Sex-Related Differences in Adult Language Learning: Socialization and Memory Factors

Author(s): Martha Nyikos

Source: The Modern Language Journal , Autumn, 1990, Vol. 74, No. 3 (Autumn, 1990),
pp. 273-287
Published by: Wiley on behalf of the National Federation of Modern Language Teachers
Associations

Stable URL: https://www.jstor.org/stable/327624

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 Sex-Related Differences in Adult
Language Learning: Socialization
and Memory Factors
MARTHA NYIKOS
School of Education-211
Indiana University
Bloomington, IN 47405

ANY STUDY OF GENDER-RELATED DIFFERENCES allowance to follow their own pathway to

must acknowledge that the effect of the success.
sex vari-
able is dependent on the task performed In andthe following sections, some no
studies dealing with the above-
the circumstances under which the task is car-
ried out. This paper addresses one aspect of
ground variables are reviewed. Th
individual differences, namely gender differ-tions provide the backdrop for a m
ences, and how socially learned cues may radi-study on four memorization mo
cally influence the verbal learning tasks these memory-enhancing strategi
performed by university students taking a for- dependent on socially learned cu
eign language. Learner differences are disparate and
Factors in the socialization of the sexes must
complex. The type of learner who may benefit
be recognized as exerting a strong influence onfrom the instructional sequence or variables
memorization processes. It follows that inunder investigation may vary widely. Each
verbal learning tasks men and women may individual approaches a learning task with a
diverge radically in what they accept as salient
unique set of expectations and assumptions and
retrieval cues. These differences may be due a preferred mode of learning. These variables
to the relative importance each group learns tomust be accounted for in any psycholinguistic
attach to the information and to the mode in study if the results of investigations into learn-
which it is presented. For example, women ing are to be validly extrapolated to similar
attach great importance to expressing them-situations. One recognized approach to under-
selves verbally and men value facility withstanding individual -variation is to investigate
successful task performance by identifiable
visual and spatial information--all socially
sanctioned gender-appropriate behaviors groups, namely men and women, and account
learned by the respective gender groups. for gender-related differences and beliefs that
The school environment sheds further light are in consonance with data and theory. A pro-
on a broad scope of socialization experiences ductive source of explanation for individual
germane to sex differences in learning: role variation in achievement are findings on sex-
models, promotion of one gender group over related differences in information processing
another in specific discipline areas, and the and verbal learning.
importance attached to test-taking. All these The popular notion that females hold the
social forces influence achievement to some advantage in verbal skills such as speech emer-
degree. As the present study indicates, both
gence, articulation, fluency, and length of state-
ment continues to be confirmed in studies of
men and women appear to have the potential
to achieve similarly well when provided with
first language (24). Furthermore, research indi-
a broad choice of learning strategies andcates
thethat women sustain these verbal skills over
time due to differential socialization processes
although women's verbal skill advantage is
diminished briefly during adolescence (43).
The Modern Language Journal, 74, iii (1990)
0026-7902/90/0003/273 $1.50/0 Analogously, popular beliefs and L1 data often
?1990 The Modern Language Journal
influence research hypotheses in L2 investiga-
tions of verbal superiority among women.

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 274 Martha Nyikos

To (12). Additionally,
investigate the active career guidance and
comm
girls are diminished textbook-mediated
better activities were
languag
Cross noted asa
applied contributing
battery to outstanding classroom
of
year-old climate in terms of general teaching
students ofas well Freas
girls = 32) a more balanced
in two treatment of sexes for promot-
schools
differencesinginachievement.
favor of t
expectations.A study which found no sex differences
Converse
Cross) among universitygirls
showed ESL learners looked as
at the h
more favorable attitud
influence of learner variables on language test
learning, performance.boys
than Spurling and Illyin in (p. 284)a
attributes speculated that
the characteristics such asdif
gender age,
guage achievement native language background, to sex, and high
th
as a role school graduation may
model. Thisimpact on test vieadvan-
to an interaction of sex-of-teacher effect with tage and test bias. Results showed that assess-
sex-of-subject effect (21). Furthermore, thement of achievement is dependent on the type
causal effect of role model can be linked to a of test given. The measures used were primarily
popularly accepted notion that modern lan- standardized placement tests covering various
guage study is a woman's area which, in terms skill areas and included cloze and motivational
of jobs, leads to female dominance in the lan- measures. Differential weights given to various
guage teaching staff of schools. Thus, the portions of a test were judged to contribute to
socialization effect of role model may strongly test bias with respect to specific learner vari-
influence motivation to achieve. ables such as high school completion --sex,
however, was not an influence on the six tests
An investigation into math and science
administered.
achievement by a junior high school population
sheds further light on the gender variable.Another standardized test which is regularly
Eccles studied approximately 500 fifth- scrutinized
to for gender differences is the Scholas-
tic Aptitude Test (SAT). These prognostic,
twelfth-graders and found that social forces
such as parental attitude and gender-related
global tests have yielded a small but consistent
beliefs influence subject-matter choice in
edge for boys on the verbal portion, with girls
scoring ten points below average, whereas girls
school, often running counter to actual achieve-
once held the lead (25). Verbal scores are based
ment exhibited by girls and boys. These socially
mandated beliefs, in turn, were found to exert largely on reading passages, which are more
negative influence on students' confidence in recently being rewritten to contain scientific
and business topics to the advantage of boys,
their math abilities. Eccles found that girls with
high math achievement generally opt for according to Phyllis Rosser of the Center for
courses in English and foreign languages over Women's Policy Studies (cited in Mansnerus).
those in mathematics. The classroom climate Disparate results for men and women on
tests of achievement and global proficiency
set by the teaching style and beliefs about learn-
ing potential exert differential influences on draw attention to two possibilities which
male and female students. Eccles, MacIvar, emerge from the sex-related studies cited
and Crawford-Lange noted that females de- above. First is the speculation that teacher/
veloped a more favorable attitude and confi- parental beliefs in particular, and societal
dence in their subject matter in classrooms beliefs in general, play a major role in deter-
characterized by low levels of competition, with mining the level of confidence students place
choral drill and practice, and high levels of per- in their abilities to learn (e.g., 14; 16). Evi-
sonalized teacher contact. These variables have
dently, lack of confidence in tasks of verbal
also been found to promote more equalized
learning and expression can undermine demon-
achievement in both men and women. Men strated aptitude for language learning. Second,
were found to do better in teacher-fronted class-
the type and nature of the tests administered
rooms where raised hands led to males domi- may differentially stress specific subtasks which
nating teacher-student interaction regardless evoke
of gender-related bias. Sex-related bias may
the teacher's gender. Classes with more co- be in greater evidence on tests of communica-
operative activities and with hands-on problemtive proficiency where women's recognized
solving performed in small groups were identi-verbal advantage over men could play a differ-
fied as beneficial to both males and females entiating role (24). Evidence for significantly

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 Modern Language Journal 74 (1990) 275
greater social interactive strategy requirementsuse so
wasthat they felt no
found
among females in a large-scale time onstudy of 1,200
elicitation and grading of
university students taking sponses.
a foreign
Some instructors
language also dr
(31; 33). The investigations thewhich follow
worst quiz dem-
grade or a quiz not
onstrate a possible test type tices which
bias run the
in that counter to depar
tests
for recall (rather than the ing policy. With
assigned tasks)the caveat tha
evoke
a specific set of subskills otherwise which appearuniform to grading
favor practi
women. Underscored here is a need to further the results of this study may be
investigate sex-related differences in foreign significant sex-related differences
language learning--both from the standpoint guage achievement when final
of beliefs and expectations inherent in the criteria. Such achievement is dep
socialization of students in and outside the sults of many and varied tasks o
classroom and from that of the memorization of a semester and causality is diff
tasks elicited by certain types of tests measur-bute to a single source.1
ing verbal learning. The balance of this paper addre
One, if not the major index of academic ex-tigation of a single verbal learnin
pectation in classroom-based language learningstudents were restricted to lear
is the final grade. The components - quizzes, vocabulary with the help of one o
homework, unit exams, and class participationtive memory strategies. The p
points - indicate to students the relative impor-
investigation was to ascertain wh
tance teachers attach to given tasks. Academicstrategies are most productive for
students (as opposed to naturalistic language man noun clusters (article, singu
learners) are often quite adept at "reading" theforms). The hypothesis is that
criteria for test-based achievement and utilize memorization of verbal material would be
formal, rule-related learning strategies which mediated more effectively by an assigned asso-
they believe will assure sucess in "grade-getting" ciative memory strategy. Results on five recall
(see 29). Detailed ethnographic studies focus- measures indicate that women recall vocabu-
ing on how students discern specific criteria for lary significantly better under one study con-
success in the classroom are lacking. However, dition and men most successfully under
teaching and grading practices vary tremen- another. Relevant to this investigation is a
dously across teachers and teaching situations. review of variables affecting memory and re-
As Mansnerus notes (p. 27), "girls are better trieval processes in verbal learning. This review
at figuring out what the teacher wants." One is followed by a detailed empirical investiga-
way to investigate this assertion is to use the tion of vocabulary learning with associative
criterion of final grades for foreign language memory strategies and the findings are ex-
courses.
plained by the influence of the socialization
The following study soughtprocess
to ascertain
on memory. the
degree to which men and women differ
To mediate in learning
verbal their effectively, it is
final foreign language grades. This study com-
beneficial to have a systematic set of strategies
pared final grades of 118with university
which to approachmen specific types of tasks
(n = 74) and women (n = 44) in
(23).five randomly
Bransford (p. 9) reports that many people
chosen sections of beginning German
do not know how on the learning tasks in
to approach
university level. The sample was restricted
an efficient manner. Theyto rely on simple re-
one language to eliminate intervening variables
hearsal of the material without elaborating new
such as reasons for choosing information
one language in ways over
that could facilitate learn-
another. No effect for section
ing and(i.e., class)
retention. was from cognitive
Evidence
found, but women were found to significantly
psychology shows that rote repetition of target
outscore men, F= 12.90 (p<.001). In the
language vocabulary via flash cards and word
lists has
follow-up interview of teaching limited success re-
assistants even in short-term
sponsible for beginning-level courses,
memorization it
tasks. To commit foreign lan-
emerged that despite uniform grading
guage criteria
lexicon to long-term memory, the mate-
stipulated across all sections by
rial the department,
must be enhanced in some manner (18: p.
flexibility was exercised in 313). application of demands that
Enhancement, in turn,
standards. Many teaching assistants also
attention also be felt
focused on the learning task
that choral drills fulfilled class participation
(1: p. 499; 26: p. 138). The problem for

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 276 Martha Nyikos

teachers as The well as

critical issue in learning stude
of any kind is
enhance thehow to make targeted
information retrievable from long- ma
easily term memory storage once it is acquired or
retrievable.
Since the learned. The answers may
early lie in the role of
1970s a g
in the fieldlearner ofvariables such cognitive
as age, sex, and per-
devoted to sonality
the and the type useof cognitive or overt
of sp
niques activities the learner engages in while learning. struc
(information
prove These activities may enhance or hinder
retention (e.g.,the 2
in learning amount and quality of learning that takes place.
theory wide
multiple codingBransford (p. 28) notes that
of one's abilitymater
to
ability. Bowerretain information finds
for a short-term interval oftha
material to15-20 pictorial
seconds is largely dependent on further im
images to engagement with the information
verbal labels, (35). Such
is enhanced. engagement may include overt or silent re-
Furthermor
for pictorialhearsal or conscious analysis and organization
information
already of the material.
large Conscious strategies highlight
storage cap
rial (42). Asthe importance of the learner's attention at the cl
Miller's
information momentconsisting
when information is imparted, and o
"chunks" ornecessitate active rehearsal or enhancement
units can of be
term the information to prevent
memory. At decay over any time and
retention to facilitate long-term retention.
capacity is Providing
sev
chunks. Thelearners most
with specific enhancement meani strategies
packaged or requiring students to are
chunks generate theiropt own
long-term meaningful
memory associations may constituteby key fac- m
One strategy tors aiding recall.
which util
keyword The constraints on one's capacity
technique (2).to hold O
information information includein short-term memory are thenot
35), concreteabsolute, since the borders of short-term stor- (4
images
associations age can be (3) expanded through
to conscious creat means.
associations For example,
(summarized when the learner compacts dis-
portion of crete
the bits of information
research into a large, meaning- i
enhancement ful unit via prior has knowledge, the capacitybeen to
vocabulary hold thatof information afor further
specifi processing is
replace expanded (27). One compact
nonsense chunk now car-
syllable
37 for ries a larger amount
Spanish; 15of information,
for making Fr
An room for more single chunks
overwhelming for simultaneous
numbe
processing.
statistically significant
of foreign The role of short-term memory in foreign v
language
these language learning
studies have takes on a qualitatively
been dif-
laboratory ferent function from learning one's with
settings native lan-
in language guage. The focus must necessarily and,
courses be on the
interest in form and meaning of the lexical and syntactic
long-term ret
of real communication. information while meaning is recalled. Un-
Cognitive psychology, when dealing withfamiliarity with form hinders information-
verbal learning of any kind, stresses the need getting despite background knowledge and
for attention to achieve both short-term recall slows the processing capacity of short-term
and information retrieval over longer periods. memory. When the learner knows what to do
Attention must be focused on information com- with new information (i.e., has a set of work-
ing into short-term memory in order for deeper able strategies) and knows which cues are most
cognitive processing to take place.2 According productive for comprehension, cognitive theory
to most information-processing models, if posits that meaningfulness and, more impor-
attention is not focused on form and meaning tantly, the likelihood of retrieval will be
while the new structure is held in short-term enhanced.
memory, the structure will not be processed Investigations into iconic memory (memory
adequately, nor will it enter long-term memory for pictures) and echoic memory (memory for
(26). spoken words) have found that the capacity

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 Modern Language Journal 74 (1990) 277
potential for both types gies,
ofin memory
turn, mediate the storage
transfer, assimilation,
is
extremely large (45), but and
thatretrieval process in long-term
limitations withinlearning.
and outside the learner's This control
view of memoryare impliesimposed
a need to supply
by such variables as the a variety
time of cues
and for speed
any new information
with
which information can be attended to and thelearned. Meaningfulness assigned to cues by
the learner will be tempered by the relative
quality of the learner's attention. Additional
learner-dependent constraints include thevalue these cues have to the learner from his
learner's background knowledge and the learn- or her cultural, hence gender, role perspective.
er's sensitivity to the importance of the infor- Information enhancement can take many
forms. Although the literature on verbal learn-
mation, as well as the learner's attitudes. Many
of these limitations are within the learner's ing states this principle clearly, it is left to the
control and can be changed. Limitationslearner to to establish enhancement cues for
memory imposed by variables outside the diverse types of language learning tasks. Some
learner's control include the nature of the mate- concrete modes of enhancement include sup-
rials, the modalities called upon, and, for plying visual aids (pictures, graphs), acoustic
measurement purposes, the testing criteria set reinforcement (a melody set to a list of
by either teachers or investigators. These cog- otherwise unconnected words), repetition of
nitive and social variables may interact with information, and acting out or formulating
and be part of sex-related differences. specific gestures for psychomotor reinforce-
Other learner-dependent and situational ment. In the classroom these enhancements can
limitations that interfere with short-term pro- be learner generated or teacher supplied. In
cessing are those variables that facilitate the both cases, receptivity on the part of the learner
learner's capacity to transfer information from is crucial for the information to be appre-
short-term to long-term retention in such a wayhended. Receptivity is largely determined by
as to make information retrievable. Multiplethe amount and intensity of attention paid to
coding of information is posited to lead to im- the information, which in turn depends on
proved capabilities in the retrieval process. In learner interest and motivation (41). Percep-
principle, the more connections or associations tions of meaningfulness, the types of patterns
one makes to enhance both incoming andchosen by the learner, and receptivity to learn-
stored information, the greater the chances for ing may depend on how individuals have been
retrieval of that information. socialized to value certain types and modalities
Long-term storage is cue-dependent (18: p.of learning (16). It is widely recognized that
314). Information rich in associations can males and females experience divergent sociali-
almost always be retrieved provided the appro-zation messages, and it may be reasonable to
priate cue is given for retrieval. When informa-expect differential outcomes in their learning
tion is to be memorized or learned, the efforts due to strategy preference.
likelihood of retrieval is greatly increased if the Learning strategy research addresses and
information has been enhanced in some way suggests concrete steps learners can take to
while still in short-term memory. Enhancement establish enhancement of verbal information
provides the cues or associations necessary for when learning foreign languages (13; 32).
recall by "tagging" the new information with Choice of these steps may depend on one or a
familiar background information. Schema combination of factors present in the learning
theory advocates the establishment of associa- setting.
tions from prior knowledge or experiences to Several studies indicate that conditions
new information as a means of assimilating the inherent to the classroom setting may foster the
new knowledge into a familiar cognitive frame- use of a restricted range of learner strategies
work (39). Activating any part of the schema (6; 29). Classroom-based strategies differ from
will also activate the associative network of those used in an untutored acquisition situation
organized information, leading to retrieval or where there is no overt instruction given or test-
recall of any part of the network. Making ing applied. The choice of strategies used in
meaningful associations and organizing pat- both types of foreign language learning/acquir-
terns aid learners to encode new information ing situations is determined by a wide range
in a way that optimizes the compacting process of learner variables including age, sex, motiva-
whereby information can be reduced to one tion, attitude, aptitude, time-on-task, and the
chunk in short-term memory, freeing process- perceived reward system. Many of these
ing space. Such schematic compacting strate- learner and situational (task-specific) variables

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 278 Martha Nyikos
operate interdependently
experience in German participated in the
grees (31). Evidence from
tigation. Eight intact on
classes were used i
lytic study of
study.learning
Four randomly selectedstramorning
impact of were assigned randomly
academic settingto one of fouri
choice by university stud
ment conditions. Randomly selected afte
these cognitive strategies
classes were paired with a morning cl
sciously and receive
are thedifficult to
same experiment treatment.
cally, both students
noon classes served asand tea
yoked pairs on th
of the many learning
of time, resulting in a patternstr
of trea
them, as was groups established
at almost equidistant time slots in(
this I).
investigation.
Several factors conspire
As seen in Table I, the strategies per treat-
awareness ofment condition
students' were designated as: treat- pres
gies: 1) ment 1: color; treatment
foreign language 2: picture (visual cla
numbers of image); treatment 3: rote memorization; and
students; 2) litt
tion of treatment 1 + 2: color and picture
learning (the com-
strategies
bination or multiple-enhancement strategy).
teacher-dominated classroom
tive, Once a class was assigned a mnemonic strategy, type
non-cooperative o
in the the class continued exclusively with that
grade-oriented educa
5) lack of personalized
strategy for the duration of the study. in
teacher and The scope of the present study was during
learner restricted t
These variables
to one treatment episodeare largely
administered on aver-
those age once every four class
identified by days, for a total of
Eccles,
ford-Lange seven "experimental
as academic days" in the space of one for
ate gender-related
month. Treatment began in the third fulldiffere
week
The topics ofofclasses - after memory
the plural form of nouns had an
addressed been introduced
in this in the regular curriculum.
paper se
backdrop to The researcher did following
the not participate in the e
to the issue teaching of any
of of the classes in the study.
sex-related d
speaking, Teachers in all issues
these treatment sections had inclu
been
ing learning assigned
task previously to their section by the
confrontin
foreign course coordinator.
language Each of five teachers taught
classroom
from at least one treatment section
instructors whoand not more do
learning strategies.
than one control section. No teacher The taught two s
placed on theof the same treatment classes. couple
student The study was
limitations designedshort-term
of to restrict teacher involvement to the m
need for role of distributing and
teaching collecting the experi-
specific s
the individualmental tomaterials (booklets) at
deal the appointed
effect
tion times. The treatment
enhancement episodes were
for referred to
long-
The aim of as "vocabulary
the study sessions" (VSS) by the s
following
the effects instructors
of and were treated as part of the regu-
providing a
learning aidlar weekly instructional sequence.
(mnemonic st
learning All students across treatment
German nouns conditions re- for
The rationale
ceived the for testing
same written directions on general
rather thanprocedure for each VSS. However, the treat- m
recognition
terion measures was based o
in parallel vocabulary
TABLE I
testin
vocabulary quizzes, student
Classes Combined According to Treatment Condi
lish noun as a cue and must
language equivalent
Treatment Time Sections by
Time pr
article and singular or
Condition a.m. p.m. or classes plur
difference
to perfect spelling criterion
1: color 7:30 and 12:30 1 and 5 5 hours
2: picture 8:30 and 1:30 2 and 6 5 hours
METHOD 3: rote 10:30 and 3:30 3 and 7 5 hours
1 + 2: color and
Subjects. One hundred and thirty-five begin-
picture 12:30 and 4:30 4 and 8 4 hours
ning level university students with no previous

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 Modern Language Journal 74 (1990) 279
ment-specific directions were neuter gender.
given The color
only associations
to the used were
appropriate classes within suggested by Allen and Valette
a treatment group. (pp. 155-56)
Timing was strictly controlled but were never by subjected
the to empirical study.
teach-
ers. Equal time was allotted forwere
Study materials all groups
color-coded to
by highlighter
read the directions within two minutes. The pen both in the listing of the nouns and within
the illustrative sentences.
study phase was eight minutes across all treat-
ment groups. After a twenty-five-minuteThe pictorial/visual image condition (treatment
interval of regular class instruction, a five-
2) required subjects to link a picture (line draw-
minute criterion measure (quiz) was admin-ing) to the word to be memorized. A line
istered. (See Figure I for detailed timing.)
drawing was provided next to each noun cluster
Nine singular German nouns and their and sentence. (No color-coding was employed.)
plural forms were selected from the students'The color-and-picture condition or multiple asso-
elementary German text, Deutsch heute (third ciation group (treatment 1 + 2) required the
edition), which was being used at the university students to link a color-coded picture to the
during the study. The selected words did word not to be memorized. Here both the appro-
occur in classroom instruction until after ter- priate words and pictures were color-coded.
mination of the experiment. All subjects were The rote memorization condition (treatment 3)
given the same list of words and sentences at directions stated that memorization should be
any given session, with each group receiving achieved by simple repetition in silent and writ-
a different mnemonic support according to theten form.
assigned treatment condition (see section below All groups were required to write the noun
on treatment-specific materials). Each study listclusters twice onto the "scratch paper" to con-
contained nine German nouns in their singulartrol for time on task. Each vocabulary study
and plural forms along with the definite article.session took place during regular class periods
Equal numbers of three masculine, three femi-and was timed uniformly. Recall measures
nine, and three neuter noun clusters were ran- cued by the English equivalent were also uni-
domly assigned to each list, resulting in sevenform across conditions.
lists of nine words each (five lists were used in For the purposes of analysis of covariance
the final analyses). conducted to test the hypothesis in this study,
Common across all four conditions was a list one overall average for five Total Score means
of nine German nouns in random order with and one average for each of three Component
an illustrative sentence and the English defini- Score means from the five criterion measures
tion to eliminate incorrect guessing as to mean- were employed as follows.
ing. Cognates were avoided and most nouns Total scores reflect a composite of data
were concrete (e.g., the train, trains; the tree, gathered by combining mean scores from five
trees), although several abstract but illustrat- quizzes into one overall mean score for: 1) the
able words were included as well (e.g., the article; 2) the singular form; and 3) the plural
question, the economy). form on all five quizzes-first according to
Unique to each of the four groups were lenient criteria, then according to strict scor-
treatment-specific directions. ing standards.
The color condition (treatment 1) required sub- Component scores were three: 1) the mean score
jects to memorize the noun clusters in associa- for articles; 2) the mean score for the singular
tion with a given color linked to one and only nouns according to lenient and strict criteria;
one grammatical gender. For example, the and 3) the mean score for the plural forms of
color green was associated exclusively with the the nouns.

FIGURE I

Timing for Vocabulary Study Session (VSS)

Read Regular
Begin class directions VSS instruction Quiz

1 = 50 minutes
10 minutes 2 minutes 8 minutes 25 minutes 5 minutes

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 280 Martha Nyikos
Criterion mseures. To test achievement in recall lated --given that nonrelevant variables a
of German vocabulary one criterion measure carefully controlled and randomization can
(quiz) for each VSS treatment episode was applied.
applied exactly twenty-five minutes after The conditions for a multigroup post-test-
vocabulary study was completed. All groups re- only design were met largely by: 1) random
ceived exactly the same quiz. All words were assignment of treatments to intact classes at
taken exclusively from the VSS given twenty- equidistant time slots (morning and afternoon);
five minutes earlier. Each quiz tested six of the 2) exposure of two classes per treatment group
original nine noun clusters. Students were to (four treatment groups in all) to a treatment
write the grammatical article along with the condition unique to that group; and 3) collec-
singular and plural forms of each cued noun. tion of post-test data on five occasions from
The sole cue was the English singular equiva- each subject.
lent of each German noun cluster tested. The Pre-Analysis Measures. The assumption that
format of each quiz was controlled for sequen- two classes per treatment were equivalent in
tial memory. Words were scrambled to control their mean total scores was tested by a series
for primacy, recency, and middling effects. of four analyses of variance for the students
Several precautions were taken to minimize nested in the two classes of each respective
and eliminate any factors that would interact treatment at equidistant times. No significant
with the effects of the independent variable differences
and were found, justifying a combina-
confound results. To preserve internal validity, tion of the two classes (one from the morning
the instructor variable was eliminated, as de- and one from the afternoon) into the same
scribed above. As a precaution against the pos- treatment group.
sible sensitizing effects, all students taking Treatment groups were not assumed to be
beginning German were included in all phases equal at the onset of the experiment. Equality
of the study regardless of their inclusion/omis- among treatment groups was ensured by tests
sion in the experiment on the basis of previous for normality of distribution (Shapiro-Wilk
exposure to German. The experiment was held p = .21 to p = .63) and homogeneity of variance
during four weeks of a fifteen-week semester. (Bartlett's chi-square for within-cell variance
Administration of the VSS units on alternate yielded 48.9, n.s., sufficient to reject the
hypothesis of heterogeneous variance).
days of the week allowed greater control over
absenteeism. The criteria for both internal and external
This study was designed to examine the validity for the present study are believed to be
satisfied by the following measures used to
effects of assigning one of four learning strate-
eliminate the potential sources of confounding
gies to classes of beginning students to support
memorization and recall of German vocabulary and intervention cited above (sex, intragroup
for long-term retention. The study sought to variance, and aptitude). These are to be con-
sidered in the interpretation of the results.
answer the following research question: is recall
of German noun clusters aided by the use ofInasmuch as groups were not equal in terms
an additional associative strategy when the of aptitude (MLAT) and sex distribution (male
effects due to sex of student and aptitude for 66%, female 34%), correlational measures and
foreign languages are statistically controlled?subsequent analyses of variance were used to
Thus, the hypothesis tested was that there iscombine students nested in two classes per
treatment. Subsequently, analysis of covariance
no interaction between using learning strategies
with the concomitant variable of aptitude used
and the effect of sex of student when the effect
of aptitude for foreign language learningas
is a covariate were employed to extract the
removed. variance due to aptitude. Variance due to sex
differences was accounted for by use of sex as
a variable in the analysis of covariance. From
DATA ANALYSIS
a statistical standpoint, the use of sex as a clas-
An intact group field experimentsification
(22: pp. variable was based on the observa-
tion that a substantial imbalance existed in the
401-05) using a multigroup post-test-only
male
design (10: p. 25) was chosen due to its to female ratio in the population of stu-
appro-
dents
priateness to test variables in a realistic taking beginning German.
situa-
Correlations among the Mean Total scores
tion (in this case the university classroom)
where independent variables can be on five separate quizzes (employed to measure
manipu-

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 Modern Language Journal 74 (1990) 281
TABLE II

Description of Experimental Groups: Sex and Number

I + 2:
Treatment 1: Color 2: Picture 3: Rote Col. + Pic.

Sex F M F M F M F M
Number 12 + 25 = 37 11 + 27 = 38 10 + 18 = 28 12 + 20 = 32

N = 135.

Total sample: female n = 45, 34%; male n = 90, 66%.

TABLE III

Summary of Raw Score Group Means on Modern Language Aptitude Test: Short Form

Treatment Color Picture Rote Col. + Pic. Overall

Mean 54.82 57.91 57.66 55.68 56.48

s.d. 15.00 14.94 15.80 14.69 14.97
n 35 34 27 29 124

MLAT possible sco

Although no significant
long-term difference in group
reten
their means (Table III) was found on the aptitude
equivalenc
tions measure (MLA T), the group mean for treat-
among th
r=.47 to r=.66, demonstrating moderate ment 1 (color-coding) seemed considerably
interrelatedness of all five quizzes in level of dif- lower than that of group two. Consequently,
ficulty and, by the same token, the interrelated- MLA T was used as a covariate, to increase the
ness of the combined factor being tested by each power of the analysis by removing variance due
consecutive recall measure. These correlations to aptitude.
simultaneously represent a check for reliabilityModerate correlations (ranging from r = .38
of parallel forms. In short, parallel measuresto r = .45) between the MLA T and mean scores
on all dependent variables permits use of
assured control over a practice effect over the
duration of the study. MLA T as a covariate in subsequent analysis to
adjust pre-existing unequal group mean vari-
Each quiz was also scored on its component
parts, yielding mean scores on three dependentances for foreign language aptitude.4 The re-
variables: 1) the article; 2) the singular noun
search hypothesis was that there is no interaction
with lenient scoring; and 3) the plural formamong
of four learning strategies and the effect
the noun. Correlations among the mean com- of gender when the effect of aptitude for for-
ponent parts of each quiz were run separately eign language is removed.
for each of the five criterion measures (quizzes).Two-way ANCOVA procedures were run
High degrees of intercorrelation were found independently for total and component scores;
Table IV presents results.5
ranging from r = .84 to r = .88. Two scoring
techniques based on lenient and strict criteria Table V provides adjusted means and post
hoc comparisons on significant interactions for
correlate at r = .99. Consequently, the analysis
of covariance (ANCOVA) reports strict scoringtreatment and sex, and Figure II shows the
results to avoid redundancy. graphed results using adjusted means.6 Results
that follow are based on adjusted means (i.e.,
The Modern Language Aptitude Test: Short Form
(MLA T) was used as the only pre-experimentalvariance due to aptitude has been removed) for
125 subjects. No significant differences for
measure to gauge aptitude for foreign language
learning and to control possible gender bias main
in effects alone were found. However, sig-
the final analysis. A one-way analysis of vari-
nificant interaction effects for treatment by sex
ance for differences among MLA T score means were yielded in the following instances.
revealed no significant differences among the Strict Total-Adjusted Means. An F-ratio of
F(3,124) = 3.37 (p = .02) was found for inter-
four treatment groups with respect to aptitude
for learning foreign languages (Table III).3 action of treatment and sex. Specifically, in the

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 282 Martha Nyikos
TABLE IV
Intergroup differences show women in the color
Two-Way ANCOVA Tables with Treatment groupand Sex
significantly ahead of men in the same
as Main Effects and Aptitude (MLA T) as the Covariate
group. Similarly, women in the color group
(using adjusted mean scores)
achieved significantly higher scores relative to
Two-way ANCOVA: Total men in the picture-only (treatment 2) group.
Source df SS MS F Plural Average-Adjusted Means. An F-ratio of
Treatment 3 17.18 5.72 0.40 F(3,124)-= 4.82 (p = .003) was obtained for
Sex 1 2.14 2.14
treatment by sex interaction. The results for
0.15
Tmt. x Sex 3 145.37 48.45 3.37* adjusted mean scores from the post-hoc test for
COV. (MLAT) 1 463.16 463.16 32.22** the plural form exactly parallel those for the
Error 116 1667.36 14.37 singular nouns, with women in the color-code
Total 124 group scoring significantly higher relative to a)
women in treatment 1 + 2, and b) men in treat-
Two-way ANCOVA: Article Average; no interac
ment 1 and men in treatment 2. Otherwise, the
Two-way ANCOVA: Singular
Source df SS MS F
parallel with Average
singular noun results cannot be
extended to the three following significant inter-
Treatment 3 3.11 1.03 .25
actions. Men in the combination (treatment
Sex 1 2.15 2.15 .53
1 + 2) group significantly outscored the women
Tmt. x Sex 3 32.15 10.71 2.62*
in the same group (p = .007). Intragender dif-
COV. (MLAT) 1 92.02 92.02 22.47** ferences included men in treatment 1 + 2
Error 116 474.99 4.09
scoring significantly higher than men in the
Total 124
color-only group and men in the picture-only
Two-way ANCOVA: group as Average
Plural well.
Source df SS MS F In summary, a greater number of significant
Treatment 3 2.53 .84 0.21 interactions between cognitive learning strate-
Sex 1 0.52 .52 0.13 gies and gender were found on the intragender
Tmt. x Sex 3 59.14 19.71 4.82* level among men (four cases) than among
COV. (MLAT) 1 124.37 124.37 30.38** women (two cases), when variance due to lan-
Error 116 474.85 4.09 guage learning aptitude was removed. Evi-
Total 124 dently, men demonstrated greater variability
*p<.05; **p<.001. among themselves, clearly favoring the multiple
association strategy (treatment 1 + 2). Results
suggest that one or more underlying factor
operating among the men, other than language
color-only treatment (treatment 1) women sig-
learning aptitude, could be salient in causing
nificantly outscored men on the criterion of
these consistent results. Comparing intergender
Strict Total (combined average of scores on
results, treatment affected scores of women and
three component parts according to strict scor-
men along clear lines of preference. The color-
ing over the five quizzes). However, the results
only strategy (treatment 1) was more effective
of the color-and-picture treatment (treatment
for women (eight cases) in the recall of singular
1 + 2) were exactly reversed, with men signifi-
and plural nouns and the combination color-
cantly outscoring women in the color-only
plus-picture (treatment 1 + 2) was overwhelm-
group, p = .03. Men in treatment 1 + 2 also had
ingly advantageous for men (six cases).
a significant advantage over men in color-only
Similarly, one or more underlying gender-
(treatment 1) and men in picture-only (treat-
related factors may be functioning to cause the
ment 2) groups.
clear-cut divergent effects that associative
Article Average--Adjusted Means. No significant
memory strategies exert when used by men and
interaction effect for treatment by sex was
found. women in the present study.

Singular Average--Adjusted Means. An F-ratio DISCUSSION

of F(3,124) = 2.62 (p = .04) indicated significant
interaction between treatment and sex after When interpreting the results of this st
aptitude for language learning was adjustedin
in light of sex-related differences, several
mean scores. Women in the color condition
tors germane to memorization emerge.
(treatment 1) outscored women in the color-
study involved identifiable subtasks includ
attention to spelling, attention to the appl
plus-picture (treatment 1 + 2) group, p = .04.

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 Modern Language Journal 74 (1990) 283
TABLE V

Adjusted Means of Averaged Scores Followed by Post-Hoc (T-Test) Comparisons Where Applic

Adjusted Means: Strict Total

Treatment

1: Color 2: Picture 3: Rote 1 + 2:Color + Picture

Female 16.99* 15.43 15.57 13.98

Male 14.02 13.97 15.74 17.13*
Post-hoc results

Men in treatment 1 < women in treatment 1* (P = .03)

Men in treatment 2 < women in treatment 1* (P = .02) intergender differences
Women in treatment 1 + 2 < men in treatment 1 + 2* (P = .03)
Men in treatment 1 < men in treatment 1 + 2* (P = .009) intragender differences
Men in treatment 2 < men in treatment 1 + 2* (P = .007)
Adjusted means; Article
Treatment

1: Color 2: Picture 3: Rote 1 + 2: Color + Picture

Female 4.47 4.20 4.41 4.53

Male 3.97 3.87 4.48 4.86

No significance found.

Adjusted means: Singul

Treatment

1: Color 2: Picture 3: Rote 1 + 2: Color + Picture

Female 9.60* 8.59 8.32 7.84

Male 7.82 7.97 8.50 8.93
Post-hoc results

Women in treatment 1
Men in treatment 1 < women in treatment 1* (P = .01)
Men in treatment 2 < women in treatment 1* (P = .02)
Adjusted means: Plural
Treatment

1: Color 2: Picture 3: Rote 1 + 2: Color + Picture

Female 8.55* 7.93 7.84 6.46

Male 6.84 6.94 7.82 8.62*
Post-hoc results

Women in treatment 1 +
Men in treatment 1 < women in treatment 1* (P = .01)
Men in treatment 2 < women in treatment 1* (P = .02)
Women in treatment 1 + 2 < men in treatment 1 + 2* (P = .007)
Men in treatment 1 < men in treatment 1 + 2* (P = .005)
Men in treatment 2 < men in treatment 1 + 2* (P = .008)
*Performed significantly higher at p<.05.

tion of the assigned associative memory strategy sensitivity to the saliency of color, established
(mnemonic), and attention to grammatical through socialization (24), may have facilitated
gender in German. One or many of these vari- the usefulness of this associative device. Simi-
ables acting in concert may have exerted the larly, men may have automatically been able
differential effect of variance due to sex. In to detect a logical connection (19) between the
other words, women may have had an advan- multiple associations of the color-and-picture
tage due to focus on a given aspect of memori- condition.' In short, the finding that women
zation such as confidence in their ability scoreto higher with color as a mediator and that
recall the vocabulary by means of an already men's ability to recall is significantly improved
familiar device such as color. Women's learned with visual-spatial stimuli (color-plus-picture)

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 284 Martha Nyikos

FIGURE II

Interaction of Main Effects: Treatment and Sex (Gender) Using Adjusted Mean Scores

Tot-Stri Plot of Total-Stri* Treatment Len Avg Plot of Singular-Avg* Treatment

17.1 -F Symbol is Value of Sex M 9.6 F Symbol is Value of Sex
16.8 9.4

16.5 9.2
16.2
9.0
15.9 M
15.6 M 8.8

15.3 8.6 F
M
15.0 8.4
14.7 F
8.2
14.4

14.1 8.0 --
M % M F F
13.8 7.8 F
I I I I I I
A. Color B. Pict C. Rote D. Col-Pic A. Color B. Pict C. Rote D. Col-Pic
Treatment Treatment

Art-Av Plot of Article-Avg* Treatment Plu-Avg Plot of Plural-Avg* Treatment

4.9 Symbol is Value of Sex M 8.50 F Symbol is Value of SexM

4.7
4.88.25
8.00?
4.6 FF
4.5 F 7.75 M
F M
4.4 F 7.50
4.3
7.25
4.2 F
7.00

4.1 M M
4.0- 6.75

3.9 M 6.50 F
3.8 6.25
A. Color B. Pict C. Rote D. Col-Pic A. Color B. Pict C. Rote D. Col-Pic
Treatment Treatment

may stem from on the onea hand and the pictorial, spatial cues
gender-relat
utilize specific on the other when learning
types ofnoun clusters for
learnin
The effect of recall.socialized
A learning strategy which hingeslearn
on the
and modalities ability to combine stimuli in
appears to a logical manner
perm
processes as memorization may possibly already be established as a salient
tas
in the presentstrategy in most males, but not to a significant
investigation tha
women in theextent in females.
combination colo
condition is supported The time constraints (to avoid
by ceilingthe
effect)
tion that men were able to establish an associa- and focus on spelling may also have yielded dif-
tive bond between the color-code information ferential results. In the present study, women

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 Modern Language Journal 74 (1990) 285
351-52).
may have noted the critical Each of these information
importance given processing
avenues
to spelling as the criterion for demands differing
success. modalities (e.g.,
Gener-
visual, aural,
ally speaking, women scored kinesthetic).
higher inCognitive
three studies
study conditions than didfavor
menlearning which promotes
(who found integrative
the cog-
nitive representations that
multiple strategy [color-plus-picture] can be encoded or
applica-
retrieved via various
tion more conducive to learning). modalities.
Such Socialization
achieve-
ment differences, when processes also cause men
statistically to value certain
linked to
modalities for willingness
gender, may reflect women's learning over those viewed
to as
more readily apply an assigned more appropriate
learningfor women. Concomitantly
strategy
while bearing in mind the negativestated criteria
attitudes toward learning via for
certain
success. Whereas men tend toorview
types of aids extra help grades as
strategies can under-
rewards for successful mine competition,
the potential utility of women,
many creative and
more than men, tend to enhancing interpret approachesgoodto learning.
gradesInvestiga-
as signs of social approval tions
and into scholastically
are more "sex-appropriate"
likely
to conform to the stated achievement academic areas standards
have demonstrated(8). how
This observation coincides with Mansnerus's socially held attitudes can negatively affect the
view (see above) that women "read" the confidence that learners of a given gender place
teacher's standards better, which consequently in their own learning abilities. Allowing for
might explain why women generally have individual modalities and cognitive/learning
better grades in college than men. styles to operate in the foreign language learn-
Restriction of rehearsal time to eight minutes ing process can clearly yield beneficial results,
may have limited the chances for the supplied if students can choose from a wide range of
mnemonic associations to take hold in a salient learning strategies provided through learning
manner so as to aid in subsequent recall. Either strategy instruction.
adding to or diminishing the effect of the The significant results observed when color
assigned learning strategy was the requirement was used as a mnemonic strategy by women
across all groups to write each word twice dur- and color-and-picture by men indicates that
ing the study phase. Written rehearsal added these strategies should be incorporated into the
a modality which may have had an overriding repertoire of learning strategies introduced dur-
effect over the assigned association. Neverthe- ing regular language instruction. Clearly, men
and women have equal chances for success,
less, the extra visualization and psychomotor
involvement was uniformly applied by allgiven learning strategies that are in tune with
groups. The effect of purely written rehearsal
their socialized learning style.
is yielded by the rote memorization group, Future research may find it fruitful to inves-
where men and women achieved almost uni- tigate the effects of similar cognitive strategies
formly- lending support to the speculation (memorization
that and recall) as were used here or
the supplied associative learning strategies do
strategies differentially classified as social, com-
yield differential results for men and women.municative, metacognitive, and support strate-
gies (see 13; 32). The study here represents
From a broader perspective, results suggest
that socialization factors operate on how menthose aspects of individual differences that are
and women process similar information. As reflected
dis- in the differential memorization pro-
cussed earlier, socialization may account cesses
for used by two divergently socialized groups
how men and women differentially value cer- (i.e., men and women). Further studies of
tain modalities. Research results overwhelm- learning strategies must address these differ-
ingly attribute men with visual-spatial process-
ences if cogent teaching practices and successful,
ing superiority whereas women are given credit
autonomous language learning are to be pro-
moted.
for verbal and communicative abilities (24: pp.

respect to vocabulary memorization, retention, and retrieval

NOTES
stem from the late 1960s and early 1970s; only thereafter
have empirical findings and hypothesized models of memory
been assimilated by schema theory and linked to informa-
'From a statistical perspective sex was treated as a con-
tion-processing theory in the field of second language
tinuous variable. studies.
2Most references to short- and long-term memory with
3In each of the four experimental groups, two to three

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 286 Martha Nyikos
students did general linear model
not take procedure was used to check homo- MLA
the
size to 125 in geneity
the within each cell for possible difference in the
analysis of
used as a covariate (MLA
factor. T) with respect to the dependent variable.
Correlational d
on subjects. 135
6Caution must be exercised in interpreting the graphed
4Analysis of results (Figure II). These results are not to be viewed
covariance as
allows
may account levels
for of the same continuous condition, but as discrete
pre-existing
groups. results with noof
Analysis additive or covariance
cumulative effects. In other
cells and words, the results on the Totalof
correlation Score graphthe (Figure II) are co
variables. As noted earlier,
not the sum of the component part-score graphs, since vari-th
satisfactorily. ability conditions are different in each case and results are
5The statistical procedures used throughout were con- not graphed on a uniform scale.
ducted using programs in the StatisticalAnalysis System (SAS) 7Had colorblindness been a factor, scores (particularly
Version 5 (1985). Apart from the correlations, the general men's scores) in the color-and-picture condition would have
linear model (GLM) procedure for unbalanced designs was more closely resembled those of the picture-only group,
utilized for the analysis of covariance as well as for checks where only the picture devoid of color functioned as an
of homogeneity and normality of variance. GLM allows enhancing cue.
consideration of unequal sample sizes. Additionally, the

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Summer 1991 Rockefeller Fellowships Available

to FL Teachers

THE ROCKEFELLER FOUNDATION RECENTLY meet the eligibility requirements, including

approved a grant in the amount of $625,000
three years full-time teaching a foreign lan-
guage
for a sixth year of funding of its highly will be considered. FLES teachers may
success-
ful Fellowship Program for Teachersalso
of be
Foreign
eligible but must consult the program
Languages in the High Schools, based
officeatprior
Con-to applying. ESL is not considered
necticut College, New London, CT. The a foreign language for the purposes of this
project will award $5,000 each to 100 teachers program.
of grades seven to twelve for eight weeks of The deadline for submission of completed
summer study leading to increased linguisticapplications for summer 1991 Fellowships is 31
and cultural proficiency and/or innovative cur- October 1990. Teachers should request appli-
ricular materials. The Rockefeller Foundation cations from the central fellowship office at this
has now committed a total of $3.2 million to address: Rockefeller Fellowships for Foreign
this effort to broaden teachers' expertise in the
Language Teachers in the High Schools, Con-
languages and cultures they teach. necticut College, 270 Mohegan Avenue, New
All teachers in private or public schools who
London, CT 06320.

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