channel during communication. An
example includes audio-visual media, consoling a person with touch and spoken words.

The implication of Communication to Teaching and Learning

Effective classroom communication leads to effective teaching and improved learning outcomes.
To achieve effective communication, a teacher needs to do the following:
1. Make an effort to improve your speaking ability or skills. Accompany your words with
appropriate body gestures and change the tone of your voice when needed.
2. Plan and organize your message (lessons) in a logical and easy-to-understand manner.
3. Assess the needs, abilities, and possible interests of your students. Adjust your choice of words,
concepts, and examples to suit them.
4. Be a good listener: listen attentively to students' questions, answers, or comments.

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5. Beware of students faking attention. They try to appear to be listening when they are absent-
minded.
6. Try to eliminate possible noises that might distract students from listening.
7. Encourage students to listen and think critically before making decisions or jumping to
conclusions.
Lesson Note on Online Learning
What is Online Learning?
Online learning is education that takes place over the Internet. Online learning also refers to as
eLearning, virtual learning, among others.
Online learning is an Internet-based course offered synchronously and asynchronously. Online
learning occurs in online learning platforms.

Types of Online Learning Platforms

There are three types of online learning platforms, which include
Social media: Social media websites and applications where users can create and share content to
participate in social networking. Social media are web-based sites that allow people to interact
with each other. Examples include Facebook, WhatsApp,
Telegram, Twitter, Instagram, Snapchat, and others.
Conferencing software: Conferencing software is an Internet-based application that enables
online learning and communication using audio meetings, video meetings, and seminars, with
built-in features such as chat, screen sharing, and recording. Conferencing software allows only
synchronous teaching and learning experiences. Examples of conferencing software include:
Zoom, Google Meet, Microsoft Team, Duo, GoToMeeting, Blackboard Collaborate, among
others.
Learning Management Systems: A learning management system (LMS) is software designed
specifically to create, distribute, and manage the delivery of educational content. LMS allows
synchronous and asynchronous teaching and learning experiences. Examples include Google
Classroom, Moodle, Canvas, Blackboard, Schoology, and others.

Types of Online Learning

Full Online learning: This involves 100% online course delivery without face-to-face sessions
between the teachers and learners in a physical classroom environment.
Blended learning: Blended learning is a course that mixes online with face-to-face teaching and
learning activities. Blended learning a style of education in which students learn via electronic and
online media and traditional face-to-face teaching. Learners can interact with the course content,
teachers, and coursemates online and face-to-face in the classroom. Types of blended learning
include flipped classroom blended learning, flex blended learning, self-blend blended learning,
and virtual blended learning. The schedule types, delivery method, locations, and instructors’ roles
distinguish the different blended learning.
Flipped Classroom Blended Learning: A flipped classroom means reversing the traditional
educational model where students study learning materials at home and use the classroom for
assignments, projects, discussion, and other collaborative and mastery learning activities with
teachers and peer support. A flipped classroom focused on a fixed schedule and the instructor's
decision.

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Station Rotation Blended Learning: Station-Rotation blended learning is a model that allows
students to rotate between online and traditional learning activities in a classroom or station on a
fixed schedule.
Lab Rotation Blended Learning: Lab rotation blended learning is a model that allows students to
rotate between online and traditional learning activities in a computer lab on a fixed schedule.
Individual Rotation Blended Learning: In individual rotation, an instructor or software
algorithm schedules each student to rotate to some online and traditional learning activities based
on his learning needs.
Flex Blended Learning: Flex blended learning involves instructors delivering most course
curriculum and learning activities online while using the physical classroom for occasional group
or individual interactions and explaining difficult concepts on a flexible or fluid schedule and
students’ learning needs.
Enriched Virtual Blended Learning: In Enriched Virtual blended learning, the students'
complete course works online and have occasional face-to-face meetings with an instructor may
sometimes be optional or mandatory, depending on an instructor’s decision.
A La Carte or Self-Blend Blended Learning: Self-Blend Blended Learning involves students
going to school in the conventional classroom setting and offering personal online courses at their
discretion and self-schedules. The online courses do not affect their school grades.

Forms (formats) of Online Learning

There are two forms of online learning based on the schedule, which includes:
Synchronous online learning: Synchronous learning is an online education that occurs in real-
time, with a set class schedule. The teacher and students log in to the online learning platform at
the same time for teaching and learning activities. Examples of synchronous learning tools include:
instant messaging, group chats, audio conferencing, video conferencing (such as YouTube Live,
Zoom), among others.
Asynchronous online learning: Asynchronous learning does not require real-time interaction;
instead, content is available online for students to access when it best suits their schedules and
complete assignments with deadlines. Examples of asynchronous online learning include wikis,
blogs, discussion boards, email, game-based learning, Learning Management Systems (LMSs)

Benefits of Online learning

1. Access to coursework from anywhere at any time
2. Flexible learning schedule
3. Review lectures instantly and repeatedly
4. More time to think before sharing
5. Take online quizzes and exams and get your score immediately.
6. Helps develop self-discipline skills.
7. Create opportunities for collaboration and communication among teachers and students outside
the classroom.
8. It is cost-effective since there is no travel, accommodation, textbook costs.
9. Create opportunities for mastery and individualized learning. Each learner learns at his own
pace.
10. Creating an opportunity for a student to combine academics with work.
11. Sharpened digital skills
12. Promote student-centered learning and collaboration

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13. Give students more control over their education

Challenges of Online Learning

1. Adaptability problem: Students are resistant to change and find it hard to adapt to an online
learning environment been accustomed to traditional classroom learning.
2. Technical Issues: Technical issues in online learning include slow/poor internet connection,
epileptic power supply, lack of technical facilities, inadequate technology, and computer
applications knowledge, difficulties downloading course materials and videos.
3. Computer illiteracy: Most teachers and students are computer illiterates who cannot operate
basic programs such as Microsoft Word and PowerPoint and therefore cannot handle computer
files and use online learning platforms.
4. Inadequate Time Management: Most students do not always meet deadlines in online learning
tasks and assignments due to their various everyday commitments.
5. Lack of Self-Motivation: Most students do not continue with online courses due to self-
motivation.
6. Students' passive attitude to learning: Most students find it very difficult to contribute their ideas
to any discussion and learning activities.
7. Providing timely feedback: It is always time-consuming and challenging for teachers to respond
to each student’s question.

Solutions to Online Learning

1. Accept the new learning environment with an open mind and heart.
2. Have a positive attitude to change and motivate yourself to follow the new educational trends.
3. Have a regular schedule planner or To-Do List and set reminders for online courses and
assignments.
4. Avoid distractions from social media and the environment that can affect your learning.
5. Take courses in computer literacy.
6. Get and find a high-speed internet connection.
7. Provide access to technical support to help students solve technical problems related to software
and tools for effective learning.
8. Set rules and requirements for course participation.
9. Provide reinforcements such as marks, bonuses, badges, praise, among others, to individual
students.
10. Consider posting notifications or group emails to answer students’ repetitive questions.
11. Create a discussion board where students can post questions for the teacher and see other
classmates' posts and teachers’ answers

Summary
In this lesson, we have defined online learning, described the three types of online learning
platforms, discussed the different types of blended learning, synchronous and asynchronous online
learning, listed the benefits of online learning, and discussed the challenges and solutions of online
learning.

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Resourcefulness and Improvisation
In industrialized societies, instructional materials are readily available from commercial sources.
In developing countries, resources are scarce accompanied with a pitiably low level of technology.
One effect of this situation, educationally speaking, is that classroom suffers a dearth of ready-
made sophisticated instructional materials. This condition usually forces teachers, especially
science teachers to abandon their classes due to lack of materials or to use teaching materials that
do not rely on the use of Instructional materials. What can teachers do in such a situation to help
themselves? In order to succeed, teachers, need to have two attitudinal dispositions
“Resourcefulness and Improvisation”.
What is Resourcefulness?
Resourcefulness is the ability of individuals to choose the most appropriate option from a variety
of solutions available when faced with a problem. Resourcefulness is also the ability to find and
use the most suitable available resources to achieve goals. A resourceful teacher is one who is so
brilliant as to be able to exploit all possible resources, materials, and equipment required to solve
a problem.
An attitude of resourcefulness inspires divergent thinking or thinking out-of-the-box, the
generation of new ideas, and the ability to visualize all the possible ways to achieve what you
desire. A teacher is said to be resourceful if he is able to translate his ideas into things.

What is Improvisation?
This is the ability to make and use alternative, local materials in place of “standard”, ready-made
materials which are either lacking or in short supply in solving a given problem. An example is
the putting together of two or more batteries to teach electricity instead of the real electricity.
For resourceful teachers, and where the facilities exist, materials can be improvised in the school
Resource Center. In so doing, a teacher may receive help from such professional as blacksmiths,
carpenters, electricians, etc. the entire process requires creative ability, professional commitment
and competence.

Types of Improvisation
1. Role Substitution: This involves using a different material or equipment as a substitute to
the original material to perform the same function. For example, using kerosene stove to
replace a Bunsen burner in a science lab.
2. Role Simulation: This type of improvisation involves constructing a material or equipment
that resembles the original material, especially, when the needed material is too expensive
to buy. For example, using carton to construct a computer system.

Implication/Rationale of Improvisation in Education System

1. Reduces the money spent on the purchase of equipment in educational institutions
2. Ensures the realization of lesson objectives
3. Helps in solving the problem of lack of equipment in schools.
4. Gives room for a teacher to determine his creative skills
5. Gives room for the use of cheap local materials as alternatives to the expensive foreign
ones

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 6. Encourages students towards the development of creative abilities
7. Enables teachers to think of cheaper, better and faster methods of making teaching and
learning process easier for students
8. Affords students the opportunity of becoming familiar with resources in their environment
9. Usually suitable for the local environment
10. They are cheaper and readily available
Disadvantages of Improvisation
1. Usually very crude in nature
2. Unless well-constructed, it may not last
3. Usually, their degree of accuracy is low

Lesson Note on Instructional materials

What are Instructional materials?
Instructional materials are those materials, media, devices, or resources, be they real or
representative, which the teacher uses to make lessons more meaningful and understandable.
Instructional materials are information carriers designed to fulfill the objectives in a teaching-
learning situation. The teacher uses instructional material to assist the learners in their learning
process.
Instructional materials are anything (materials and equipment) that help the teacher communicate
his ideas effectively to the students based on the stated in the objectives.
Classification of Instructional Materials

Degree of Nature of Dimension of Physiological Whether or Place

Expertise Materials Materials Parameter not projection Produced
is involved

Low High 3-Dimensional

2-Dimensional Local Foreign
Technology Technology Materials
Materials Materials Materials

Print Non-print Electronic Non-electronic Projected Non-

projected

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Auditory Visual Audio- Tactile Olfactory Gustatory

Materials Material visual Materials Materials Materials
Instructional materials are classified based on the following criteria:
1. The degree of expertise/technical skills needed for production: On this basis, instructional
materials are divided into:
High technology materials: these are materials that require a high degree of specialized knowledge
to produce. Examples are computers, Television (TV), radio, mobile phones, projectors, Close
circuit TV, computers, among others.
Low technology materials: production of low technology materials does not require specialized
knowledge. Examples are pictures, charts, kites, drawings, among others.
2. The nature or type of materials used in production: Based on this category, instructional
materials are categorized into:
Print materials: these are materials that appear in printed formats or use paper for production.
Examples are textbooks, graphs, maps, images, photographs, posters, cartoons, comics, charts,
graphic materials, diagrams, pictures, among others.
Non-Print Materials: these are materials that do not appear in the paper or are not in printed form
after final production. Examples are software (such as computer programme, Video, and audio
files), hardware (such as projectors, computers, cameras, TV), real objects.
Electronic materials: These instructional materials are digital devices or are stored in electronic
repository. Examples are digital cameras, online classroom, digital camcorders, tablets, laptops,
flash drives, scanners, printers, smartphones, monitors, video, Augmented reality, Google, LMS
among others. Hardware materials examples are projectors, TV, computers, among others.
Software materials transparencies, slides, film, filmstrip, audio and video programmes, computer
applications, among others
Non-electronic materials: Examples of non-electronic materials are diorama, writing board, flip
chart, wall display, among others.
3. Dimension of materials: Based on this category, instructional materials are categorized into:
Two-dimensional materials: these are materials that have only length and breadth without any
significant thickness or depth. They are flat and drawings or illustrations that show only length
and width of a dimension. Examples are pictures, graphic materials (such as graphs, charts,
diagrams, posters, maps, among others), flannel board, interactive whiteboards.
Three-dimensional materials: these are materials that are constructed with length, breadth, and
thickness or depth. They are non-projected and have volume. Examples are models, mock-ups,
realia (real objects or specimen), learning kits/templates, dioramas, among others
4. Physiological parameter or sensory modality of the learner: Based on this category
instructional materials are classified based on the sensory channel a learner uses to interact with
the materials.
Auditory materials: These require the sense of hearing, the ears. Examples are radio, mp3 player,
among others.

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Visual materials: These require the sense of vision, the eyes. Examples are pictures, projectors,
among others.
Audio-visual materials: These require the sense of hearing and vision, the ears and eyes. Examples
are TV, educational videos, among others.
Tactile materials: These require the sense of touch, the skin. An example is Braille.
Olfactory materials: These require the sense of smell, the nose. Examples are some gases.
Gustatory materials: These require the sense of taste, the tongue. Examples are foods.
Kinesthetic materials: These require muscular coordination (muscles). Examples are game
materials such as football
5. Whether or not projection is involved: Based on this category, instructional materials are
classified into:
Projected materials: These are instructional materials that require a projector to access their
content. The content is contained in the software and requires hardware such as projectors to
display them. They represent all media formats that are projected onto a screen or wall by means
of electricity. Examples are soft copy materials, videos or motion pictures, microfilm, etc.
Non-projected materials: these materials do not require a projector to display their content.
Example are textbooks, chalkboard, bulletin board, all two and three dimensional materials.
Diorama, games,
6. Place produced: Based on this category, instructional materials are classified into:
Locally produced materials: these materials are produced and used within the same country.
Examples are pictures, graphical materials, among others.
Foreign-produced materials. These materials are produced outside the country or imported from
another country. Examples are cameras, TV, computers, among others.

Basic consideration for choice and use of instructional materials

In selecting instructional materials for a lesson, teachers must consider the following:
A: Whom are we teaching (the learners)? Consider the learners’ age, interest, prior knowledge,
levels and abilities.
B. What are we teaching (content)? Determine the content by stating appropriate learning
objectives and organizing the content. The instructional materials should help to achieve the
learning objectives.
C. Where are we teaching? The learning environment, online or face-to-face. The learning
environment should be conducive for learners to use the materials
D. Which material? Determine the material to use, its alternatives and strategies to use it
E. Cost: Determine the cost for producing or purchasing the materials.

The following are the criteria for using instructional materials:

 It must suit the age/maturity level, learning styles, and experience of the learners.
 It must be relevant to the achievement of stated objectives.
 It must be simple in presenting just the essential details.
 It must be adequate in size to be seen.
 It must be interest arousing and appealing.

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 It should simplify difficult concepts and effect better communication between a teacher and
the learners.
 It must be durable.
 It must be readily improvised in the absence or shortage of original materials.
 It must be truthful.
 It must be dangerous to the teacher and the learners.

Importance of Instructional Materials or Media in Teaching and Learning

1. Arouse multiple senses in the learning process.
2. Reduce the state of abstractness, therefore, making learning look very real and concrete.
3. Motivate and promote a high degree of interest
4. Save teacher time
5. Improve learners’ retention
6. Make learning more permanent
7. Facilitate classroom communication
8. They provide direct or first-hand experience with the realities of the social and physical
environment
9. They encourage active participation in the classroom.
10. Cater for individual differences in learners.

Sources of Instructional Materials

 Our immediate locality, that is the schools and communities
 From the government and Non-Governmental Organizations (NGOs). examples are posters,
computers, textbooks, among others
 From Educational Resource Centers (ERCs)
 Direct purchase by the school authorities
 Production by teachers and students
 From the Internet

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