CS5102: FOUNDATIONS OF COMPUTER SYSTEMS

LECTURE 3: COMPUTERS, HISTORY, AND

INSTRUCTION SET
DR. ARIJIT ROY
DEPARTMENT OF COMPUTER SCIENCE AND ENGINEERING
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY PATNA

These slides are based on the book: David Money Harris and Sarah L. Harris, Computer Organization and Design
GENERATIONS OF COMPUTER
1. First Generation – 1940 -1956: Vacuum Tubes

2. Second Generation – 1956 -1963: Transistors

3. Third Generation – 1964 -1971: Integrated Circuits

4. Fourth Generation – 1971-Present: Microprocessors

5. Fifth Generation - Present and Beyond: Artificial Intelligence

FIRST GENERATION 1940 - 1956

➢ First generation computers used Vacuum Tubes

➢ Vacuum tubes are glass tubes with circuits inside
➢ The word vacuum indicates that they have no air inside, which
protects the circuitry
➢ Building a computer with these vacuum tubes would result in a
very large machine occupying one full room
FIRST TRANSISTOR

➢ Uses Silicon
➢ developed in 1948
➢
John Bardeen
won a Nobel prize
➢ on-off switch
➢ Second Generation Computers used
Transistors, starting in 1956
INTEGRATED CIRCUITS

➢ Third Generation Computers used Integrated Circuits (chips)

➢ Integrated Circuits are transistors, resistors, and capacitors integrated together into a single “chip”
➢ Instead of punched cards and printouts, users started interacting with keyboards and mouse
1972: 8008 MICROPROCESSOR
➢ The 8008 was twice as powerful as the 4004.
➢ According to the magazine Radio Electronics, Don
Lancaster, a dedicated computer hobbyist, used the
8008 to create a predecessor to the first personal
computer, a device Radio Electronics dubbed a "TV
typewriter." It was used as a dumb terminal.
1978: 8086-8088 MICROPROCESSOR
➢ In 1978 intel
➢ 16-bit
➢ 2.5MIPS millions of instructions per second
➢ 1M-byte memory
➢ 4- or 6-byte instruction (cache) queue that prefetch
instructions
➢ over 20,000 variations instructions.
➢ 64K bytes of memory found in 8-bit microprocessors to
execute efficiently
➢ The 16-bit 8086 and 8088 provided 1M byte of memory
for these applications
➢ Popularity of Intel ensured in 1981 when IBM chose the
8088 in its personal computer
1982: 286 MICROPROCESSOR
➢ The 286, also known as the 80286, was the first
Intel processor that could run all the software
written for its predecessor.
➢ This software compatibility remains a hallmark
of Intel's family of microprocessors.
➢ Within 6 years of it release, there were an
estimated 15 million 286-based personal
computers installed around the world.
➢ 80286: updated 8086
➢ 16M byte memory addressing
➢ Instructions identical to 8086 few more added
➢ 4MIPS
➢ 8Mhz clock speed
1985: INTEL 386(TM) MICROPROCESSOR
➢ The Intel 386TM microprocessor featured 275,000
transistors -- more than 100 times as many as the
original 4004.
➢ It was a 32-bit chip and was "multi tasking," meaning
it could run multiple programs at the same time.

➢ 80386 (1985)
– 32-bit address bus and 32-bit data bus
– 4GB memory
– Hardware circuitry for memory management
– Additional instructions referenced 32-bit registers
and managed the memory system
1989: INTEL 486(TM) DX CPU
➢ The 486TM generation really allowed the shift from
command-level computing into point-and-click computing.
➢ The Intel 486TM processor was the first to offer a built-in
math coprocessor, which speeds up computing because it
offers complex math functions from the central processor.
➢ 80486
– Highly integrated package.
– 80386-like microprocessor.80387-like numeric
coprocessor.
– 50 MIPS
– 8K-byte cache memory system
– Half of its instructions executed in 1 clock cycle rather 2
1993: PENTIUM® PROCESSOR
➢ The Pentium® processor allowed computers to more easily incorporate
"real world" data such as speech, sound, handwriting and photographic
images.
➢ The name Pentium®, mentioned in the comics and on television talk
shows, became a household word soon after introduction.

➢ Originally named P5 or 80586

➢ Clock speed of 60MHZ
➢ Executes 110MIPS
➢ Cache size: 16K bytes (8K cache in 80486)
➢ 8K-byte instruction cache and data cache.
➢ Memory system up to 4G bytes.
➢ Data bus width increased to a full 64 bits.
➢ Data bus transfer speed 60 MHz or 66 MHz depending on the version
of the Pentium Vinod Dham was known as the
“Father of the Pentium chip”
1995: PENTIUM® PRO PROCESSOR
• Released in the fall of 1995 the Pentium® Pro
processor is designed to fuel 32-bit server and
workstation-level applications, enabling fast
computer-aided design, mechanical engineering and
scientific computation.
• Each Pentium® Pro processor is packaged together
with a second speed-enhancing cache memory chip.
• The powerful Pentium® Pro processor boasts 5.5
million transistors.
1997: PENTIUM® II PROCESSOR
• The 7.5 million-transistor Pentium® II processor
incorporates Intel MMXTM technology, which is
designed specifically to process video, audio and
graphics data efficiently.
• It is packaged along with a high-speed cache memory
chip in an innovative Single Edge Contact (S.E.C.)
cartridge that connects to a motherboard via a single
edge connector, as opposed to multiple pins.
• With this chip, PC users can capture, edit and share
digital photos with friends and family via the Internet;
edit and add text, music or between-scene transitions
to home movies; and, with a video phone, send video
over standard phone lines and the Internet.
MOORE’S LAW
➢ IC capacity doubling about every 18 months for several decades
➢ Known as “Moore’s Law” after Gordon Moore, co-founder of Intel
➢ Predicted in 1965 predicted that components per IC would
double roughly every year or so
➢ Picture depicts related phenomena
➢ For a particular number of transistors, the IC shrinks by half
every 18 months
➢ Notice how much shrinking occurs in just about 10 years
➢ Enables incredibly powerful computation in incredibly tiny
devices
➢ Today’s ICs hold billions of transistors
➢ The first Pentium processor (early 1990s) needed only 3 million
Number of transistors on an integrated circuit doubles ~ every two years
Image source: Wikipedia
REQUIREMENTS FOR FUTURE TECHNOLOGY
➢ Must be suitable for portable, low-power operation
➢ Consumer products
➢ Internet of Things components
➢ Not cryogenic, not quantum
A memristor is a non-
➢ Must be inexpensive to manufacture linear two-terminal electrical
➢ Comparable to current semiconductor technology component relating electric
➢ O(1) cost to make chip with O(N) devices charge and magnetic flux
linkage. -- Wiki
➢ Need not be based on transistors
➢ Memristors, carbon nanotubes, DNA transcription, ...
➢ Possibly new models of computation
➢ But, still want lots of devices in an integrated system
WHY STUDY COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE TODAY?
• Enable better systems: make computers faster, cheaper, smaller, more reliable, …
– By exploiting advances and changes in underlying technology/circuits

• Enable new applications

– Life-like 3D visualization 20 years ago?
– Virtual reality?

• Enable better solutions to problems

– Software innovation is built into trends and changes in computer architecture
• > 50% performance improvement per year has enabled

• Understand why computers work the way they do

COMPUTER ARCHITECTURE TODAY
• Today is a very exciting time to study computer architecture
• Industry is in a large paradigm shift (to multi-core)
• Many problems motivating and caused by the shift
– Power/energy constraints
– Complexity of design -- multi-core
– Technology scaling -- new technologies
– Memory wall/gap
– Reliability wall/issues
– Programmability wall/problem

60
WHAT IS A COMPUTER?
• Three key components
• Computation
• Communication
• Storage (memory)

61
WHAT IS A COMPUTER?

▪ PCI: Peripheral Component Interconnect

▪ DDR: Double Data Rate
▪ USB: Universal Serial Bus

Courtesy, Intel
WHAT IS A COMPUTER?

• We will cover all three components

Processing
control
Memory
(sequencing) (program and data) I/O

datapath
CLASSES OF COMPUTERS

• Desktop computers: Designed to deliver good performance to a single user at low cost
usually executing 3rd party software, usually incorporating a graphics display, a
keyboard, and a mouse
• Servers: Used to run larger programs for multiple, simultaneous users typically
accessed only via a network and that places a greater emphasis on dependability and
(often) security
• Supercomputers: A high performance, high cost class of servers with hundreds to
thousands of processors, terabytes of memory and petabytes of storage that are used for
high-end scientific and engineering applications
• Embedded computers (processors): A computer inside another device used for running
one predetermined application. Very often cost, power, and failure rate are more
important than performance.
CISC VERSUS RISC

CISC RISC
➢ Complex Instruction Set Computer ➢ Reduced Instruction Set Computer
➢ Emphasis on hardware ➢ Emphasis on software
➢ Includes multi-clock complex ➢ Single-clock,reduced instruction
instructions only
➢ Memory-to-memory: "LOAD" and ➢ Register to register: "LOAD" and
"STORE" incorporated in "STORE“ are independent
instructions instructions
➢ Small code sizes, high cycles per ➢ Low cycles per second, large code
second sizes
➢ Transistors used for storing ➢ Spends more transistors on
complex instructions memory registers
INSTRUCTION SET ARCHITECTURE
➢ A very important abstraction
➢ interface between hardware and low-level software
➢ standardizes instructions, machine language bit patterns, etc.
➢ advantage: different implementations (cost, performance, power) of the same architecture
➢ disadvantage: sometimes prevents using new innovations
➢ Common instruction set architectures:
➢ IA-32, PowerPC, MIPS, SPARC, ARM, and others
INSTRUCTION SET ARCHITECTURE
➢ ISA, or simply architecture – the abstract interface between the hardware and the lowest level
software that encompasses all the information necessary to write a machine language program,
including instructions, registers, memory access, I/O, …
➢ ISA Includes
➢ Organization of storage
➢ Data types
➢ Encoding and representing instructions
➢ Instruction Set (or opcodes)
➢ Modes of addressing data items/instructions
➢ Program visible exception handling
➢ Specifies requirements for binary compatibility across
➢ implementations.
ISA VS. MICROARCHITECTURE
➢ ISA
➢ Agreed upon interface between software and hardware
Problem
➢ SW/compiler assumes, HW promises
Algorithm
➢ What the software writer needs to know to write and debug
Program
system/user programs
ISA
➢ Microarchitecture
Microarchitecture
➢ Specific implementation of an ISA
Circuits
➢ Not visible to the software
Electrons
➢ Microprocessor
➢ ISA, uarch, circuits
➢ “Architecture” = ISA + microarchitecture

71
MIPS ISA
➢ Instruction Categories
➢ Load/Store
➢ Computational
➢ Jump and Branch R0 - R31
➢ Floating Point
➢ Memory Management
➢ Special
PC
HI
LO
3 Instruction Formats, 32 bits wide
OP rs rt rd sa funct

OP rs rt immediate
OP jump target
EXECUTION CYCLE

Instruction
Fetch
Obtain instruction from program storage

Instruction
Determine required actions and instruction size
Decode

Operand Locate and obtain operand data

Fetch

Execute Compute result value or status

Result
Deposit results in storage for later use
Store

Next
Instruction
Determine successor instruction
LEVELS OF REPRESENTATION
temp = v[k];
High Level Language
Program v[k] = v[k+1];
v[k+1] = temp;
Compiler
lw $15, 0($2)
Assembly Language lw $16, 4($2)
Program sw $16, 0($2)
sw $15, 4($2)
Assembler
0000 1001 1100 0110 1010 1111 0101 1000
Machine Language 1010 1111 0101 1000 0000 1001 1100 0110
1100 0110 1010 1111 0101 1000 0000 1001
Program 0101 1000 0000 1001 1100 0110 1010 1111

Machine Interpretation

Control Signal ALUOP[0:3] <= InstReg[9:11] & MASK

° [i.e.high/low on control lines]
Specification °
C Fortran Ada etc. Basic Java

Compiler Compiler

Assembly Language Byte Code

Assembler Interpreter

Executable

Instruction Set Architecture

HW HW HW
Implementation 1 Implementation 2 Implementation N
ADVANTAGES OF HLLS
➢ Higher-level languages (HLLs)
➢ Allow the programmer to think in a more natural language and for their intended
use (Fortran for scientific computation, Cobol for business programming, Lisp for
symbol manipulation, Java for web programming, …)
➢ Improve programmer productivity – more understandable code that is easier to
debug and validate
➢ Improve program maintainability
➢ Allow programs to be independent of the computer on which they are developed
(compilers and assemblers can translate high-level language programs to the
binary instructions of any machine)
➢ Emergence of optimizing compilers that produce very efficient
➢ assembly code optimized for the target machine
➢ Compilers convert source code to object code
➢ Libraries simplify common tasks
INSTRUCTION SET DESIGN GOALS

Maximize
Performance

Easy to Build Easy to Build

Compiler(s) Hardware

Minimize
Cost
WHERE TO KEEP THE OPERANDS

Processor
Memory

Devices

Processor

ALU

Registers Memory

Devices
PROGRAM: IN MEMORY
Address Memory

Reserved
0x7FFFFFFC Stack $sp = 0x7FFFFFFC

0x10010000 Heap

$gp = 0x10008000

y
g
0x10000000 f

0x03E00008
0x00851020
0x03E00008
0x23BD0004
0x8FBF0000
0xAF828008
0x0C10000B
0xAF858004
0x20050003
0xAF848000
0x20040002
0xAFBF0000
0x00400000 0x23BDFFFC PC = 0x00400000
Reserved
THE MIPS MEMORY MAP
Address Segment
0xFFFFFFFC

Reserved

0x80000000
0x7FFFFFFC Stack
Function calls,
Dynamic Data Local variable,
dynamic memory
0x10010000 Heap
0x1000FFFC

Static Data Global variables

0x10000000
0x0FFFFFFC

Text Instructions

0x00400000
0x003FFFFC

Reserved

0x00000000
MEMORY LAYOUT OF C PROGRAM

➢ Stack
➢ automatic (default), local STACK
➢ Initialized/uninitialized
➢ Data
➢ Global, static, extern
➢ BSS: Block Started by Symbol Heap
➢ Code
➢ program instructions BSS
➢ Heap
➢ malloc, calloc Data

Code
MEMORY LAYOUT OF C PROGRAM

int A;
STACK
int B=10;

main(){
Heap
int Alocal;
int *p;
BSS
p=(int*)malloc(10);
} Data

Code
ADDRESS SPACE

Address Space is the set of

memory locations (bytes)
that can be addressed
MICROPROCESSOR AND MICROCONTROLLER

➢ Micro Controller ➢ Micro Processor

➢ It is a CPU
➢ It is a single chip Consists
➢ Memory, I/O Ports to be
Memory, I/O ports connected externally
THANK YOU!

40