YUTUTUTYGGY

232
FORMONEPHYSI
CSHANDBOOK
[
Wit
hwel
ldr
awndi
agr
ams
,sol
vedex
ampl
esandques
tionsf
orex
erc
ise]

The f i
gure bel ow shows a
tr
ansver
sesect i
onofawat erdam.
Expl
ain why engineer
s pr
eferthe
desi
gntoothers.

Tabl
eofCont
ent
s
1|
Page
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT Page2

BRI
EFPERSONALPROFI
LE Page2

GUI
DELI
NESI
NMYLI
FE Page2

Chapt
er1 I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOPHYSI
CS Page3

Chapt
er2 MEASUREMENT1 Page5

Chapt
er3 FORCE Page16

Chapt
er4 PRESSURE Page22

Chapt
er5 PARTI
CULATENATUREOFMATTER Page32

Chapt
er6 THERMALEXPANSI
ON Page36

Chapt
er7 HEATTRANSFER Page44

Chapt
er8 ELECTROSTATI
CSI Page51

Chapt
er9 CELLSANDSI
MPLECI
RCUI
TS Page55

Chapt
er10 RECTI
LINEARPROPAGATI
ONOFLIGHT Page62
ANDREFLECTIONATPLANESURFACES

Acknowl
edgement
Fi
rstandforemostIt
hankt
heAl
might
yGodf
ort
hegi
ftofl
i
fe,ener
gy,knowl
edgeandski
l
lst
o
pursuet
hiswork.

Li
nest
hati
nfl
uenceact
ivi
ti
esi
nmyl
i
fe
1.Godi
sal
way
sther
etoassi
stpr
ovi
dedy
ouaskf
orHi
m.
2.Ati
tsbest
,Phy
sicsel
i
minat
escompl
exi
tybyr
eveal
i
ngunder
lyi
ngsi
mpl
i
cit
y.
3.Ther
eisnomet
hodofchangi
ngy
ourf
ateexceptt
hroughhar
dwor
k.
4.Cohesion wi
thi
mmedi
ate nei
ghbor
s and det
ermi
nat
ion al
way
s bet
ter
syouri
mmedi
ate
envi
ronment.

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Chapt
erOne I
NTRODUCTI
ONTOPHYS
ICS

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Phy
sicsasaSci
ence Relat
ionshi
p bet
ween Phy
sics, Ot
her Subj
ect
s and
Technology
 Phy
sicsi
sabr
anchofsci
ence
1. Phy
sicsAndGeogr
aphy
 Sci
encei
sdi
vi
dedi
nto3mai
nbr
anches:
-
 Accur
ateuseofweatheri
nstr
umentsl
i
kethermometer
,
a) Phy
sics windvane,
rai
ngaugesetc.r
equi
rephy
sicsknowl
edge.

b) Chemi
str
y  Conceptsl i
ke heat tr
ansf
er by convecti
on whi ch
explai
nt he formati
on ofconvecti
onalrai
nf alland
c) Bi
ology
pressur
ev ar
iat
ioncanbebestexpl
ainedi
nphy sics.
Def
ini
ti
onofPhy
sics
2. Phy
sicsandMat
hemat
ics
 Physi
csisdef
inedast
hest
udyofmat
terandi
t’
s
 Manyconceptsinphy
sicsl
ikelaws,ef
fect
s,pr
inci
ples
rel
ati
ont
oenergy.
et
c.ar
eexpressedmathemati
call
y.
 I
tinv
olv
esexpl
aini
ngphenomenasuchas:
 Mat
hemati
calski
l
lsaret
her
efor
ever
yinst
rument
ali
n
I
. Thef
all
i
ngofbodi
est
owar
dst
hegr
ound, t
hel
eani
ngofphysics

I
I. Ri
singupofl
i
qui
dst
hroughadr
inki
ngst
raw, 3. Phy
sicsandChemi
str
y

I
II
. Seasonal
occur
renceoft
ides,  Phy si
cshashel pedinexplainingthenat ureofpar t
icl
es
within atoms and t herefore atomic st r
ucture of
IV. A pl asti
cpenr ubbedagainstdr
yfurorhai
r substances.
pickssmal l
piecesofpaper,
 At omi c st
ructure ofdifferent/v ar
ious subst ances
V. Acr ackl
ingsoundi sheardwhenanyl
oncl
oth determinetheirreacti
vi
ty(chemi cal
react i
ons).
isremov edetc.
4. Phy si
csandHi story
StudyofPhysics
 Hi stori
ans use car bon dating to establish ages of
Thestudyofphy si
csentai
ls: fossil
sandt herefor
epastpat ter
nsofear l
ierl
ife.

i
. Measur
ement
sofquant
it
iesandcol
l
ect
ionof  Thi
sconceptofcar
bondat
ingi
sexpl
ainedbet
teri
n
dat
a. at
omicphysi
cs.

i
i
. Drawing and testi
ng ofhypotheses t
hrough 5. Physi
csandHomeSci ence
experi
mentsandobservat
ion.
 Phy si
cs knowledge is used i n desi
gni
ng and
i
i
i. Est abl
ishmentoflawsandpri
nci
ples manufact
ure of kit
chen equipment e.
g. el
ect
ri
c
cooker
s,micr
owaveovens,enMechani
sngj
i
koset
c.
BranchesofPhy si
cs
6. Phy
sicsandTechnol
ogy
1. Mechani
cs
 Machinesusedinthef
i dofmedi
el ci
nesuchasx-r
ays,
 I
t deal
s wit
ht he st
udy of mot
ion under t
he
body scanner
s and l
asers ar
e al
lappli
cat
ions of
i
nfl
uenceoff
orce.
physi
cs.
2. El
ect
ri
cit
yandmagnet
ism
 Manuf
act
ure and use ofsat
ell
i
tes and mi
crowav
e

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 I
tdeal
swi t
hrelati
onshi
pbetweenel ect
ri
cf i
eldand di n i
shes used i nfor
mati
on technology t
o r
elay
magneti
cfi
eldandt hei
rappl
icati
onsinthewor ki
ng i
nfor
mati
onisbasedonphy
sicsknowledge
ofmotor
,microphones,el
ect
ro-magnetsetc.
 Physi
csknowledgeisal
sousedindef
enseindust
ryin
3. Ther
mody
nami
cs themanufact
ureanduseofmostmodernandcomplex
machines.
 I tdealswit
hthetransfor
mat i
onofheattoandfr
om
otherf or
ms ofener gy and the accompany
ing 7. Physi
csandBi ology
changesinpressure,vol
umeet c.
 Knowl edgeofl ensesstudiedi
nphysi
cshasledtot
he
4. Geomet ri
copti
cs manufactur
eofmi croscopesusedi
nthestudyoft
he
cel
landdiseases.
 I tdealswi t
ht he behavioroflightasitpasses
throughvari
ousmedi a.

 Pr operti
esoflightlikeref
lection,r
efracti
onet
c.are Car
eerOppor tuniti
esinPhy si
cs
studiedinthi
sbr anchofphy sics.
 Acar eerr eferst oaj oborapr ofessionthatonehas
5. Wav es beentrainedf orandi ntendstodoforal ongperi
odof
ti
me e. g. t eaching car eer
,medi ci
ne,engineeri
ng,
 I tdealswithpr opagati
onofener gyt hr
oughspace el
ectr
ical t
echnicianet c.
andef fect
ssuchasr efl
ection,dif
fracti
onofli
ght
andsoundwav es.  Acour ser eferstol essonsinpar
ti
cularsubj
ect

6. At
omi
cphy
sics  Anoccupat
ionr
efer
stoaj
oborapr
ofessi
on.

 Iti
sdealswit
hthestudyofthebehavi
orofpart
icl
es
consti
tut
ingthenucl
eus(centr
e)oft heatom and
thei
raccompanyi
ngenergychanges.

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Examples of courses off

ered at univ
ersi
tyl
evel Fi
rstAi
dMeasures
(degr
ees)t
hatrequi
rephysi
csknowledge
Acci
dent Possibl
e Cause of Fi
rstAi
dMeasur
es
(a)Bachel
orofeducati
on(sci
ence) theAccident

(
b)Bachel
orofSci
ence(
civ
ilengi
neer
ing) Cut
s  Poorhandlingof  Seek
glass apparat
us assist
ance to
(
c)Bachel
orofmedi
cine
andcuttingtool
s stopbleedi
ng
(
d)Bachel
orofar
chi
tect
ure i
.e.scalpel
sand
razor
s  Immedi at
e
(
e)Bachel
oroft
echnol
ogy(
product
ionengi
neer
ing) dressi
ngofthe
wound

bur
ns  Nakedf
lames  In case of a
Examples ofcourses off
ered atcol
l
ege l
evelt
hat bur n caused
requi
rephysi
csknowledge  Splashes of byanaci dora
concentr
ated base, qui ckly
(
a)Di
plomai
nci
vi
lengi
neer
ing aci
dsandbases runcol dwat er
ov er the
(
b)Di
plomai
ncomput
ersci
ence
affected par t
(
c)Di
plomai
nwat
ert
echnol
ogy as y ou seek
for f
urther
(
d)Di
plomai
nlabor
ator
ytechnol
ogy treatment

Poi
soni
ng  I
nhaling  Seeki
ng
poisonous i
mmedi ate
TheLabor
ator
y
fumes assi
stance
 A labor
ator
yi s a speci
alroom desi
gned and
 Accidental
equi
ppedconduct
ingexper
iment
sandpract
ical
.
swallowing of
poisonous
chemi cal
s
Maj
orsy
stemsoft
heLabor
ator
y
Eye  Bi
tsofsol
i
ds  In case of
i
. Gaspi
pingsy
stem damage i
rri
tati
ng
 Dangerous chemicals
i
i
. El
ect
ri
cal
ener
gysuppl
ysy
stem chemical
s wash your
eyeswi t
hal ot
i
i
i. Wat
ersy
stem
ofcleanwater.
Basi
cLabor
ator
yRul
es
Elect
ri
cal  Touching  Put off the
 Forsaf
etypurposes,t
hef
oll
owi
nglabor
ator
yrul
es shock exposed (naked) main switch
must be fol
l
owed and obser
ved whil
ei nthe wires fi
rst before
l
aborat
ory
: tr
eati
ng t he
 Using faul
ty shock
1. Locat
ions of electr
ical swit
ches, f
ir
efi
ghti
ng el
ectri
cal
equi
pment,
fir
stai
dkit,gassuppl
yandwatersuppl
y appli
ances
syst
emsmustbenot ed.

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2. Windows and door

s shoul
d be keptopen whi
l
e Rev
isi
onExer
cise
worki
ngi
nt hel
aborat
ory.
1) Name3branchesofsci
encesubj
ecti
nsecondar
y
3. Anyinst
ruct
ionsgi
venmustbefol
l
owedcar
eful
l
y. school
s
NEVERattemptany
thi
ngwhi
lei
ndoubt
.
2) Expl
aint
hest
epsi
nvol
vedi
nsci
ent
if
icappr
oach.
4. Ther
eshouldnoeat
ing,dr
inki
ngorchewi
ngi
nthe
3) Nameandbr
ief
lyexpl
aint
hebr
anchesofphy
sics
l
aborat
ory
.
4) Gi
vei
nst
anceswher
ephy
sicsi
nter
dependentwi
th
5. Ensurethatal
lel
ect
ri
calswi
tches,gasandwat
er
agr
icul
tur
e.
tapsaretur
nedof
fwhennoti
nuse.
5) Gr
oupt
hef
oll
owi
ngf
orm 1phy
sicst
opi
csi
ntot
he
6. Whenhandl
i
ngel
ect
ri
calappar
atus,handsmustbe var
iousbr
anchesofphy
sics.
dr
y.
Topi
c Branch of
7. Never pl
ug i
nfor
eign mat
eri
alsi
nto el
ect
ri
cal physics
socket
s.
1 Measur
ementI
8. Shir
tsandbl
ousesmustbet
uckedi
nandl
onghai
r
ti
edup. 2 For
ce

9. Keepfl
oor
sandwor ki
ngsurf
acesdr
y.Anyspi
l
lage 3 Pr
essur
e
shoul
dbewipedof
fimmediat
ely. 4 Par
ti
cul
atenat
ureofmat
ter

10.Allappar
atus mustbe cl
eaned and r
etur
ned t
o 5 Recti
li
near propagat
ion of
corr
ectl
ocati
onofstor
ageaft
eruse. l
ightandr ef
lect
ionatplane
surf
aces
11.Laborator
yequipmentshoul
dnotbet
akenoutof
l
aboratoryunl
essaut
hori
zed. 6 Ther
malexpansi
on

12.Anywast
eafteranexper
imentmustbedi
sposedof 7 Heatt
ransf
er
i
mmediat
ely
.
8 El
ect
rost
ati
cs
13.Hands must be washed bef
ore l
eav
ing t
he
9 Si
mple cel
l
s and el
ect
ri
c
l
aborat
ory
ci
rcui
ts

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Chapt
erTwo MEAS
UREMENTI
I
ntr
oduct
ion 3. Compl
etet
het
abl
ebel
ow

 Measur
ementref
erstothepr
ocessoff
indi
ngt
hesi
ze Basi
cquant
it
y SI Sy
mbolofuni
t Deri
ved
ofaphysi
cal
quanti
ty. quanti
ty
uni
t
 Scient
ist
sal loverthewor l
dhav eonei nt
ernat
ional
Lengt
h
system ofunitsi.
e.systemeint
ernat
ional
edeuni tes
(SIuni
ts)forphysi
calquanti
ti
es. Mass

El
ect
ri
ccur
rent

Reasonsf
orEst
abl
i
shi
ngSIUni
ts Thermodynami
c
temper
ature
1. Tohav
eint
ernat
ionaluni
for
mit
yamongsci
ent
ist
s.
Lumi
nousi
ntensi
ty
2. Toav
oidconf
usi
onamongsci
ent
ist
s.
Amount of
subst
ance

Ty
pesofPhy
sical
Quant
it
ies 4. Whyi
sitnecessar
ytoest
abl
ishSIuni
ts?

i
. Basi
c PhysicalQuant
it
ies (
Fundament
alPhy
sical
Quant
it
ies)
LENGTH
 Thesearequantit
iesthatcannotbeobt
ainedf
rom
 I
ti sthe measur
e ofdist
ance bet
ween t
wo poi
nts.
otherphy
sical
quanti
ti
es.
Examplesofl
engt
hare:
 There are seven basicquant
iti
esaccordi
ng t
othe
 br
eadt
h
i
nter
nat i
onalsy st
em ofunits(SIuni
ts)
.Theyareas
showni nthetablebelow:  di
amet
er
Basi
c phy
sical SIuni
t Symbol of  hei
ght
quant
it
y theSIuni
t
 Dept
het
c.
Lengt
h Met
er m
Mul
ti
plesandSub-
mul
ti
plesoft
hemet
re
Mass Ki
l
ogr
am kg
1ki
lome
ter(
1km)=1000m
Ti
me Second s
1he
ctome
ter(
1Hm)=100m
El
ect
ri
ccur
rent
s Amper
e A
1de
came
ter(
1Dm)=10m
Ther
mody nami
c Kel
vi
n K
temper
ature 1m =10de
cime
tre(
dm)

Lumi
nousi
ntensi
ty Candel
a Cd 1m =100c
ent
ime
ter(
cm)

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Amountofsubst
ance mol
e mol 1m =1000mi
ll
ime
ter(
mm)

1m =1000000mi
crome
ter(
µm)

i
i
. Der
ivedPhy
sicalQuant
it
ies

 These are quanti

ti
es obt ned by mul
ai ti
pli
cati
on or
di
visi
onofot herphysi
calquant
it
iese.g.area,v
olume,
work,densi
ty,momentum etc.

Exer
cise2.
2

Conv
ertt
hef
oll
owi
ngi
ntoSIuni
ts

a) 1000km (
answer
:1000000m)

b) 0.
00025mm (
answer
:0.
00000025m)

c) 0.
01Hm (
answer
:1m)

d) 25mm (
answer
:0.
025m)

e) 25µm (
answer
:0.
000025m)

Exer
cise2.
1
Measur
ementofLengt
h
1. I
denti
fythemi st
ake(s)i
nthef
oll
owi
ngSIuni
tsandhence
wri
tethem cor
rect
ly. Ther
ear
etwomet
hodst
hatcanbeusedi
nmeasur
ementof
l
engt
h:
(
a) Amper
es(
a)
1. Measur
ementbyest
imat
ion.
(
b)Candel
a(cand)
2. Accurat
e measur
ementusi
ng a sui
tabl
e measur
ing
(
c) Met
res(
M)
i
nstrument
.
(
d)Kal
vi
n
Exampl
esofi
nst
rument
susedi
nmeasur
ingl
engt
h
(
e) Seconds
I
. Met
err
uleandhal
f-
met
err
ule.
(
f) Ki
l
ogr
ams
I
I. Tape measure used t
o measur er
elat
ivel
ylong
(
g)Pascal
s l
engthse.
g.l
engthofasoccerf
iel
d.
(
h) newt
ons I
II
. Verniercal
i
per
s–usedtomeasur
eshortl
engt
hse.g.
2. There ar
et wo types ofphysicalquanti
ti
es:basi
c and thi
cknessofatext
bookordi
amet
erofasmeasur
ing
deri
vedquanti
ti
es,
statethedi
ff
erencebetweenthet
wo. cyl
inder.

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I
V. Micr
omet erscr
ew gauge – used t
o measur
ever
y
shor
tlengthse.
g.di
ameterofawir
e.

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Fact
orsConsidered When Choosi
ng an I
nst
rumentf
or
Measur
ingLengths

1. Si
zeoft
heobj
ectt
obemeasur
ed.

2. Lev
elofaccur
acyr
equi
red.

TheMet
err
ule

 Met
er r
ules and a hal
f– meter r
ules ar
e gr
aduat
ed
(
cal
i
brat
ed)incent
imet
erandmil
l
imeter

 Thesmallestdiv
isi
ononameterrul
escaleis1mm R1 =77.9cm,R2=82.
8cm,R3=25.
5cm,R4=30.
0cm,R5=3.
4
cm,
R6=7.0cm
(0.
1cm or0.001m).Thi
si heaccur
st acyoft
hemeter
rul
e.

Not
e: Exer
cise

I
. Accuracyofameasuringi
nstr
umenti st
hesmallest Expresst
heabov
ereadi
ngsi
n:
val
ue thatcan be accur
atel
y obt
ained usi
ng the
I
. Mm
i
nstrument.
I
I. M
I
I. The measur ement t aken using a measur i
ng
i
nstrumentmustbe expr essed t
ot he numberof
deci
malplacesoft heaccur acyofthatinst
rument.
Forexample,anymeasur ementtakenusingameter Precauti
onWhenUsi ngaMet erRul
e
rul
e shoul
d be expressed in whole numberifin
 Careshoul dbet akentoavoi
ddamagetot heendsof
mill
i
meter,t
o1deci malplaceifi
ncentimeter
sandto
meterrul
es.Thisisbecausemostoft
hem donothave
3decimalplacesi
finmet ers.
ashortal
lowanceattheendstocat
erf
ort
ear .

Pr
ocedur
eFol
l
owedWhenUsi
ngaMet
erRul
e

1. Pl
acethemeterr
ulei
ncontactwi
tht
heobj
ectwhose
TapeMeasur
e
l
engt
histobemeasured.
TypesofTapeMeasur
e
2. Pl
acet
heendoft
heobj
ectagai
nstt
hezer
ocm mar
k
oft
hescal
e. i
. Tai l
or’
stapemeasur
e

3. Posi
ti
ony
ourey
eper
pendi
cul
arl
yabov
ethescal
e. i
i
. Car
pent
er’
stapemeasur
e

i
i
i. Sur
vey
or’
stapemeasur
eet
c.

Not
e:Thechoi
ceoft
apemeasur henat
edependsont ure

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andl
engt
hofdi
stancet
obemeasur
ed.

Pr
ecaut
ionWhenUsi
ngTapeMeasur
e

 Ensur
eiti
staut(
ver
yst
rai
ght
)dur
inguse.

Measur
ingCur
vedLengt
hs

 Tomeasurecurvedl engt
hssuchasr ail
sandr oadson
maps,athreadi
spl acedalongtherequi
redlength.The
Sour
cesofEr
rorWhenUsi
ngaMet
erRul
e
l
engthist hen found by placing the t
hread on a
 Whenusi
ngamet
err
ule,
aner
rormayar
isewhen: mil
li
meterscal
e.

I
. t
her
ulei
snoti
ncont
actwi
tht
heobj
ect
,  Forcurvedsurf
aceslikeacyl
inder
,athr
eadiscl
osel
y
wrappedaroundthesurf
aceanumberoft
imes.
I
I. theendoftheobjecti
snotal
i
gnedt
othezer
omar
k
ofthemeterrul
escale,

I
II
. theposi
ti
onoft
heey
eisnotper
pendi
cul
art
othe Exper
iment2.1
scal
e.
Aim/Object
ive

To measurethe ci
rcumf
erence ofa measur
ing cy
li
nder
 NB:Theer
rort
hatoccur
swhentheposi
ti
onoftheeye usi
nga t
hread
i
snotperpendi
cul
art othescal
eiscaled par
l all
ax
Appar
atus
er
ror
.
i
. 10ml
measur
ingcy
li
nder

i
i
. Thr
ead

i
i
i. Met
err
ule

Pr
ocedur
e

1. Cl
osel
ywr
apat
hint
hreadt
ent
imesar
oundt
hecy
li
nder
asshownbel
ow.

Exampl
e

Whatar
ether
eadi
ngsi
ndi
cat
edbyar
rowsR1,R2,R3,R4,R5

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andR6bel
ow.

2. Mar
kwi
thi
nkt
hebegi
nni
ngandendoft
het
urns.

3. Remov
ethet
hread.

4. Measur
ethel
engt
hbet
weent
hei
nkmar
ksandcal
l
i
tR1.

5. Repeatt
wot imes,r ecor
dingreadingsasR2 andR3 so Resul
tsandCal culati
ons
astoensur
eaccur acyofyourmeasur ement
s.
 Hei ghtofthet r
eei sest i
matedusingtheexpr
ession:
R1+R2+R3
6. Fi
ndtheaveragel engthas . heightoft
het ree,htree leng
thofshadowoftr
ee,Ltree
3 =
heigt
hofr od,hrod l
engthofs
hadowofrod,Lrod
Resul
tsandCalculat
ions

R +R+R
 Av
eragel
engt
hof10t
urns,
R= 1 2 3 Exampl
e
3
I
nanexper i
menttoesti
matetheheightofatreei
nNyabur
uru
R
 Ci
rcumf
erenceoft
hecy
li
nder= Gir
ls’Secondar
ySchoolcompound,Gr
acerecor
dedt
hef
oll
owing
10
data.
 Di
amet
eroft
hecy
li
nder(
D)i
sobt
ainedas:
I
. Lengt
hofshadowoft
het
ree=1000cm
ci
rcumf
ere
nce
D= I
I. Lengt
hofshadowoft
her
od=200cm
π
I
II
. Hei
ghtoft
her
od=100cm

I
V. Det
ermi
net
hehei
ghtoft
het
ree
Exer
cise

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Theor
eti
cal Sol
uti
on

1. Al ength550cm ofathinthreadwrapsaroundacy l
inder hei
gthofthetr
ee,x le
ngthofs
hadowoft
ree
=
exactly25 ti
mes.Calculat
et he ci
rcumf
erence and the he
igthoftherod l eng
thofsha
dowofrod
22
radiusofthecyl
i
nder
.(Takeπ= ) . x 1000
7 =
100 200
2. Phil
i
pf oundt hattheperimeterofhisfar
mingplotwas
approxi
mately500stri
des.Hisstr
idewas1.
1m long.What x=5.
0m
wast heper
imeteroftheplot
?

AREA
Exper
iment
al
 Ar
ear
efer
stot
hemeasur
eofsur
face.
1. Esti
matethewidthofyourdeskbycount
ing howmanyof
yourpal
ml engt
hsaret
here  TheSIuni
tofar
eai
sthesquar
emet
er(m2).
2. Descri
beamethody oucanusetoesti
matet
het
hickness
widt
hofonesheetofpaperofy
ourbook.
Mul
ti
plesandsub-
mul
ti
plesoft
hesquar
emet
re
3. Descri
be a method t
hatcan be used t
o est
imat
ethe
thi
cknessofarazorbl
ade. I
. 1m2=1000000mm2

I
I. 1m2=10000cm2
Est
imat
ionofLengt
h
I
II
. 1km2 =1000000m2
Exper
iment2.
2 a)

Ai
m/obj
ect
ive:Toest
imat
ethehei
ghtofat
ree Exer
cise

Appar
atus 1. Expr
esst
hef
oll
owi
ngi
nsquar
ecent
imet
er

 Ar
odofl
engt
h2met
ers 00027km2
a) 0.

 Amet
err
ule. 5m2
b) 4.

Pr
ocedur
e 2. Expr
esst
hef
oll
owi
ngi
nSIuni
ts
b)
9000cm2
1. Hol
dther
odupr
ightandmeasur
eit
slengt
h.
009cm2
c) 0.
2. Measur
ethel
engt
hofi
tsshadow.
d) 25km2
3. Measuret
helengt
hoft
heshadow ofat
reei
nthe
school
compound.

Measur
ementofAr
ea Exampl
e

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Ar
eaofRegul
arl
y–ShapedObj
ect
s Esti
matetheareaoftheirr
egul
arsurfaceshowninthe
fi
gurebel
ow bycount
ingthesmallsquares.Thear
eaof
 Area ofir
regul
ar-
shaped obj
ect
sis obt
ained usi
ng onecomplet
esquar
eis1cm2.
appr
opriat
eformul
ae.

A. Rect
angl
e

Sol
uti
on
Ar
ea=l
eng
th×wi
dth
o Ar
ea=

(
numbe
rofc
ompl
etes
qua
res
1
+ ×numbe
2
rofi
ncompl
etes
qua
res )
B. Ci
rcl
e a
reaofones
qua
re

o Ar
e (
1
)
a= 4+ ×22 ×1c
2
m
2

2
o Ar
ea=15c
m

2 Exer
cise
Ar
ea=πr,whe
rer=r
adi
us
1) Tracetheoutl
ineofyourpal
m onagr
aphpaperandest
imat
e
theareaoftheshapeobtai
ned.
C. Tr
iangl
e
2) Det
ermi
net
hear
eaoft
het
opofy
ourdesk.

3) The diameterofthe bore ofa capi

l
lar
yt ube i
s 2.
0mm.
Calcul
atethe cr
oss-
secti
on area oft
he borein cm2(
take
π=3.142)

4) Asheetofpapermeasur
es25cm by15cm.Cal
cul
atei
tsar
ea
nmm2
i

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1 Vol
ume
Ar
ea= (ba
se×pe
rpe
ndi
cul
arhe
ight
2
 Vol
umer ef
erst
otheamountofspaceoccupi
ed by
matt
er.

D. Tr
apezi
um  I
tisader
ivedquant
it
yofl
engt
h.

 TheSIuni
tofv
ol st
umei hecubi
cmet m3)
er(

Mul
ti
plesandSub-Mul
ti
plesoft
heCubi
cMet
re
(
a) 3 3
1m =1000000c
m
1
Ar
ea= (s
umofpa
ral
lel
side
s)×he
ight (
b) 3 3
2 1m =1000000000mm

(
c) 3 3
1km =1000000000m

Ar
eaofI
rr
egul
arl
y-
ShapedSur
faces (
3
d)1m =1000l
it
ers

 Areaofir
r egul
arl
yshapedsurfacecanbeest i
mated (
e) 1li
ter=1000ml
bysub-di
vidingthesurfacei
ntosmallequalsquar
es 3
(
f) 1l=1dm
andtheareaobtainedas:
Exer
cise
Ar
ea
=
Converteachoft
hef
oll
owi
ngv
olumest
oSIuni
t
(
numberofcompl
etes
qua
res
1
+ ×numbe
2
rofi
ncompl
etesquare
s )
. 1500000000cm3
I
a
reaofones
quare
I
I. 20.
0li
ter
s

I
II
. 1.
0ml

I
V. 9000000000mm3

V. 1000000l

Vol
umeofRegul
ar–ShapedSol
i
ds

 Volumeofregul
arl
y–shapedsol
i
dsi
sobt
ainedby
apply
inganappr
opr
iat
efor
mul
a.

1. Cuboi
d Exampl
es

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Vol
ume=cr
oss-
sect
ionar
eaxhei
ght 1) Ar i
m offool
scapscont
ains500paper
sandhasamassof
2kg.Thesi
zeis300mm by200mm by50mm.f
ind:
Vol
ume=l
eng
th×br
eadt
h×he
ight
I
. Thet
hicknessofonesheetofpaper
.

200mm
=0.
4mm
500pape
rs

=0.
0004m

I
I. Themassofonesheetofpaper
.

2. Tr
iangul
arpr
ism o 500paper
s=2kg

2kg
 mas
sof1pa
per=
500

o =0.
004kg

I
II
. Thev
olumeoft
her
im.

o vol
ume=L×W×h

o 300mmx200mmx50mm
Vol
ume=cr
oss-
sect
ionar
eaxl
engt
h
3
=3000000mm
1
Vol
ume= ba
se×he
ight
×le
ngt
h 3
2 =0.
003m

I
V. Thev
olumeofonesheetofpaper
3
3. cy
li
nder Vol
umeof500pa
per
s=0.
003m
3
0.
003m
o vol
umeof1pa
per=
500
3
=0.
000006m

2) Ablockofglassis50cm l
ong,4.
0cm t
hickand2.
5cm hi
gh.
Cal
culat
eit
sv ol
ume

vol
umeoft
heg
las
sbl
ock=l
eng
th×br
eadt
h×he
ight

Vol
ume=cr
osssect
ionar
eaxhei
ght =5.
0cm×4.
0cm×2.
5cm

2 2
Vol
ume=πrh =50c
m
3
=0.
000050m

4. Spher
ee.
g.f
ootbal
l 3) Fi
ndt hev ol
umeoft
hecy
li
ndr
icalt
inofr
adi
us7.
0cm and
hei
ght3.0cm.
2
vol
umeoft
in= πr

22
= ×7c
m×7c
m×3c
m
7

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3
=462.
0cm
3
=0.
0004620m

4) Fi
ndthev ol
umeofat r
iangul
arpr
ism i
fbase=6.
0cm,hei
ght
=5.
0cm andlengt
h=12.
0cm

vol
ume=a
reaofc
ros
s-s
ect
ion×l
eng
th

4 3
(
1
= ×6.
2
0cm×5.
0cm ×12.)
0cm

vol
ume= πr
3 =180.
0c
3
m
3
=0.
0001800m

5. Cone 5) Fi
ndt
hev
olumeofaspher
ewhoser
adi
usi
s3.
0cm

4 3
vol
umeofs
phe
re= πr
3

4 22
= × ×3.
0cm×3.
0cm×3.
0cm
3 7
3
=113.
14c
m

1 2 =0.
00011314m
3
vol
ume= πrh
3
6) Asphereofdi
amet
er6.
0mm ismol
dedint
oaunif
orm wi
reof
di
ameter 0.2mm. Cal
cul
ate t
he length of the wir
e.
22
(t
a π= )
ke
7

vol
umeofs
phe
re=vol
umeofwi
re

4 3 2
πR =πrl
3

4 22 22
× ×3.
0mm×3.
0mm×3.
0mm = ×0.
1mm×0.
1mm×l
3 7 7
3 2
36mm =0.
01mm l
3
36mm
l= 2 =3600mm =3.
600ml
0.01mm

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Measur
ementofVol
umeofLi
qui
ds Sol
uti
on

3
i
. Usi
ngaCont
ainerwi
thUni
for
m Cr
oss-Sect
ionAr
ea. Vol
umeof1dr
op=0.
12c
m
3
 Theli
quidispour
edintothecontai
nerandt hehei
ght vol
umeof100dr
ops=1000×0.
12c
m
oft
heliqui
dinthecontai
nerismeasured.Thevol
ume 3
=12c
m
oft
heliqui
discal
cul
atedusingtheexpressi
on:
3
i
nit
ial
leve
l=24c
m
3
f
ina
lle
vel=(
24+12)
cm
Vol
umeofl
iqui
d=c
ros
sse
cti
ona
reaofc
ont
aine
r ×he
ightofl
iqui
d
3
=36c
m

Not
e:

 When using a measuring v

esselt he readi
ng ofthe
vol
umei stakenwit
htheey epositi
onedinl ev
elwit
hthe
bot
tom of t he meniscus (for li
qui
ds whi ch cur
ve
upwards)asi n(
a)ort opoft hemeni scus(forl
iqui
ds
whichcurvedownwards)asin( b)bel
ow.

Measur
ingVol
umeofI
rr
egul
ar-ShapedSol
i
ds

i
i
. Usi
ngasui
tabl
evol
umemeasur
ingappar
atus  Themet hodusedi
nthiscaseiscal
leddi
splacement
method sincet
hesol
id di
spl
acessomeliquid when
 Thefoll
owingapparat
usareusedtomeasur
evol
ume
i
mmer sed.
accur
atel
yofli
quidsinl
abor
atory
:
Condi
ti
onsunderwhi
chdi
spl
acementmet
hodwor
ks:
a) Pi
pet
te
Fordi
spl
acementmethodtoworkbest
,thesol
i
dwhose
b) Bur
ett
e
vol
umeist
obedeter
minedshoul
d:
c) Vol
umet
ri
cfl
ask
(
a)notbesol
ubl
eint
hel
i
qui
dbei
ngused,
d) Sy
ringe
(
b)notr
eactwi
tht
hel
i
qui
d,
 Pipet
teandv
olumet
ri
cfl
askmeasur
efi
xedv
olumesof
(
c)si
nki
nthel
i
qui
dand,
l
i
quids.
(
d)notabsor
bthel
i
qui
d.
 Thefol
lowingappar
atusareusedt o appr
oxi
mat
ely
measur
ev olumeofl
i
quidsi
nlabor
ator
y:

a) Measur
ingcy
li
nder
s Exper
iment
s

b) Gr
aduat
edbeaker
s Ai
m:Tomeasur
evol
umeofi
rr
egul
arl
y–shapedsol
i
d

c) Coni
cal
flasks Requir
ements:stone,thr
ead,measuri
ng cyl
i
nder,wat
er,
Eurekacan(alsocall
eddispl
acementoroverf
low can),
fl
oaterandasi
nker.
TheBur
ett
e

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Met
hod1:Usi
ngmeasur
ingcy
li
nder

Pr
ocedur
e

Thescal
eoftheburet
teismar
kedsucht ocm3
hatzer
marki
satthetopandthemaxi
mum valuemarkatt
he
bott
om.

1. Par
tlyf
il
lthemeasur
ingcy
li
nderwi
thwat
erandnott
he
vol
umeV1ofthewater

2. Ti
ethestonewi t
hat hr
eadandloweri
tgent
lyi
nthe
cy
li
nderunt
ili
tisf
ull
ysubmer
ged

3. Not
ethenewv
olumeofwat
erV2

Resul
tsandcal
cul
ati
ons

Thev
olumeoft
hest
onecanbecal
cul
atedas:

vol
ume= V2-V1

Exampl
e

Waterl
eveli
nabur ett
ei s24cm3.If100dropsofwat
erf
allf
rom
t
hebur et
teandt heav eragevol
umeofonedr opi 12cm3.
s0.
Whatisthef
inal
wat erl
ev eli
ntheburet
te?

Met
hod2:Usi
ngEur
ekacan Exampl
e

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Pr
ocedur
e

1. Fi
l
lEur
ekacanwi
thwat
erunt
ili
tov
erf
lows 1) Det
ermi
net
hev
olumeofwat
eri
nthecy
li
ndershownbel
ow.

2. Wai
tfort
hewat
ert
ost
opcomi
ngoutoft
hespout

3. Pl
aceameasur
ingcy
li
nderundert
hespout

4. Ti
et hestonewithat hr
eadandl
oweri
tgent
lyi
nto
waterunt
ili
tisf
ull
ysubmerged

5. Col
lectthewatercomi
ngoutoft
hespoutusi
nga
measuri
ngcyl
i
nder.

Sol
uti
on:
3
Vol
ume=33c
m
3
(
Remembert
hataccur
acyoft
hescal
eshownabov
eis1c
m)

2) Ifastoneofv ume6cm3i
ol sinser
tedt
osinkinwat
eri
nthe
abov
ecy l
inderwhatwi
l
lbet
henewwaterl
evel
?

Resul
tsandcal
cul
ati
ons Sol
uti
on

Thevolumeofwatercol
l
ect
edi
nthemeasur
ingcy
li
nderi
s Ne
wle
vel=i
nit
ial
leve
l+vol
umeofs
tone
thev
olumeofthestone.
3 3
Ne
wle
vel=33c
m +6c
m
3
=39c
m

Mass
Method 3:Measuri
ng vol
ume ofan i
rr
egul
ar-
shaped
 Massi
sthequant
it
yofmat
teri
nanobj
ect
.
f
loaterusi
ngEur
ekacan
 TheSIuni
tofmassi
stheki
l
ogr
am (
kg)
.
Pr
ocedur
e

1. Fi
l
ltheEur
ekacanwi
thwat
erunt
ili
tov
erf
lows
Mul
ti
plesandSubmul
ti
plesoft
heki
l
ogr
am
2. Wai
tfort
hewat
ert
ost
opcomi
ngoutoft
hespout
 1kg=1000g
3. Lowert
hesi
nkert
iedwi
that
hreadgent
lyi
ntot
he
can  1tonne=1000kg

4. Measur
ethevol
umeV1thatf
lowsi
ntothemeasur
ing  1g=1000mg
cyl
i
nder
 1kg=1000000mg
5. Removethesi
nkerandtiei
ttothecorkasyouf i
l
l
 1tonne=1000000g

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Eurekacanagai
nandallowitt
ooverf
low.Thenpl
ace 1.
themeasuri
ngcyli
nderundert
hespout.

6. Lowert
hesinkerandcorkti
edtoget
hergent
lyand
measur
e V2that ov
erf
lows int
o the measuri
ng
cyl
i
nder
.

Exer
cise

2. Conv
ert39.
6mgi
ntokg(
answer
:0. )
0000396kg

3. Change50t
onnesi
ntog(
answer
:50000000g)

4. 340kgi
ntot
onnes(
answer
:0.
340t
onne
s)

Resul
tsandcal
cul
ati
ons 5. 20gi
ntokg(
answer
:0.
020kg)

Thev
olumeoft
hest
onecanbecal
cul
atedas:Vol
ume = 6. 100gi
ntokg(
answer:0.
100kg)
V2-V1

Measur
ementofMass

 Ther
ear
ethr
eei
nst
rument
sthatcanbeusedused:

I
. Toppanbal
ance(
elect
ri
cal
type)

I
I. Beam bal
ance(
mechani
cal
type)

I
II
. Lev
erbal
ance(
mechani
cal
type)

AdvantagesofEl
ect
ri
calBal
ance(TopPanBal
ance)Ov
er
theBeam Bal
ance(
Mechani
calTy
pe)

1. El
ect
ri
cal
bal
ancei
saccur
ate.

2. I
tiseasyt
ouset
hanbeam bal
ance.

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V=L×W×h

=6c
m×4c
m×3c
m
3
V=72c
m

m 200g 3
ρ= ; 3 =2.
7777g
/cm
v 72c
m
3 3
1g
/cm =1000kg
/m
3 3
2.
7777g
/cm =2.
777×1000kg
/m
3
=2778kg
/m

1. Thedensi
tyofasubst
ancei cm3.Expr
s15g/ esst
hisi
nSI
Densi
ty uni
ts

 Itis def
ined as t
he mass peruni
tvol
ume ofa 1g
1c
3
m =1000kg
lm
3

subst
ance.
3 3
3 15g
/cm ×1000kg
lm
15g
lcm = 3
 Densi
tyi
sdenot
edbyaGr
eekl
ett
err
ho(
ρ) 1gcm
3
mass =15000kg
/m
De
nsi
ty=
vol
ume

2. The figur
e alongside shows a measuri
ng cyl
i
nderwhi
ch
m m contai
nswat erini
ti
allyatl
evelA.Whena soli
dofmass11g
ρ= ;v= ;m =ρ×v i
si mmer sedinwat erthelevelr
aisest
oB.Det er
minet
he
v ρ
densit
yoft hesoli
d.

 Sinc
ema s
sisme a
s ure
dinkga ndvol
umei nm3thenthe
SIunitofdens
ityistheki
logr
amperc ubi
cmeter(kg/m3
orkgm-3)

1g
/cm3=1000kg
/m3

Vol
umeofs
oli
d= VB-VA
Ex
ampl
es 3 3 3
48c
m -33c
m =15c
m
3 3
3. Showt
hat1g/c
m =1000kg/m
m
ρ=
3 1g v
g
/cm = 3
1cm
30g g
= 3 =2.
000 3
0.001kg 15cm c
m
= 3
0.
000001m 3
=2000kg
/m

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3
=1000kg
/m

4. Det
erminet
hedensi
tyi
nkg/m3 ofasolidwhosemassi
s Exer
cise
40gandwhosedi
mensi
onsi
ncm are30×40×3
1. Thedi
agram bel
owshowst hechangei
nv ol
umeofwateri
na
V=L×W×h measur
ingcyli
nderwhenanirr
egul
arsol
idisi
mmersedini
t.

3
V=30×3×4=360c
m

m
ρ=
v

40g 3
3 =0.
11111g
cm
360cm
3 3
o 1g1c
m =1000kg
lm
Gi
vent
hatt
hemassofthesol
idis56.7gdeter
minet
hedensi
tyof
0.
31111g
/cm ×1000kg
l
3
m
3 t
hesol
i
ding/cm3(
giv
eanswercorr
ectto2deci
malpl
aces
0.
1111g
lcm = 3
1gc
m

3 2. Compl
etet
het
abl
e
=111.
1kg
/m
mass v
olume Densi
ty

0.
012kg 20cm3 0. cm3
6gl
5. Awoodenbl
ockofmass200gis4.0cm wi
de3.
0cm thi
ck
and6.
0cm l
ong.Cal
cul
atet
hedensi
tyoft
hewoodenbl
ock 200g ….
….…cm3 m3
800kgl
i
nkg/m3
……….
tonnes 125m3 ….
…..
glcm3

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Densi
tyBot
tl
e m
V=
ρ
 I
tisasmal lglassbott
lefi
ttedwi
thgl
assstopper
0.
080kg
(
madeofgr ound gl
ass)whichhasaholethrough = 3
1000kg
/m
whi
chexcessl
iquidf
lowsout
.
3
=0.
00008m

i
) Vol
umeoft
hedensi
tybot
tl
e
Pr
ecaut
ionsWhenUsi
ngaDensi
tyBot
tl
e
Vol
umeoft
hede
nsi
tybot
tl
e
1. Thebot
tl
eshouldbeheldbytheneckwhenwi pi
ngit
.
=Vol
umeofwa
terf
il
li
ngi
t.
Thi
sist o pr
eventitf
rom expandi
ng due t
o body
warmt
hwhenhel dbysi
desbyusi
nghands. Vol
umeoft
hede
nsi
tybot
tl
e=0.
000008m
3

2. Theout
sideoft
hebot
tl
emustbewi
peddr
ycar
eful
l
y.

3. Thereshouldbenoai
rbubbl
eswhent
hebot
tl
eis i
i
) Massofsol
i
dDi
npar
tb)
fi
l
ledwit
hliqui
d.
i
i
i) 96-8g

=48g

=0.
088kg

i
v) Densi
tyofsol
i
dD

m
ρ=
v

N/BDensit
ybott
lei
susedmeasur
ethedensi
tyofei
ther =
0.
088kg
3
l
iqui
dorsoli
d. 0.
00008m
3
=1100kg
/m

Exampl
es
v
) Vol
umeofwat
eri
nc)
1. Themassofadensi tybott
leis20.
0gwhenempt y
,70. 0g
whenful
lofwaterand55.0gwhenfullofasecondl
iquidx. m
Cal
cul
atethedensi
tyoftheli
quid(
takedensit
yofwat erto V=
ρ
cm3)
be1g/
0.030kg
S
olut
ion = 3
1000kg/m
 Ma
ssofe
mpt
yde
nsi
tybot
tl
e =20.
0g 3
000030m
=0.
 Ma
ssofde
nsi
tybot
tl
e+wa
t=70.
0g
v
i) Massofsol
i
dDi
nd)
.
 Ma
ssofwa
teri
nde
nsi
tybot
tl=50.
0g
m =ρ×v
m 50.0g 3
 Vol
umeofde
nsi
tybot
tl
e= = 3 =50c
m m =1100×(
0.000080-
0.000030)
ρ 1g
/cm

 Ma
ssofde
nsi
tybot
tl
e+l
iqui
d =55.
0g m =0.
055k

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 Ma
ssofl
iqui
dfi
ll
ingt
hebot
tl
e Exer
cise

=55.
0-20.
0=35.
0g

 Vol
umeofl
iqui
d=vol
umeofde
nsi
tybot
tl
e Adensi
tybott
lehasamassof17. 5gwhenempty.Whenf
ullof
3
wat
erit
smassi s37.5g.Whenful
lofli
qui
dxi t
smassis35g.If
=50c
m t
hedensi
tyofwateri m3,
s1000kg/ fi
ndthedensi
tyofl
i
qui
dx.
m
 ρofl
iqui
dx=
v
Densi
tyofMi
xtur
es
35.
0 0.7g
= = 3
50 cm
 Ami xt
urei
sobtai
nedbyputt
ingtwoormoresubst
ance
=700kg
/m
3
suchthatt
heydonotr
eactwithoneanot
her
.

2. I
nanexperi
mentt
odeter
minet
hedensi
tyofacer
tai d  Thede
nsol
i nsit
yofthemi xt
ureli
esbet
weent hedensi
ti
esof
D,thefol
l
owingr
eadi
ngswereobtai
nedusi
ngadensity i
ts consti
tuent subst
ances and depends on thei
r
bot
tle propor
ti
ons.
a) Massofempt
ydensi
tybot
tl
e=8g Totalmas
soft
hemixtur
e
De
nsi
tyofmi
xtur
e=
Tot
alvol
umeofmi
xture
b) Massofadensi
tybot
tl
eandsol
i
dD=96g

c) Massofdensi
tybot
tl
e+30gwat
er+sol
i
dD=132g
Exampl
e
d) Massofdensi
tybot
tl
e+wat
er=88g
1. Amixtur
econsi sof40cm3ofwat
st erand60cm3ofli
qui
dX.if
Cal
cul
ate t
hedensiti
esofwaterandli
quidXare1.0g/cm3and0.
8g/cm3
r
especti
vel
y,cal
cul
atethedensi
tyofthemixtur
e.
v
ii
) Massofwat
eri
ndensi
tybot
tl
einpar
td)
.
Ma
ssofwa
ter=ρw×Vw
88g-8g=80g
3 3
=0.
080kg =1.
0g/
cm ×40c
m

=40g
v
ii
i) Vol
umeofwat
eri
nd)( t
akedensi
tyofwat
erbe
3
1000kg/m) . ma
ssofl
iqui
dx=ρx×Vx

3 3
=0.
8g/
cm ×60c
m =48g

mas
sofwa
ter
+massofl
iquidX
De
nsi
tyofmi
xtur
e=
vol
umeofwa
ter
+vol
umeofliqui
dX

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De
nsi
tyofmi
xtur
e=
40g+48g Si
mpl
ePendul
um
3 3
40cm +60c
m
 I
ti s a dev
ice t
hatcan be used t
o det
ermi
ne t
ime
88g
De
nsi
tyofmi
xtur
e= 3 =0.
880g
/cm
3
i
nterv
als.
100cm
 I
tmakesosci
l
lat
ionswhendi
spl
acedsl
i
ght
ly.
2. Asoluti
oncontains40cm3byv olumeofalcoholand60cm3
water
.Ifthedensit
yofthealcoholi
s0.
79g/cm3andwat eri
s
 Anosci
l
lat
ioni
sacompl
etet
oandf
romot
ion.
1.
0g/cm3.Calcul
atethedensit
yofthesol
ution.

ma
ssofwa
ter =ρw×Vw

3 Exper
iment
=1g
/cm ×60cm3 =60g

ma
ssofa
lcohol=ρa×Va Aim: To det
ermi
ne t
ime t
aken t
o compl
ete gi
ven
osci
l
lat
ions
3
=0.
79g
/cm ×40cm3 =31.
6g
Appar
atus:Pendul
um bob,t
hread,st
opwat
ch,cl
amp,boss
mas
sofwa
ter
+massofa
lcohol andr
etor
tst
and.
De
nsi
tyofmi
xtur
e=
vol
umeofwa
ter
+vol
umeofa l
cohol
Pr
ocedur
e
60g+31.
6g 91.
6g
De
nsi
tyofmi
xtur
e= 3 3= 3
60cm +40cm 100c m
i
) Sety
ourappar
atusasshownbel
ow.
3
=0.
916g
/cm

Ti
me

 Ti
mei
sthemeasur
eofdur
ati
on.

 SIuni
tist
hesecond(
s).

Mul
ti
plesandsub-mul
ti
plesofsecond

1mi
nut
e=60s
econd
i
) Sli
ghtl
ydispl
acet
hebobanddet
ermi
net
het
ime
1hour=3600s
econd takentomake3osci
l
lat
ions

1da
y=24hour
s=86400s
econd i
i
) Repeatthepr
oceduref
ort
hefol
lowi
ngnumberof
osci
ll
ati
onsandfi
ll
thet
abl
ebel
ow.
1s
econd=100c
ent-
sec
ond
No. of Ti
me(
s) Time f or 1
1s
econd=1000mi
ll
is
econd(
ms) osci
l
lat
ions osci
ll
ati
on, T
(s)
1s
econd=1000000mi
cros
econd(
µs)
2

Measur
ementofTi
me 4

 Ti
mei
smeasur
edusi
ngei
thert
hest
opwat
chora 6

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st
opcl
ockdependi
ngonl
evel
ofaccur
acyr
equi
red. 8

Cal
cul
ati
ons

Adv
ant
agesofSt
opWat
chOv
erSt
opCl
ock Ti
mef
or1osci
l
lat
ioncanbecal
cul
atedas:

1.
)Stop wat
ch i
seasyt
o handl
eand r
ead t
han st
op Ti
mef
ornosc
il
lat
ions
T=
cl
ock. n

2.
)Iti
smor
eaccur
atet
hanst
opcl
ock.

Exampl
e

Expr
esst
het
imeshownont
hest
opwat
chscr
eenbel
owi
nSI
.

=10×60+22 Revi
sionExer
cise

1) I
dent
ifyt
hemi st
akei
nthef
oll
owi
ngSIuni
tsandhencewr
it
e
t
hem cor
rect
ly.

(
a)Amper
es(
a)
+34×0.
01
(
b)Candel
a(cand)
=600+22+0.
34=622.
343s
econds
(
c) Met
res(
M)

(
d)Kal
vi
n

(
e) Seconds

(
f) Ki
logr
ams

(
g)Pascal
s

(
h)newt
ons

2) conver
tthef
oll
owi
ngi
ntoder
ivedSIuni
ts

(
a)0.
01cm

b)100cm2
(

(
c) 20day
s

(
d)3.
625g

(
e) 324t
onnes

(
f) 5dm3

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(
g)400ml

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3) Est
imat
ethel
engt
hoft
hecur
veshown.

4) Def
inedensi
tyandgi
vei
tsSIuni
ts.

5) Aburetteshowsal i
qui
dlevelas20cm3.Tendropsofthe I
ftheini
ti
alr
eadi
ngwasat0cm mar
k,det
ermi
net
hevol
umeof
sameliquideachofvolume0.5cm3 ar
eadded.Calcul
ate onedr
op.
thenewliqui
dlevel
.

6) Anempt ydensi
tybott
lehasamassof15g.Whenf ul
lof
al
coholofdensi
ty0.
8g/cm3,
itsmassi
s47g.Cal
cul
ate:
-

i
) Thevol
umeoft
hebot
tl
e. 14.Ami xtureismadeupoftwomet al
sXandY.Themass
ofthemi xturei
s30gandt hevol
umeoft hemixtureis4.
5
i
i) I
tsmasswhenf
ullofwat
er. cm3.Determi net
hemassofmet alXinthemixture.(
Densit
y
i
ii
)Itmasswhenf
ullofmer
cur
yofdensi
ty13. cm3.
6g/ ofmetalXi s6000Kgm-3anddensi
tyofmetalYi s7900
Kgm-3)
7) A measur i
ngcy l
indercont ns8cm3 ofwat
ai er.A small
pieceofbr assofmass24gi sloweredcareful
lyintoa
measur i
ngcyli
ndersothatitiscar
eful
lysubmerged,ift
he
densityofthebrassis8g/cm3,whatisthenewr eadi
ngof
thelevelofwat
erinthecyli nm3.
nderi

8) A Eur ekacanofmass60gandcr osssectionalareaof

60cm2 i sfi
ll
edwit
hwaterofdensit
y1g/ cm3.Apieceof
steelofmass20ganddensi
ty8g/cm3 i
sloweredcaref
ull
y
i
nt othecanasshown

Cal
cul
ate;

a) Thetot
almassofwaterandtheEur
ekacan
bef
orethemetalwasl
owered.

b) Thevol
umeofwat
ert
hatoverf
lower
ed.

c) Thef
inalmassoft
heeur
ekacanandi
tscont
ent
s

d) I
nfi
ndi
ngt
hedensi
tyofl
iqui
d,whyi
sthemet
hod

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ofusi
ngdensi
tybot
tl
emor eaccurat
ethant
he
oneofusi
ngameasuringcyl
inder
.

9) 25cm3ofal i
qui
dxofdensi
ty1.
2g/cm3ismixedwit
hliqui
d
3 3
ofvolume30cm and0.9g/cm wit
houtchangei
nvolume.
Calcul
atet
hedensit
yoft
hemixtur
e.

10)Themassofanemptydensi
tybot
tl
eis25.
0g.I
tsmass
whenf
il
ledwit
hwateri
s50.0gandwhenfi
ll
edfor
mali
nit
s
massi
s60.0g.Cal
cul
ate.

a) Massofwat
er

b) Vol
umeofwat
er.

c) Vol
umeofbot
tl
e.

d) Massoff
ormal
in.

e) Vol
umeoff
ormal
in.

f
) Densi
tyoff
ormal
in.

11)Abutcherhasabeam bal
anceandmasses0.
5kgand2
kg.Howwouldhemeasure1.5kgofmeatonthebal
ance
atonce?

12)Det
erminet
hedensi
tyi
nkg/m3ofasol
idwhosemassi
s
40gandwhosedi
mensionsi
ncm ar
e30x4x3

13)Fi
gur
ebel
owshowst
her
eadi
ngonabur
ett
eaf
ter55dr
ops
ofal
iqui
dhavebeenused.

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Chapt
erThr
ee FORCE
Def
ini
ti
onofFor
ce c) Thefi
gur
ebel
owshowstwoobj
ect
sofmassm1andm2
act
eduponbyaf
orceF
 Force r
efer
st o a push ora pul
lthatr
esul
tfr
om
i
nteract
ionofbodi
es.

 I
tist
hatwhi
chchangest
hest
ateofmot
ionofabody
.

 TheSIuni
toff
or st
cei henewt
on(
N).
I
dent
if
yfor
ceF
 Force has bot
h magni
tude and di
rect
ion and i
s
represent
edbyast
rai
ghtl
inewit
hanar ow asshown Gr
r avi
tat
ionalf
orce
below.
2. Centri
petalFor
ce

 Thisi
saf orcewhi
chmai
ntai
nsabodyt
omov
eina
ci
rcul
aror
bitorpat
h.
 Thelengt
hofthel
ineshowsthemagnit
udeoft
hefor
ce
 I
tisdir
ect
edt
owar
dst
hecent
reoft
heci
rcul
aror
bit/
whi
lethearr
owheadshowsthedi
rect
ionoft
hefor
ce.
t
rack.
Ef
fect
sofFor
ce
Examplesofsi
tuat
ionsi
nwhi
chcent
ri
pet
alf
orceact
s
i
. For
cecanmakest
ati
onar
yobj
ectmov
e. i
nclude:

i
i
. I
tcani
ncr
easespeedofmov
ingobj
ect
.  Whi
rl
ingast
onet
iedt
oast
ri
ng.

i
i
i. I
tcanst
opamov
ingobj
ect
.

i
v. I
tcandecr
easespeedofmov
ingobj
ect
.

v
. I
tcanchangeshapeofanobj
ect(
i.
e.candef
orm
anobj
ect
).

v
i. I
tcanmakeanobj ecttur
naboutaf ixedpoi
nt
(
piv
ot)
.Thi
siscal
l
edturni
ngef
fectoff
orce.

v
ii
. I
tcanchanget
hedi
rect
ionofamov
ingobj
ect
.

Exer
cise  Theear
thr
evol
vi
ngar
oundt
hesunal
ongi
tisor
bit
.

Whi
choft
heef
fect
sabov
ecanbecausedby
:  Cent
ri
fugeusedt
osepar
ategheef
rom mi
l
k.
a) Apushonl
y?
 Acarmov
ingr
oundaci
rcul
art
rackorr
oad(
cor
ner
).
b) Apul
lonl
y?
3. Magnet
icf
orce
c) Apushorapul
l
?
 Magnet
icf
orcei
sthef
orceofat
tract
ionorr
epul
si
on

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Ty
pesoff
orce duet
oamagnet
.

 I
tisnon-
cont
actf
orce.

1. Gr
avi
tat
ionalFor
ce  Magnet
icatt
ract
ionoccur
sbet weenamagnetanda
magnet
ic mater
ialorbet ween unl
ike pol
es ofa
 I
tr efer
st othefor
ceofat tr
act
ionbetweenanytwo magnetwhi
lerepul
sionoccursbetweenli
kepol
esof
bodiese.g.f
orceofat
tract
ionbetweentheear
thand magnet
.
themoon.

 Gr
avi
tat
ional
for sanon-
cei cont
actf
orce.

Gr
avi
tat
ionalFor
ceoft
heEar
th

 I
tisthef
orceofat
tract
iononbodi
est
owar
dthecent
re
oft
heeart
h.

Fact
orsaf
fect
inggr
avi
tat
ionalf
orce
4. Upt
hrustfor
ce
I
. Massesoftheobj ects-Thel ar
gerthemassest he
st
rongert
hegravit
ati
onalf
orce.  Upthrust is an upwardf or
ce act
ing on object
s
i
mmer sedinfl
uids(
li
qui
dsorgases).
I
I. Di
stanceofseparati
onbetweenthet woobject
s.The
l
onger the distance of separat
ion the weaker  Upthrustcanalsobedef i
nedastheapparentl
ossin
gr
avit
ati
onal
force. wei
ghtofabodyi mmersedinali
qui
dorgas.

Exampl
es

a) Whatar
enon-
cont
actf
orces?

 Therear
efor
ceswhi
chactev
eni
fobj
ect
sar
enoti
ncont
act
wit
honeanot
her.

b) Explai
nwhyabal
lthr
ownupwar
dsr
etur
nsbackt
othe
ground

 I
tisduet
oat
tract
ionbyear
th’
sgr
avi
tat
ionalf
orce

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Upt
hrus
tonabody f
) Smoot
heni
ngsur
faces.

=we
ightofbodyi
nai
r-we
ightofbodyi
nfl
uid g) Usi
ngbal
lbear
ings.

 Upt
hr sacont
usti actf
orce. h) Ai
rcushi
oni
ng

6. El
ect
rost
ati
cFor
ce

 Elect
rostat
icforce i
st he for
ce of att
ract
ion or
repul
sionbetweenel
ectr
ical
l
ychargedbodi
es.

 Itis non-contactforce.Ther et
e ar wo types of
Examplesofsi tuat
ionsin whi
ch upt
hrustf
orceact
s el
ectri
calcharges(posi
tiv
eandnegati
v e)
.
i
nclude:
 Att
racti
onoccur sbetweenunli
kechargesi.
e.posit
ive
 Ball
oonstorisi
ng and negat
ive whi
le repul
si
on occur
s bet
w een l
ike
charges.
 Swimmer sandboatsf l
oat
ing

 Bodiesimmersed i
nli
qui
dswei
ghi
ng l
esst
han t
hei
r
weighti
nai
r.

Numer
icalExampl
e

Abodyweighs100Ni nairand80Nwhensubmer
gedi
nwat
er.
Cal
cul
atet
heupthr
ustact
ingonit
.
Examplesofsi
tuat
ionsi
nwhi
chel
ect
rost
ati
cfor
ceact
s
upt
hrus
t=a
ppa
rentl
ossi
nwe
ight i
nclude:

=100N-
80N=20N a) Aplast
icrul
erorpenrubbedwithpi
eceofdr
ycl
oth
orhai
ratt
ract
spiecesofpaper
.

b) Awipedglasswindow r
apidl
yattr
act
sdustduet
o
5. Fr
ict
ionalFor
ce char
gesl
eftonthem dur
ingwipi
ng.

 Thi
si saf orce t
hatopposes mot
ion bet
ween t
wo c) Poli
shedshoesr api
dlyat
tractdustduet
ochar
ges
sur
facest
hatarei
ncont
act. l
eftonthem dur
ingbrushi
ng.

 Fr
ict
ionalfor
cei nfl
uids(
li
qui
d and gases)i
scal
l
ed d) Anyl
onclot
hproducescr
ackl
i
ngsoundandst
icks
vi
scousdrag(vi
scosi
ty)
. ont
hebodywhenbeingr
emovedet
c.

 Fr
icti
onalf
orce i
sacont actf
orce anditactsi
nthe
di
recti
onopposi
tetot
hatofmoti
onoft hebody
.
7. Act
ionandReact
ionFor
ces

 Acti
onandr eacti
onar
etwoequalf
orcesact
ingi
n
opposi
tedi
recti
ons.

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econt
 Theyar actf
orces.

 Whenablockofwoodi splacedonat abl

e,i
tsweight
(
acti
on)actsont hetabl
e.Ther eact
ionofthetable
(
opposi
teforce)act
sontheblock.

Adv
ant
agesofFr
ict
ionalFor
ce

Fr
ict
ional
for
cehel
psi
n:

a) Wr
it
ing.

b) Br
aki
ng.

c) Wal
ki
ng.

d) Er
asi
ng.

e) Li
ght
ingamat
chst
icket
c

8. Nucl
earFor
ce

Di
sadv
ant
agesofFr
ict
ionalFor
ce  Thi
sisaf orcet
hatbi
ndspr
otonsandneut
ronsi
n
at
omicnuclei
.
a) Causeswearandt
ear
.
 Nucl
earf
or sacont
cei actf
orce.
b) Hi
nder
smot
ion.

c) Pr
oducesunwant
edheat
.

d) Pr
oducesunwant
edsound.

Met
hodsofReduci
ngFr
ict
ionalFor
ce

i
) Oi
l
ingandgr
easi
ng.

j
) Usi
ngr
oll
ers.

k) St
reaml
i
ningbodi
es.

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9. Tensi
onFor
ce i
i
i) Brist
les ofa brush spr
ead in waterbutcl
ing
togetherwhenthebrushisret
riev
edoutofwater
.
 I
tisaf
orcewhi
chact
sonst
ret
chedbodi
es. Thecl i
ngingt
ogetherofbri
stl
esisduetosur
face
tensi
onofwat eronthesurf
aceofbri
stl
es.
 Tensi
onisasar esul
toft
woopposi
ngf
orcesappl
i
ed
oneateachendofabody.

 I
tisacont
actf
orce.

i
v) Adr opofwat erf
rom aburett
eorwat ert
apgr
ows
andst r
etchesoutbefor
eitfall
soffduetosur
face
tensiononthesurfaceoft
hedr op.

Note:Surfacet
ensionactsalongthesur
faceofali
qui
dso
astor educesurfacearea.Thiscanbeill
ust
rat
edbyt he
fol
l
owi ngobservati
ons:

i
) Whenbubbl eofsoapisblowntot hewi
deendof
10.Sur
faceTensi
on thefunnelandt heleftwit
htheupperend,t he
bubblerecedesslowl
yunti
litf
lat
tenstoafil
m.It
 Surfacetensi
oni
sdefi
nedast hefor
ceperuni
tlengthin
ther
efor
emakesi tssurf
aceassmal l
aspossi
ble.
theplaneofal i
qui
dsurfaceactingatri
ghtangleson
eit
hersideofani
maginar
ylinedrawnint
hatsurface.

Mol
ecul
arExpl
anat
ionofSur
faceTensi
on

 Amol eculedeepi ntheli

quidi
ssur r
oundedbyl iquidon
al
lsidessot hatthenetfor
ceoni ti
szero.Amol ecul
e
onthesur facehasf ewermolecul
esont hev apourside
andt her
eforewi l
lexperi
encear esult
antinwardf orce,
i
i
) Whenaf il
m ofasoapcontainedinawi r
eloopis
causi
ngt hesur f
aceoftheli
quidtobeintension.
punctur
edorpiercedatpointXasshownbel ow,
the remaini
ng part of the fi
l
m acqui res a
mi ni
mum area.The thr
ead istheref
ore pull
ed
Examplesofsi
tuat
ionsi
nwhi
chsur
facet
ensi
onf
orceact
s from onesidemaki ngaper f
ectcurve.Thisis
i
nclude: becauseoff or
cesofsurfacetensi
onf rom one
sideonl
y.
i
) Asteelr
azorbl
adeorneedl
efloat
swhencar ef
ull
y
pl
aced on wat
eralt
hough st
eelis denserthan
water
.

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i
i
) Aglassofwatercanbefi
lledwit
hwaterabovet
he Fact
orsAff
ect
ingSur
faceTensi
on
bri
m wit
houtwat erpour
ing out.Thi
sis due t
o
surf
acet
ensi
onont hesur
faceofwater
. i
) I
mpuri
ties

 Impuri
ti
esr educesurf
acet ensi
onofal i
qui
d.Soap
(det
ergent
)weakens t he cohesi
veforces bet
ween
surf
ace li
quid molecules and ther
efor
er educi
ng
surf
acetension.

i
i
) Temper
atur
e

 Temperat
urereducessurf
acetensi
onofthel iqui
d
because i
tweakens cohesi
veforce ofat
tracti
on
betweenl
iqui
dmolecul
es.

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Exer
cise  Thelev
elofmercur
yi ncapi
l
laryt
ubesisl
owerthan
thatofmercur
yint hebasin.Bei
ng l
owesti
nt he
Expl
aint
hef
oll
owi
ngobser
vat
ions:
narr
owtube.
a) Asteelneedl
epl
acedcar
eful
l
yont
hesur
faceofwat
erdoes
 I
nbot
hcapi
l
lar
ytubesmer
cur
ycur
vesdownwar
dsat
notsi
nk.
theedge(doesnotwetglass)
.Thisisduetostr
onger
b) Whenasmal ldr
opofdetergent
sisplacedonwater
,the cohesi
vef orce bet
ween mer cur
y molecul
es than
f
loat
ingneedl
emov esrapi
dlyawayf
rom itandsi
nkswhen adhesi
ve f orces bet
ween mer cur
y and gl ass
moredet
ergentisadded molecul
es.

c) Amatchsti
ckwr
appedatoneendwit
hsoapstar
tsmovi
ng  Thedownwar
dcur
vei edconv
scal
l exmeni
scus
i
mmediat
elyi
nonedir
ect
ionwhenpl
acedont
hesurf
aceof
wat
er.

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11.Adhesi
on(
adhesi
vef
orce) Wat
eronCl
eanandWaxedgl
asssur
faces

 Adhesion refer
st ot he f
orce ofatt
ract
ion between
molecules ofdi f
fer
entkind e.g.for
ce ofat t
ract
ion
bet
weenwat erandglassmolecul
es.

Exampl
esofsi
tuat
ionsi
nwhi
chadhesi
vef
orceact
sincl
ude:
 Whenwaterisdroppedonacl eanpieceofgl ass,i
t
1) Li
qui
dwet
ti
nggl
ass.
spr
eadsbecauseadhesi
vef or
cesbetweengl assand
2) Pai
ntst
icki
ngonwal
l
. watermol
eculesarestrongert hancohesi
vef orces
bet
weenwatermolecul
es.
3) I
nkst
icki
ngonpaper
.
 Whenwat erisdroppedonwaxedgl asssurface,i
t
4) Chal
kmar
kst
icki
ngont
heboar
d. roll
si nt
o smalldroplets.Thisi s because waxing
reduces adhesi
vef or
ce between wat erand glass
mol ecul
es.Cohesivef orce becomes gr eat
ert han
adhesivefor
ce.
12.Cohesi
on(
Cohesi
veFor
ce)

 Cohesi on refer
st ot he for
ce ofatt
racti
on bet
ween
moleculesofsameki nde.g.for
ceofat
tract
ionbet
ween MassandWei ght
watermol ecul
es.
 Massi sdef i
nedasthequantit
yofmatt
erinabody.
SomeEf f
ectsofAdhesiveandCohesi v
eForces
 Wei ghti
st hegrav
itat
ionalpul
lonabody.Iti
safor
ce
a) Capil
laryTubesDippedinWat er andther
eforeit
sSIunitisNewton(
N).

 Thedirect
ionofact
ionofwei
ghtonear
thi
stowar
ds
thecentr
eoftheear
th

Rel
ati
onshi
pbet
weenMassandWei
ght

 Massandwei
ghtar
erel
atedasf
oll
ows:

we
ight

=ma
ss×a
cce
ler
ati
onduet
ogr
avi
ty
 Inbothcapill
arytubeswat ercurv
esupwar dsatthe
edge(wetsglass)
.Theri
seofwat erupthet ubeisdue (
Gra
vit
ati
ona
lfi
elds
tre
ngt
h)
toadhesi
veforcesbetweenglassandwat ermolecul
es
W =Mg
bei
ng stronger than cohesi
ve force of attr
acti
on
betweenwatermolecul
es.

 Theupwar
dcur
vei edconcav
scal
l emeni
scus. Def
ini
ti
onofaccel
erat
ionduet
ogr
avi
ty(
g)

 I
tisdef
inedasthegr
avi
tat
ionalf
orceact
ingonauni
t
massataplace.
b) Capi
l
lar
yTubesDi
ppedi
nMer
cur
y
 TheSIuni
tofg (gr
avi
tat
ionalf
iel
dst
rengt st
h)i he
newt
onperki
l
ogr
am (N/
kg)

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 Note:Agr aphofwei
ghtversusmassi
sast
rai
ghtl
i
ne
thr
oughtheor i
ginandthesl opeoft
hegr
aphgives
accel
erat
ionduetograv
ity
,gi .
e.

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Di
ff
erencesbet
weenMassandWei
ght a) Ti
me

b) Temper
atur
e

Mass weight c) Ener

gy
Thequant
it
yofmatter Gravit
ati
onal
pull
onan
i
nanobjectbody object d) Speed
TheSIuni
tkg SIuniti
sthenewton
(ki
l
ogram) e) Ar
ea
Const
antever
ywher
e Var
iesfrom pl
acetopl
ace
f
) Vol
ume
Ascal
arquanti
ty Avectorquant
ity
g) Lengt
h
Measured using a Measur
edusi
ngaspr
ing
beam bal
ance bal
ance
h) Mass

i
) Di
stance.

Exampl
es 1)
1. St
ateareasonastowhyweightofabodyv
ari
esf
rom pl
acet
o
2) Vect
orQuant
it
y
pl
aceontheeart
h’ssur
face.
A vectorquant
it
yis one wi
th bot
h magni
tude and
di
rect
ione.
g.
Gravi
tat
ionalf
iel
dstrengthvar
iesfr
om onepl
acetoanotheronthe
eart
h’ssurf
acebeingstrongatthepol
esandweakattheequator
. i
) Wei
ght

i
i
) For
ce

2. Anobj
ectwei
ghs1000Nonear
th’
ssur
face(
g=10N/
kg) i
i
i) Vel
oci
ty

a) Cal
cul
atei
tsmass. i
v) Moment
um

w=mg v
) Accel
erat
ion

N v
i) Di
spl
acement
1000N=m×10
kg

1000N
m= =100kg
10N/ kg
 I
ft he weightofa cari s 8000 N,8000 giv
es
magnitude ofthe wei
ght,N ist he SIuni
tand
di
rect
ionistowardst
hecentr
eoftheearth.
b) I
fthesameobj ectweighs160Nonthemoonsur
face,
findt
he
gr
avi
tat
ionalf
ieldstr
engthofthemoon.

W =mg Resul
tantv
ect
or

160=100×g  Thisisthesum oft woormorevector

staki
ngi
nto
160
accountthedi
rect
ionoft
hevect
ors.
g= =1.
60N/
kg
100
Exampl
e

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3. A massof7.
5kghasawei ghtof30N onacertai
nplanet
. Fi
ndtheresult
antfor
ceoft
hef
orcesact
ingona
Cal
cul
atet
heaccel
erat
ionduetogr
avi
tyonthi
spl
anet. poi
ntobj
ectshownbel
ow.
W =mg

30=7.
5×g

30 (
a)
g= =4N/
kg
7.5

4. Amanhasamassof70kg.cal
cul
ate:
Sol
uti
on
a) Hi
s weighton ear
th wher
ethe gr
avi
tat
ionalf
iel
d
st
rengt
his10N/
kg. (+4N)+(+5N)= +9N

W =mg

70×10=700N

b) Hi
s weighton moon wher
ethe gr
avi
tat
ionalf
iel
d
st
rengt
his1.
7N/
kg.

W =mg
(
b)

70×1.
7=119N

Scal
arandVect
orQuant
it
ies Sol
uti
on

1) Scal
arQuant
it
y (-
7N)+(-
3N)+(+2N)+(+4=-4N

 A scal
arquant
it
yisonewi
thmagni
tudeonl
ybutno
di
recti
one.
g.

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Exampl
es 11)Def
inet
het
erms.

1) Thefi
gurebel
owshowst
wogl
asst
ubesofdi
ff
erentdi
amet
er a) Mass
di
ppedinwater
.
b) Wei
ght
.

12)Themassofalumpofgoldisconst
antever
ywher
e,buti
ts
wei
ghti
snot.Expl
aint
his.

13) Amanhasamassof70kg.Cal
cul
ate:

a) Hi
s weighton ear
th,wher
ethe gr
avi
tat
ionalf
iel
d
st
rengt
his10N/
kg.
Expl
ainwhyh2i
sgr
eat
ert
hanh1
b) Hi
swei ghtonthemoon,wher
ethegr
avi
tat
ionalf
iel
d
i
) Adhesi
vefor
ceinnar
rowt
ubei
sgr
eat
ert
hanadhesi
ve st
rengt
hi s1.
7N/kg.
f
orceinwi
dert
ube.
14)Amassof7. 5kghaswei ghtof30N onacertai
nplanet
.
i
i
) Volumeofwat
erinbothtubesi
sthesamehencet
he Cal
culat
e t
hea ccel
erat
ionduetogr
avi
tyo nt
hispl
anet
.
col
umnofwateri
nnar
rowtubeh2i
sgr
eat
er.
15)Def
inethefol
lowingterms,gi
vi
ngexamples.
2) Nametwof
orcest
hatdet
ermi
net
heshapeofl
i
qui
ddr
opon
a) Vect
orquant
it
y
t
hesol
i
dsur
face
b) Scal
arquant
it
y
Cohesi
veandadhesi
vef
orces
16) (
a)Def
inear
esul
tantvect
or.
3) Gi
vear easonwhywei
ghtoft
hebodyv
ari
esf
rom pl
acet
o
pl
ace. (
a) Fi
ndtheresul
tantofaf
orceof4Nandaf orceof
8Nacti
ngatthesamepointonanobj
ecti
f:
Thegr
avi
tat
ionalf
iel
dst
rengt
hvar
iesf
rom pl
acet
opl
ace.
i
) The f
orce acti
nthe same di
rect
ion i
nthe same
4) A metalbi
nwasobser vedt of
loatonthesur f
aceofpure st
rai
ghtli
ne.
water
.Howevert he pi
n sankwhen a f
ew drops ofsoap
sol
uti
onwereaddedtothewater
.Expl
aint
hisobserv
ati
on. i
i) Thefor
ceacti ntheopposi
tedi
rect
ionsbuti
nthe
samest
rai
ghtl
ine.
Soapsol
uti
onisani
mpuri
ty.Whenaddedtowater
,itl
ower
sthe
sur
facet
ensi
on(bydi
ssol
vi
ng)ofwatermaki
ngtheneedl
etosi
nk. 17)Show diagr
ammat
icall
yhow for
cesof7N and9N canbe
combinedtogi
vearesult
antt
ogivear
esul
tantf
orceof
:

(
a)16N (
b)2N
Rev
isi
onExer
cise

1) Byconsi
deri
ng action-
react
ion f
orces,i
dent
if
ywhywat
er
ri
sesupathi
ncapil
larytube.

2) Gi
vet
woexampl
esofcont
actf
orceandnon-
cont
actf
orce.

3) Sket
chhowavect
orquant
it
yisr
epr
esent
edonadi
agr
am.

4) Def
inef
orceandgi
veSIuni
t.

5) Nameal
lthef
orcesact
ingont
hef
oll
owi
ngbodi
es:

(
a) Aboxpl
acedonat
abl
e

(
b) Amasssuspendedf
rom aspr
ingbal
ance.

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(
c) Amovi
ngcarnegot
iat
ingabend.

6) Def
inecohesi
vef
orceandadhesi
vef
orce.

7) Expl
ainwhyamanusi ngaparachutefal
lst
hroughai
rsl
owl
y
whil
eastonef
allt
hroughai
rveryfast.

8) Aspr
ingst
ret
chesby6cm whensuppor
ti
ngal
oadof15N.

(
b) Byhow muchwoul
ditst
ret
chwhensuppor
ti
nga
l
oadof5kg?

(
c) Whatl
oadwoul
dmaket
hespr
ingext
endby25mm?

9) Expl
ain each of t
he fol
lowi
ng,usi
ng t
he behavi
our of
molecul
eswherepossi
ble:

(
a) Asteelneedl
epl
acedcar
eful
lyont
hesur
faceofwat
er
doesnotsi
nk.

(
b) Whenasmal ldropofdetergentisplacedonwat er
,the
needl
emovesr api
dlyawayfrom itandsinkswhenmor e
deter
gentisadded.(assumet hatdetergentdoesnot
aff
ectthedensityofwater
)

(
c) A match –st
ickr ubbed atone end wi
th soap st
arts
movingi
mmedi atel
yinonedirect
ionwhenplacedont he
sur
faceofwater.

10)Def
inesur
facet
ensi
on.

a) How doestemper
atureriseand i
mpur
it
iesaf
fectt
he
sur
facet
ensi
onofwater?

b) Howwoul
dthesur
facet
ensi
onofwat
erbei
ncr
eased?

Chapt
erFour PRES
SURE

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Def
ini
ti
onofPr
essur
e Weig
ht
a
)Mi
nimumPr
ess
ure=
Ma
ximumAre
a
 Pr
essur
eref
erst
ofor
ceact
ingper
pendi
cul
arl
yperuni
t
ar
ea. 48×10
=
4×3
 Sinceforceismeasuredinnewtonsandareai
nsquare
480 2
met er
,thent heSIunitofpressureist
henewtonper = =40N/
m
12
squaremet er(N/m2)orthepascal(Pa)
.1newtonper
squaremet er( m2)=1pascal(
N/ Pa)

Force F=P×A b)Ma

ximumPr
ess
ure=
Weig
ht
=
480
Pr
ess
ure=
Ar
ea Mi
nimumar
ea 2×3
2
=80N/
m
F F
P= A=
A P

5. Anobjectwhosear
eaofcontactwi
tht
hefl s5m2exer
oori tsa
pr
essureof900pascal
.Cal
culat
eit
smass

F(
Wei
ght
)=P×A
Pr
essur
einSol
i
ds 2 2
We
ight=900N/
m ×5m
For
ceexer
tedbyasol
i
drest
ingonasur
facei
sequalt
othe
w
wei
ghtt
heobject
. m=
g
For
ce(
we i
ghtofsol
id) 4500N
Pr
ess
ure= = =450kg
.
Areaofcont
act 10N/ kg

6. Tr
ackswhi
chcar
ryheav
yloadshav
emanywheel
s.Expl
ain.

wei
ghtofs
oli
d Manywheelsi ncreasethear eaofcont
actwi t
htheground
Ma
ximumPr
ess
ure=
Mi
nimumAr e
a ther
ebyr
educingpr essur
eexer t
edontheroad.Thi
spr
ev ent
s
damageofther oadsbytracks.

7. Ablockofcopperofdensi
ty9g/cm3 measur
es5cm by3cm
wei
ghtofs
oli
d by2cm.Gi
venthatgis10N/kg,
deter
mine:
Mi
nimumPr
ess
ure=
Ma
ximumAr e
a

Fact
orsAf
fect
ingPr
essur
einSol
i
ds

1. Wei
ghtoft
hesol
i
d(f
orce) a) Themaxi
mum pr
essur
e

We i
ght
 Ifthe ar
ea ofcontactbetween soli
d and sur
face i
s Ma
ximumpr
ess
ure=
Mi
nimumarea
const
ant,pr
essur
eincr
easeswithweight.
ρVg
2. Ar
eaofcont
actoft
hesol
i
dwi
thsur
face. Ma
ximumpr
ess
ure=
Mi
nimumar
ea

 Thesmal l
erthearea,thehigherthepressur
ei fsame kg
9000 3×(
30×10 m )
-
6 3
×10N/
kg
for
ceisappli
ed.Therefor
epr essur
ecanber educedby m
=
i
ncreasi
ngtheareaofcontact
. -4 2
6×10 m
2
Exampl
es =4500N/
m

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b) Themi ni
mum pr
essur
ethati
tcanexer
tonahor
izont
al
sur
face.
1. Ablockofasoapst oneofdi
mension4m by2m by3m i
s48kg
andismadetorestonasmoot hhori
zont
alsur
face Weig
ht,
W
Mi
nimumpr
ess
ure=
Ma
ximumare
a
2. Cal
cul
atet
hemi
nimum pr
essur
eitexer
tsont
hesur
face.
2.7N
= 4 2
-
3. Cal
cul
atet
hemaxi
mum pr
essur
eitwi
l
lexer
tont
hesur
face 15×10 m

2.
7N 2
= 2 =1800N/
m
0.
0015m

8. I
tispai
nfuli
fonet
ri
est
oli
ftaheav
yloadbyat
hinst
ri
ng.

Therei
sasmal lar
eaofcont
actwi
ththefi
nger
swhenat hi
n
str
ingi
sused.Asar esul
t,morepr
essur
eisgener
atedand
thi
sispai
nful
.

Exer
cise 2. Densi
tyoft
heLi
qui
d

1. Api ckupcarryi
ngstonesweighs40,000N.Theweighti
sev y  Pr
enl essurei
nli
qui
dsincreaseswit
hdensityofthel
i
quid.
spreadacrossthe4t y
pes.Theareaofcontactofeachti
rewit
h
thegr oundis0.05m2.Cal
culatethepressur
eexertedbyeach  Cons i
dertwo i
dent
icalcy l
i
nder
sf il
l
edwi thwater(of
ti
reont heground. densit
y 1000kg/m3) and gl yceri
ne ( of densi
ty
m3)r
1260kg/ espect
ivel
y.
2. At humbi susedtopushat humbpinint
oapi eceofwood.
Explainintermsofpressur
ewhyt hepressur
eon wood is  Pr
essur
eatpoi
ntBi
sgr
eat
ert
hanpr
essur
eatpoi
ntA
greatert
hanthepr
essur
eonthethumb.
becausegl
yceri
neisdensert
hanwat
erandt
her
efor
e
3. Anelephantofmass2800kghasf eetofav erageareaof200 exert
smorepressur
ethanwat
er.
cm2.Av ult
ureofmass12kgwal ksbesidet heelephantona
muddyar ea,theaverageareaofthef eetoft hevult
ureis2.
0
cm2.Whichonei sli
kelytosink?Explai
ny ouranswershowing
anynecessarycal
culati
ons.

4. Agirlst
andi
nguprightexer
tsapressur
eof15000N/ m2 onthe
f
loor
.Giventhatt
het ot
alar
eaofcontactofshoesandt
hef l
oor
i
s0.02m2.

a) Det
ermi
net
hemassoft
hegi
rl
.

b) Deter
minet
hepressur
eshewoul
dexer
tont
hef
loori
fshe
st
oodononefoot.

5. Abl
ockofcopperofdensi
ty8.
9g/cm3measures10c
m×6cm×4
m.Gi
c venthatt
heforceofgr
avi
t s10Nkg-1,
yi det
ermi
ne:
ToDemonst
rat
eVar
iat
ionofPr
essur
ewi
thDept
hofLi
qui
ds
a) Themaxi
mum pr
essur
e.
 Consi
deratal
lti
nwi
thholesA,BandCequallyspaced
b) Themi ni
mum pr
essur
ethati
tcanexer
tonahor
izont
al ononesideal
ongav
ert
icall
ineasshownbel
ow.
sur
face.
 Whent heti
nisf
il
ledwit
hwat er
,thewaterjet
soutoft
he
holeswit
hthatf
rom holeAthrownf ar
thestfol
l
owedby
Pr
essur
einLi
qui
ds thatfr
om hol
eBandlastlyf
rom holeC.

Fact
orsAf
fect
ingPr
essur
einLi
qui
ds  ThismeansthatpressureofwateratAi sgreat
ert han
pressur
eatBandpr essur
eatBisgreaterthanpressure
1. Dept
hoft
heLi
qui
d atC.Hence,
Pressureinli
qui
dsincr
easeswi t
hdepth.

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 Pr
essur
einl
i
qui
dsi
ncr
easeswi
thdept
h.

 Thisi
sthereasonastowhywallsofadam ar
ethi
ckerat
thebott
om thanatthetopasshownbelow.Thi
ckwalls
atthebott
om ofthedam wi
thst
andhighpr
essur
eduet o
wateratt
hebottom.

 Pressureincreasi
ngwithdepthofli
quidexpl
ainswhya
diveratt
hebot tom oft
heseaexperi
encesmorepressure
duet omor eweightofwaterabov
ehimt hanadivernear
thetop/surfaceofthesea.
To Demonstr
ate Var
iat
ion ofPr
essur
e wi
th Dept
h and
Densi
tyofLi
qui
ds

 Considerat ranspar
entglassvesselfi
l
ledwit
hwater
andat hi
stl
ef unnelconnect
edtoau- tubef
il
ledwi
th
col
oredwat ertosomel ev
eldi
ppedint
oit.

 I sobser
ti vedthatthedeeperthefunnelgoesbel
owthe
surf
aceofwater,t
hegreaterthediff
erenceinl
evel
sof
waterint
hetwol i
mbsoft heu-tube,h.Thisisdueto
i
ncreasei
npressur
ewithdepth.

 Whengl yceri
neisusedinpl aceofwateritisobserved  Thepr essur
e p,exertedatt hebot t
om ( base)oft he
thatatt he same depththe dif
fer
ence i
nl evel
s,h is cont
ainerbythewei
ghtoft heliqui
dabov eitisgivenby:
great
erthanwhenwat erisused.Thi
sisbecauseglyceri
n
i
sdensert hanwaterandtherefor
eiti
spressureatsame F w(weightofl
iqui
d)
P= =
depthishighert
hanthatofwater. A A (
cross
-sec
tionareaoftheconta
iner
)

Butw=ρAhg

Whe
reAh=vol
umeoft
hel
iqui
d

Ahρg
∴P=
A

P=hρg
.Thi
sist
hef
lui
dpr
ess
uref
ormul
a.

 From thef
ormulai
tiscl hatpr
eart essur
einfl
uidsdoes
notdepend on cr
oss-sect
ion ar
ea ofthecontai
ner
holdi
ngtheli
qui
d.

Exampl
es
ToDemonstr
atet
hatPr
essur
eatEqualDept
h,Act
sEqual
l
yin
Al
lDi
rect
ions

 Consi
deratinwi
thtwosimi
larhol
esoni
tssi
deatsame 1.
) Adiverwor
kingunderwateri
s15m bel
owt hesurfaceoft
he
hei
ghtasshownal
ongsi
de. sea.Cal
cul
atethepressur
eduetowaterexper
iencedbythe
di
ver(
takeg=10N/
kg)anddensi
tyofseawat
ert
obeequalt
o
 Whent heti
nisfil
ledwit
hwat er
,i sobser
ti v
edt hatwater 1. cm3.
03g/
trav
elsoutoftheholesequalhor i
zont
aldi
stancesfrom
thecan.Thereforepressur
eexer t
edatequaldept hi s P=hρg
samei nal
ldi
recti
ons. 3
=15m×1030kg
/m ×10N/
kg

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2
=154500N/
m

2.
) Thef
igur
ebel
owshowsal
i
qui
dinapai
l
.

Fl
uidPr
essur
eFor
mul
a

 Consi
deracont
ainerwit
hcr
oss-sect
ionarea,A,f
il
led
wit
hal i
qui
dofdensity
,ρ,t
ot hehei
ght,h,asshown
al
ongsi
de.

Iftheli
qui
dhasadensi t
yof0.
79g/cm3,det
ermi
net
hepr
essur
e
exert
edatthebot
tom oft
hepai
lbyt
heli
qui
d.

o P=hρg
3
=0.
45m×790kg
/m ×10N/
kg
2
=3555N/
m

b) Suggestar
easonwhypailmanuf
act
urespr
efert
heshape
showntoothershapes

To reduce the heightoft he pailbutmai nt

aint
he
capaci
ty.Thisr educes the pressur
e exer
ted byt
he
l
iqui
datt hebott
om oft hepail
.

3.
) Cal
cul
atet
hepressur
eexertedby76mm col
umnofmer
cur
y
gi
vent
hati
tsdensi
tyi
s13.6g/cm3

o p=hρg

kg
o =0.
76m×13600 3×10N/
kg
m
2
o =103360N/
m

4.
) A columnofgl ycer
in8. 20m high,acolumnofseawat er
10.08m hi
gh,acolumnofmer cury0.
76m hi
ghandcol umnof
fr
eshwat er10.34m hi ghexer tthesamepr essureatthe
bottom of a cont ai
ner . Arr
ange these substances in
decreasi
ngorderoft
heirdensiti
es.

Mer
cur
y,gl
ycer
ine,
seawat
er,
freshwat
er

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Pascal
’
sPri
nci
ple(
ThePr
inci
pleofTr
ansmi
ssi
onofPr
essur
e  Pressur
eexer
tedont
hel
i
qui
dbypi
ston,
Sduet
ofor
ce,
i
nLiqui
ds) FS,i
sPS.

 Pascal’
spri
ncipl
estat
esthatpr
essur
eappli
edatonepar
t F
i
nal iqui
dist r
ansmit
tedequal
l
ytoallot
herpart
softhe PS= S
AS
enl
argedli
quid.
 By Pascal
’
s princi
plethi
s pr
essur
e PS i
s equalt
o
Demonst
rat
ingPascal
’
sPr
inci
ple pr
essurePLexer
tedbyli
qui
donpist
on,L.
 Consi
derali
quidunderpressur
eduet
ofor
ce,
F,act
ingon PS=PL
thepl
ungerasshownbelow.
Fs FL
 Not
e:Thehol
esar
eofequal
diamet
er. =
As AL

Exampl
es

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1. Thef
igurebel
owshowst womassesplacedonl
ightpi
stons.
Thepist
onsarehel
dst at
ionar
ybytheliqui
dwhosedensity
0. cm3.Det
8g/ er
minetheforceF.

 Whent heplungerispushedin,watersqui
rt
soutoft he
hol
es wi t
h equalf orce.This shows that pressure
gener
ated byt he pi
ston on t
he wateristransmitted
equal
lytoallot
herpar
tsoftheli
qui
d.

Appl
i
cat
ionsofPascal
’
sPr
inci
ple
F F( i
.
e. w=mg
)
 Pascal
’
s Pri
nci
pleis appl
ied i
nt he worki
ng oft
he o hρg+ B = A
AB AA
hydr
auli
cmachi
nes.Thesemachi
nesincl
ude:
60×10N kg FB
a) Hydrauli
cpressusedt ocompr
esst
ext
il
epr
oduct
s o 2 =1.
8m×800 3×10N/
Kg+ 2
0.0008m m 0.
00025m
l
ikeblanket
sforpacki
ng.
N 2 FB
b) Hy
draul
i
cli
ftusedt
ohoi
stcar
singar
ages. o 750000 2 =1440N/
m +
m 0.
00025

Pr
c) Hy

essur
dr

eTr
aul
i
cbr

ansmi
akesy

ssi
oni
st

nHy
dr
em usedf

aul
i
orbr

cMachi
nes
aki
ngi
ncar
s.
( N
o FB = 750000 2-
m
N
)
1440 2 0.
m
00025m
2

=187.
14N
 Notethatpr
essur
eatsamel
eveli
nthel
i
qui
dist
hesame
asseenearl
ier
.

 Considert hehy dr
aul
i
cmachinebelow consist
ingofa 2. Theareaofthelargesyr
ingeinanexper i
menti s18cm2 and
2
smallpiston,S,andalar
gepi
ston,
L,ofcross-sect
ionas thatoft
hes mal
leronei
s3 .0cm .Af
orceo f2Nisappli
edon
thesmallerpi
ston.Fi
nd thef orceproduced onthelarger
shownal ongside.
pi
ston.

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Fs FL Pr
oper
ti
esoft
heHy
draul
i
cBr
akeFl
uid
o =
As AL
(
a) I
tshoul
dnotcor
rodepar
tsoft
hesy
stem
2N FL
o 2=
0.
0003m 0.0018m
2
(
b) I
tshoul
dbehi
ghl
yincompr
essi
ble

2N×0.0018m
2
(
c) I
tshouldhav
eal
owf
reezi
ngpoi
ntandhi
ghboi
l
ing
FL= 2 =12N
0.0003m poi
nt.

4. Thedi
agr
am bel
owshowsau-t
ubef
il
ledt
wol
i
qui
ds,
xandy
.If At
mospher
icPr
essur
e
t
hedensi
tyofl
i
qui
dyi
s1. cm3,det
00g/ ermi
net
hedensi
tyof
l
i
qui
dx.  Thi
sist
hepr
essur
eexer
tedont
heear
th’
ssur
faceby
t
hecol
umnofai
rar
oundi
t.

ToDemonstr
ateExi
stenceofAtmospher
ic
Pr
essur
e(Cr
ushingCanExperi
ment)

 Consi
derat incont ai
nerwithsomewaterinit
.The
o hxρxg=hyρyg cont
aineris heated forsome ti
me whi
l
e open and
cl
osedaf t
erwi t
hdrawingheati
ng.Col
dwateristhen
N kg
o 0.
40m×ρx×10 =0.
30m×1000 3×10N/
kg pour
edoni ti
mmedi ately
.
kg m

4.
0Nm N
o ×ρ =3000 2
kg x m

o ρx=750kg
3
m

Hy
draul
i
cBr
akeSy
stem

 The hydr
auli
c br
ake syst
em uses the pr
inciple of
tr
ansmi
ssionofpr
essur
einli
qui
ds(Pascal
’
sprincipl
e)in
i
tsoper
ati
on.

 I
tisobser
vedt hecont
hatt ainercr
ushesi
nwar
dswhen
col
dwat erispouredonit.Thi
sisbecausesteam f r
om
boi
lingwat erdri
vesouttheairi
nsi
det hecontai
nerand
a par t
ialvacuum is cr
eated when the containeris
cooled.The hi gheratmospheri
c pressur
ef r
om t he
outsidecrushesthecont
aineri
nwards.

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Exampl
e

Aseadiveri
s18m belowt hesur
faceofseawater
.Ift
hedensi
ty
ofseawateris1.
03g/cm3 andgis10N/kg,determi
nethetot
al
pr
essur
eonhim.(Takeatmospher
icpressur m2)
epa=103000N/ .

Tot
alpr
ess
ure=hρg+Pa

kg N 2
=18m×1030 3×10 +103000N/
m
m kg
2
=288400N/
m
ModeofOper
ati
onofHy
draul
i
cBr
akeSy
stem

 When asmal lf orcei sappl i

ed on t he brakepedal ,it
pushest hepistonoft hemast ercy l
i
nderi nwards.This
producesapr essur ethatisequal lyt r
ansmi t
tedt othe
pistonsi nthesl avecy li
nders.Thepr essuregener at
esa
force whi ch pushest he pi
stonsoft he slav
e cy l
i
nder
outwar ds.Thepi stonst henpusht hebr akeshoesand
thereforet he brake l i
ning outwards.The br ake lini
ng
touchesandst opsr otati
ngwheel drum.

 The return spr

ing r
etur
ns the br
ake shoes i
ntot
hei
r
ori
ginalpositi
on af
terforceon brakepedalhasbeen
remov ed.

Measur
ementofPr
essur
e 2) Thedi agram below show amer curymanomet er.Somedr y
gas is presenti nthe closed space.Ift he atmospher
ic
1) U-TubeMonomet
er pressureis105000N/ m2anddensityofmercury13600kg/m3,
determinepressureofthegas(takeg=10N/kg).
 I
ti omeasur
susedt egaspr
essur
e.

 I
tconsi
stsofu-t
ubef
il
ledwi
thsui
tabl
eli
qui
dtosome
l
evel
.

 Consideru-
tubemanometerbel
ow i
nwhi
chonel
i
mbi
s
connectedt
ogassuppl
y.

o hρg+Pg=Pa

kg N 2
o 0.
25m×13600 3×10 +Pg=105000N/
m
m kg
2 2
o 34000N/
m +Pg=105000N/
m

N N
o Pg=105000 2-34000 2
m m
2
 AandBar eatthesamehorizont
all
evelandt
her
ef e o
or =71000N/
m
pr
essur
eatAisequal
topr
essureatB.

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 Pressur
eatAisduetothegas,pg whi
l
epr essureatBis 2) MercuryBar
ometer
duetothecol
umnofl
iqui
dandat mospheri
cpr essur
e.
 Itisusedtomeasureat
mospher
icpressur
e.
Pr
ess
urea
tA,PA =Pr
essureatB,
PB
 Itempl oy
sthefactt
hatat
mospher
icpressur
esuppor
ts
Pg=hρg+Pa acolumnofli
quidi
natube.

 Wher
eρi
sthedensi
tyofl
i
qui
dint
heu-t
ube. Const
ruct
ionofMer
cur
yBar
omet
er

 Iti
smadeofathick-wal
l
edgl
asst
ubeofabout1m l
ong
seal
edatoneend.
Exampl
es
 Thet
ubei
sthenf
il
ledcar
eful
l
ywi
thmer
cur
ytot
het
op.
1) Thehei
ght
,hofawatermanomet
eri
s20cm whenusedt
o
measur
epr
essur
eofagas.  Anybubbl
esofai
rinthet
ubeareremovedbycl
osi
ng
t
heopenendandi
nver
ti
ngt
hetubesever
all
y.

 Thet
ubei
stheni
nver
tedi
ntoadi
shf
il
ledwi
thmer
cur
y.

 Mercur
yispr
efer
redintheconstr
ucti
onofbar
omet
ert
o
ot
herli
qui
dsbecauseisv
t eryhighdensi
ty.

a) Deter
minethepr
essur
eduet
ogas,I
fat
mospher
icpr
essur
eis
m2.
103000N/

o Pg=hρg+Pa
3 2
o =0.
20m×1000kg
/m ×10N/
kg+103000N/
m 
2
o =105000N/
m

b) Whatwoul
dbet
hehei
ghti
fthel
i
qui
dusedi
sgl
ycer
inofdensi
ty
1. cm3
26g/

o Pg=hρg+Pa

N
o 105000 2 =h×1260kg/m3×10N/kg+103000N/m2
m
2 3 2
o 105000N/
m =12600N/
m ×h+103000N/
m
2 3
o 2000N/
m =12600N/
m ×h
2
2000N/
m
h= 3 =0.
16m
12600N/m

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Usi
ngMer
cur
yBar
omet
er

 Thehei
ghth,oft hemercur
ycol
umni
sthemeasur
eof
at
mospher
icpressure.

 Thecolumnofmer
cur
yh,atseal
eveli
s76cmHg.
InSI
uni
titi
s:

Pa=hρg
3 2
Si
phon
0.
76m×13600kg
/m ×10N/
kg=103360N/
m
 Siphoni susedtotr
ansferliqui
dfrom onecont
ainerto
 The at mospher
ic pressur
e atsea lev
eli s cal
led one anot her.
atmospher
eorst andardatmospher
icpressur
e( 76cmHg
or103360N/m2)  Theuseofsi phontot ransferli
qui
dduet opressure
di
f ferencei
scaledsi
l phoning.Considerthesi
phoning
Examples
arrangementshownbelow.
1) Astudenti
naplacewherethemer cur
ybarometerreads75cm
wantedtomakeanalcoholbarometer
.Ifal
coholhasadensi t
y
of800kg/m3,
whatist
hemi ni
mum lengthofthet
ubet hatcoul
d
beused?

Pa=hHgρHgg=halρalg

75m×13600kg/m3×10N/kg=hal×800kg/m3×10N/kg
0.

10200
hal= =12.
75m
8000

2) Thebar ometr
icheightinat ownis70cm mercur
y.Giventhat
thestandardatmospher i
cpressur
eis76cm mercuryandt he
densi
tyofmer cur
yi m3,det
s13600kg/ ermi
nethealti
tudeofthe  Pr
essur
eatA isequaltopr
essur
eatBandi
tist
he
town.(Densi
tyofairis1.
25kg/m3). at
mospher
icpr
essur
e,Pa
(Not
e:St
andar
dpr
essur
eref
erst
otheat
mospher
icpr
essur
eat  Pressur
eatci sequaltopressur
eatBpluspr
essur
e
seal
evel
). duetowatercol
umn, h,
i.
e.PC=PB +hρg
Pdi
ff
ere
nce=Pa
tse
ale
vel
-Pa
ttown
 Pressur
ediff
erencebetweenBandC(i
.e.PC-PB =hρg
)
hHgsl-hHgtn)
( ×ρHg×g=hair×ρair×g i
s whatmakes t he l
i
quidtof l
ow f
rom the upper
contai
nert
othelowerone.
(
0.76-
0.70)m×13600kg/m3×10N/kg=hair×1.
25kg/m3×10N/kg
Condi
ti
onsunderwhi
chSi
phonWor
ks
8160
hair= =652.
8m(
Thi
sist
hea
lti
tudeoft
het
own)
12.50 a) Thetubemustbefil
ledwi
tht
hel
i
qui
dfi
rst
.Thi
scr
eat
es
apressur
edi
ff
erence.
3) Thefi
gurebel
owshowsapersonsucki
ngwat
erusi
ngast
raw.
Expl
ainhowsucki
ngi
smadepossi
ble. b) Ther
emustbeadi
ff
erencei
nlev
elsofl
i
qui
dint
het
wo
cont
ainer
s.

c) The end ofthe tube mustremai

n bel
ow t
he l
i
qui
d
sur
faceoftheuppercontai
ner
.

Exampl
e

When one sucks pressur

einside t
he str
aw reduces bel he Thef
ow t i
gurebelowshowshowtoemptywat
erf
rom al
arget
anki
nto
at
mospheri
cpr essur
e.Thepressuredif
fer
encecauseswat ertogo alowlyi
ngtankusi
ngrubbert
ubi
ng.

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i
ntot
hest
rawandr
iseupt
othemout
h.

Test
ingt
heVacuum i
ntheBar
omet
er

 Thevacuum i
stestedbyti
lt
ingthet ube.I
fthetubei
sful
ly
fi
ll
edthenthespacei sav acuum buti fthetubeisnot
ful
lyfi
l
ledt
henthespaceisnotav acuum; i
thassomeair
occupyi
ngi
tandt her
efor
e,thebaromet eri
sfault
y.

2) TheBi
cycl
ePump

 The l
eatherwasheract h av
sasbot alv
e and pi
ston
i
nsi
det hepumpbarrel
.

 Whenthepumphandl ei
sdrawnoutasshown, airi
nthe
a) Explai
n whyt he tube mustbe f il
l
ed wi
th waterbeforethe barr
ele xpands and i
ts pr
essure reduces bel
ow t
he
empt y
ingprocessstarts. atmospheri
cpressure.Ai
rfrom outsi
det hepumpt hen
fl
owspastt hel eat
herwasherintot hebar r
el.Atthe
Tocreatepressur
edifferencebetweenCandDthiswilll
eadto sametime, t
hehigherai
rpressur
eint hetyr
eclosesthe
cont
inuousflowofwat erfrom t
heuppert
anktothelowertank. tyr
evalv
e.
b) Soon af
ter t
he tank begi
ns t
o empt yt he l
ower end i
s
hepumphandl
 Whent eispushedi
n,t
heai
risf
orced
momentari
l
yblockedbypl
aci
ngafingeratendD.
i
ntot
het
yret
hrought
het
yrev
alv
ewhi
chnowopens.
I
. Det
ermi
nepr
essur
edi
ff
erencebet
weenpoi
ntAandD.
Note:Therei
sanincreasei
ntemperat
ureoft
hepump
o PAD =hρg bar
relduri
ngpumpingthisi
sbecauseoft
heworkdone
i
ncompr essi
ngai
r.
kg N
o PAD =2m×1000 3×10
m kg

o PAD =20000N/m2 3) TheLi

ftPump

I
I. whatwil
lbethepressureexper
iencedbyt
hef
ingeratpointD.
(
takedensi
tyofwater m3andpa=100,
=1000kg/ 000N/m2

o PD =Patm +hρg
2
N N
o PD =100000 2 +20000
m m
-
2
o =120000Nm

Appl
i
cat
ionsofPr
essur
einLi
qui
dsandGases

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1) ASy
ringe

 When thepi ston ispul l

ed upwar ds( duri
ng upstroke),
spaceiscreatedi nthebar r
elthusl oweringthepressure
i
nside below at mospher i
c pr essure. The hi gher
atmospher
icpr essureactingont hel i
quidpushest he
l
iquidi
ntothebar rel
.  Tostartt
hepump,waterispouredontopofthepist
on
sothatgoodai
rti
ghtseali
smader oundthepi
stonand
 Duri
ng a down st roke,the pressurei nside i
ncreases i
nv al
vePthepumpisoperatedbymeansofalever
aboveatmospher i
cpr essureandt heliquidisexpel l
ed
fr
om thebarrel
. Upstr
oke

 Whent heplungermov esupduri

ngtheupstroke,val
veR
closesduetoitsweightandpressureofwaterabov ei
t.
Att he same time,airabovev al
ve expands and its
pressur
er educes below atmospheri
c pressure.The
atmosphericpressureont hewaterint hewel lbel
ow
thuspusheswat eruptopastval
veintothebarrel
.

 The pl
ungeri
s moved up and downhi
l
lthe space
bet
weenRandSisf
il
ledwit
hwater.

Downst
roke

 Dur
ingdownst
roke,val
veScl
osesduet
oit
swei
ghtand
pr
essur
eofwateraboveit
.

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Li
mit
ati
onsoft
heLi
ftPump Exer
ciseonappl
i
cat
ionsofpr
essur
e

 I
npr act
ical
,thepossi
blehei
ghtofwat erthatcanbe (
a) Thef
igur
ebel
owshowsal
i
ftpump
r
aisedbythi
spumpislesst
han10m becauseof

i
)Low at
mospheri
cpr
essur
einpl
aceshi
gh
abov
esealev
el,

i
i
)Leakageatt
hev
alv
esandpi
stons

4) TheFor
cePump

Thi
spumpi
susedt
orai
sewat
ert
ohei
ght
sofmor
ethan
10m. Expl
ainwhy
,whent
hepi
stoni
s;

(
b)Pul
l
edupwar
ds,
val
veAopenswhi
l
eval
veBcl
oses.

(
c) Pusheddownwar
ds,
val
veAcl
oseswhi
l
eval
veBopens

(
d)Aft
ersev
eralst
rokes,wat
err
isesabov
ethepi
stonasshown
bel
ow.

St
atehowwat
eri
sremov
edf
rom t
hecy
li
ndert
hrought
hespout
.

(
e) Ali
f tpumpcanl i
ftwat
eruptoamaximum hei ghtof10m.
det
er minethemaximum hei
ghttowhi
chthepumpcanr ai
se
par
af f
in.(
takedensi
tyofpar
aff
inas800kgm-3anddensi
tyof
Upst
roke wateras1000kgm-3)

 Duri
ngupstr
oke,airabovethevalv
eFexpandsandi ts (
f) Stat
eonef
act
orthatdet
ermi
nest
hehei
ghtt
owhi
chaf
orce
pumpcanl
i
ftwat
er.
pr
essurereduces below atmospher
ic pressure.The
at
mospheri
cpressureonwat eri
nthewellpusheswat er
uppastval
veFintothebarr
el.Pr
essur
eabov ev al
veGi s
at
mospheri
c.Hence,t hi
svalvedoesnotopen i nthis
st
roke.

Downst
roke

 Dur i
ngthedownst roke,t
hev alveFcl oses.Increasein
pressureduet owaterinthebar relopensv alveG and
forceswat erintochamberSsot hataswat erf il
lsthe
chamber ,airistrappedandcompr essedatt heupper
part.Duringthenextupst roke,valv
eG cl osesandt he
compr essedairexpandsensuringacont i
nuousflow.

Adv
ant
ageofFor
cePumpov
ert
hel
i
ftpump

a) I
tenabl
esacont
inuousf
lowofwat
er.

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b) Thehei
ghttowhi
chi
tcanr
aisedoesnotdependon
at
mospheri
c.

Fact
orsAf
fect
ingWor
kingoft
heFor
cePump

a) Amountoff
orceappl
i
eddur
ingt
hedownst
roke.

 Abi
li
tyofthepumpandi
tsworki
ngpart
stowit
hst
and
pr
essureofthecol
umnofwat
erinchamberc.

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Rev
isi
onExer
cise 15.Thef
igur
ebel
owshowsahy
draul
i
cpr
ess

1. Apistonwhosedi ameteris1.4m ispushedintoacyl

inder
contai
ningafluid,I
fthepressur
epr oducedinthecy
li
nderis4.
0
x105pa, Cal
culatethefor
ceappliedont hepist
on.

2. Anoct opusisrest
ingi
ntheocean.Ift
heoctopusi
satadept
h
of47m inseawhosewat erhasadensi
tyof1200kg/m3,
cal
culatethepr
essureexperi
encedbyt
heoctopus(Take
atmosphericpr
essure=1.0125x105Pa)

3. Explainwhyifai
rgetsinthebrakesy
stem woul
dreducet
he
eff
iciencyoft
hebr
akes.(
2marks)

4. Aconcret
ebl
ockofmass50kgr
est
sont
hesur
faceoft
het
abl
e
asshownbel
ow. Thetwopist
onsareofareas10mm2and20mm2r especti
vel
y.A
for
ceof100Nisappli
edont hesmal
lerpi
ston,
findtheloadthat
canbeli
ft
edonthelargerpi
stoni
f:

a. Thepist
onhasnegl
i
gibl
ewei
ghtandnof
ri
cti
onalf
orces
exi
st.

b. Thepist
onshavenegl
i
gibl
ewei
ghtandf
ri
cti
onal
10Nand
40Nrespect
ivel
y.

Thesmall
erpi
stonhasthewei ght5Nt helar
gerpist
onhasa
Whatisthemaximum pr
essur
ethatcanbeexer
tedont
he wei
ghtof10Nandthefr
ict
ionalforcesarenegl
igi
ble.
benchbythebl
ock?

5. Aholeofarea4.0cm²atthebot
tom ofatank5m deepi
sclosed
wit
hacor k.Determinethefor
ceont hecorkwhenthetankis
fi
l
ledwithwat er
.( Takeg=10msˉ ²anddensityofwater=
1000kgmˉ³).

6. A measuringcy li
nderofheight25cm i
sf i
ll
edt oaheightof
15cm wi t
h wat erand the restis occupied by ker
osene.
Determi
net hepressureacti
ngoni t
sbase( densi
tyofwater=
1gcmˉ ³densit
y ofker osene = 0.
8gcmˉ³and at mospheric
pressur
e=103,000pa).

7. St
ate one adv
ant
age ofhy
draul
i
c br
akes ov
ermechani
cal
br
akes.

8. Expl
ainwhyaladyweari
ngsharpheel
edshoesi
snotl
i
kel
yto
ski
donasli
pperymuddyroad.

9. Why does at
mospher
ic pr
essur
e decr
ease t
owar
ds hi
gher
al
ti
tude?

10. Showt
hatPr
essur
einf
lui
dsi
sgi
venby P=hρg

11.Gi
veareasonwhynosebl
eedi
ngi
sli
kel
ytooccuratt
het
opofa
mount
ain.

12. Ablockofglassofdensi
ty2. cm3 hasdi
5g/ mensi
ons8cm by
10cm by15cm.Itispl
acedononeofi t
sfacesonahori
zont
al
surf
ace.Cal
culat
e:-

a) Thewei
ghtoft
hebl
ock

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b) Thegreatestpr
essur
eitcanexer
tont
hehor
izont
al
sur
face.

c) The leastpr
essur
eitcan exer
ton t
he hor
izont
al
sur
face.

13.Thereadingofamer curybar
omet eri
s75.58cm atthebaseof
amount ainand66.37cm att
hesummi t.Cal
cul
atetheheightof
themount ai
n( Densi
tyofmer cur
y=13. 6g/m3 anddensit
yof
air
=1.25kg/m3

14.Inahydraul
icbrake,
themast
erpi
stonhasanar 4mm2and
eaof
2
thewheelpistoneachhasanareaof4cm .Fi ndthef
orces
appl
i
edt ot hewheelwhenaf or
ceof10N i sappl
i
edont he
masterpist
on.

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Chapt
erFi
ve PARTI
CULATENATUREOFMATTER
I
ntr
oduct
ion

 Mat
teri
sany
thi
ngt
hatoccupi
esspaceandhasmass.

 Matt
erisnotcontinuousbuti
tismadeupofev
eryt
iny
par
ti
cleshencepar
tici
pat
enat
ureofmat
ter
.

 Par
ticul
ate nat
ure of mat
ter t
herefor
eref
erst
o t
he
exi
stenceofmatteri
nver
yti
nypar
ticl
es.

Experi
mentt
odemonst
rat
ethatMat
teri
smadeupofTi
ny
Part
icl
es
 Thechal kdustisobservedt obeinconstantrandom
i
) UseofaPi
eceofPaper
motion.Thisis due t
ot hecont i
nuouscol l
i
sion of
 Apieceofpapercanbecutcont i
nuousl
yunt ilwhent he chal
kd ustpart
icl
esw it
ht hew atermolecul
esw hich
smallpiecescannotbecutintopiecesanyf urt
her.This ar
e i
nc ont
inuousrandom mo ti
on.
suggeststhatt
hesheetofpaperi
smadeoft i
nypi ecesof
ToDemonst r
ateBrownianmot ioni nGases(TheSmoke
paper.Hencematteri
smadeupoftinypar
ti
cles.
Cel
lExperi
ment)

 Consi
der t
he set up bel
ow f
or t
he smoke cel
l
exper
iment
.

i
i
) Di
l
uti
ngPot
assi
um Per
manganat
eSol
uti
on

 Theprocessofdi
lut
ingpurpl
epotassium manganese(
VII
)
canconti
nueunt
ilt
hesolut
ionappearscol
orl
ess.

 This suggests that t he part

icl
es of pot assium
permanganat
earespreadevenl
yinwaterandeachdi
lution
processspr
eadthem fur
ther
.Thi
sisapr ooft
hatmatteris
madeupoft i
nypart
icl
eswhichcanbeseparat
ed.
 Note:Thesmokei sint
roducedintothesmokecellby
Expl
ainwhyi tispossi bleto di
ssol
vesugari nwat erwithoutany bur
n i
ngthestrawa ndlet
ti
ngthes mokefi
llt
hesmo ke
noti
ceabl
eincreasesinv ol
umeofwat er.Thesugarparti
clesoccupy cel
lfrom t
heo therend.Smo keisusedherebecause
thesmalli
nter
mol ecul
arspacesofwatermolecul
es.Thisbehaviourof smokeparti
clesareli
ghtandbright
.
sugarsuggest
sthatmat
teri
smadeupofv
eryt
inypar
ti
cles.
 The conv ergingl ens isusedt of ocus/concent rate
Br
owni
anmot
ion converge t he l ight to t he smoke cel lt hereby
i
lluminati
ngt hesmoke.Themi croscopeassi stst he
 Br ownianmot i
onr eferst
ot herandom mov ementofliqui
d observerseet heil
luminatedsmokepar ticl
escl earl
y .
andgaspar t
icl
es.
 Thebr ightspecksar eobser vedmov ingr andoml yi n
ToDemonst r
ateBr ownianmot i
oninLiqui
ds the smoke cel l
.The br i
ghtspecksar et he smoke
parti
cleswhi chscat ter/reflectli
ghtshi ni
ngont hem.
 Consi derthe set-up al ongsi
de in which chal
k dustis Theymov er andoml yduet ocont inuouscol li
si
onwi th
spri
nkledont hesur faceofwat erint hebeakerandt he i
nv i
sibleairpar t
icleswhichar eincont inuousr andom
beakercoveredusi ngat ranspar
entlid.Thebehaviourof mot i
on.
chal
kdustist henobser v
edwi ththehelpofahandl ensas
shownbelow.

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TheKi
net
icTheor
yofMat
ter Exampl
e

 Theaboveexperi
ment
sonBr ownianmot i
onconstit
utethe Usi
ngabl ockdiagram andcor rectter
minol
ogyshow how one
ki
net
ictheor
yofmat t
erwhichstatesthatmat t
erismade stateofmat terchangestot heot herwhenthetemperat
ureis
upofti
nypart
icl
eswhi
chareincontinuousrandom moti
on. changed.Def
ineall
terminol
og i
es used.

i
) Melt
ing-i
stheprocessbywhi
chasol
i
dchangest
oa
Ar
rangementofPar
ti
clesi
nMat
ter l
iqui
datfi
xedtemperat
ure.

Sol
i
ds i
i
) Evaporat
ion -istheprocessbywhi
chal
i
qui
d
changestoagasatanyt
emperatur
e.
 Par
ti
cles ar
e cl
osel
y packed t
oget
heri
n an or
gani
zed
mannerandinfi
xedposi
ti
on. i
i
i) Condensat
ion -isthepr
ocessbywhi
chagaschanges
toali
quidatf
ixedtemper
ature.
 Part
iclesinsoliddonotmov erandomlybutinsteadvibrat
e
aboutt heirf
ixedpositi
ons(vi
brator
ymot ion)becauseof iv
) Freezi
ng -isthepr
ocessbywhi
chal
i
qui
d
very strong inter
molecul
ar f
orce (cohesivef or
ce).Thi
s changestoasol
i
datf
ixedt
emper
atur
e.
expl
ainswhysol i
dshavefi
xedvolumeanddef ini
teshape. v) Subl
imat
ion -istheprocessbywhichasol
idchanges
togasdi
rect
lywi
thoutpassi
ngthel
iqui
dstat
e.

v
i) Deposi
ti
on -i
stheprocessbywhichagaschanges
tosol
iddi
rect
lywit
houtpassingt
hel
iquidst
ate.

Di
ff
usi
on

 Di f
fusion r
efer
st ot he process bywhi ch par
ti
cles
Li
qui
ds spreadfrom regi
ono fhi
g hc oncent
rat
iontoar egion
oflowconcentrati
on.Noti
ceablediff
usiontakesplace
 Part
icl
esi nli
quidsarenotcl
oselyfi
xedasinsoli
dsbut i
nl i
quidsandgasesduet ot hei
rconti
nuousr andom
moveaboutrandomly(Br
ownianmoti
on).Thi
sisbecause mo ti
on.
t
heinter
molecul
arfor
cesinli
quidsar
eweakerthanthose
i
nsoli
ds. Demonstrati
ngDiff
usioninLi
qui ds

 Thesamer easonexpl
ainswhyli
quidshav enofixedshape  Consider t
he set up below used t oinvesti
gat
e
butassumetheshapeofthecontai
ner. dif
fusioni
nliqui
ds.Concent
rat
edcopper(II
)sulphat
e
(bl
ueincolour)i
scareful
l
yandslowlyint
roducedint
o
 Theinter
molecul
arfor
ceinli
qui
dsisstrongerthaningases thebeakert
hroughafunneltoobt
aintwolayer
s.
areasonast owhyl i dshav
qui efixedv olumebutgases
don’
t.

Gases

 Parti
clesingasesar ef
urtherapar
tandhav eanincreased  Aft
ersomet i
me, i
tisobser vedthatt
heboundar y
random mot i
oncomparedtoli
qui
dparti
cl
es. betweenthetwoli
quidsdi sappearsanda
homogenouspalebluemi xt
ureisobtained.Thisi
s
 Thisis because ofv eryweak inter
molecul
arforces in becauset
hereisagr eaterrateofmov ementofwat er
gasespar t
icl
esascompar edtoli
quidsandsol i
ds.The part
icl
esfrom t
hewat erlayertocopper( I
I)sul
phat
e
samer easonexplai
nswhygaseshav enodefini
teshape l
ayer.Att
hesamet imet hereisgreatermov ementof

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andv
olume. copper(
II
)sul
phat
epart
icl
esfrom t
hecopper(
II
)
sul
phatel
ayert
othewaterl
ayer.

 Not
e:I
fhotl
iqui
dsareused,f
ormati
onoft
hemixt
ure
wi
ll
befast
erbecausethepar
ti
clesmovef
ast
erdueto
i
ncr
easedki
neti
cenergy.

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Demonst
rat
ingDi
ff
usi
oni
nGases (
b)Ont
hedi
agr
am,
showt
heobser
vat
ion

 Consi
der the setup bel
ow used t
o demonst
r e (
at c) I
ftheexper
imentwasper
formedatahightemperat
urewil
l
di
ff
usioni
ngases y
ouexpectittotakel
ongerorshor
terti
met oform whi
te
deposi
t?Expl
ain.

Short
erti
me.Thisisbecauseani ncreaseintemperat
ure
i
ncreasestheki
neticenergyoftheparti
clesofthegases
andhenceincreasedrateofdif
fusionofthegases.

Di
ff
usi
ont
hroughPor
ousMat
eri
als

 Whent hecardboardisr emov edandt het wojarspr essed

together,itis observ
ed t hatahomogenouspal ebr own
mixtureformsi nthetwoj ars.Thisisbecausebromi negas
spreadsi ntogasjarcontainingairatagr eat
errate.Att he
samet imeai rspreadsintogasj arcontai
ningbromineata
greaterrate.

 Not
e:Di
ff
usi
oni
ngasesi
sfast
ert
hani
nli
qui
dsbecause:

(
a)Gaseshav
elowdensi
ty.

(
b)Gaseshav
ehi
ghki
net
icener
gy.

(
c)Gasesv
eryweakcohesi
vef
orces.
 I
niti
all
y ,
hydrogengasdif
fusesint
otheporouspotsat
Rat
esofDi
ff
usi
onofGases afast errat
et hanairdif
fusi
ngout .Asar esul
t,ai
r
bubblesoutofwaterasshowni nfi
gurei
).
 Diff
erentgaseshavedi
fferentrat
esofdi
ff
usi
ondependi
ng
ontheirdensi
tyorr
elat
ivemasses.  Whent hegassuppl yisstoppedhy drogengasdi ff
use
outoft hepotthroughthef ineholesataf asterrate
 A gas wi t
h a hi
gherdensi t
yhas heavi
erpar
ti
cl
es and thanairgetsbackintothepo t.Thi
s decr
eas estheg as
theref
oreitsrat
eofdi f
fusionislowert
hanthegaswith pressur
e i
n t
he pota nd a s a r
esultt he higher
l
owerdensi t
y. atmosph er
icpressureactingo nthew at
er sur
facei n
thebeakertopusheswat erupt hetubeasi nfi
gureii).
Exampl
e
Note:Thebeakeri
susedtoconf
inet
hehy dr
ogengas
 Inthefi
gurebel
ow,ammoni
agasandhy
drochl
ori
caci
dgasdi
ff
use aroundtheporouspot
.Iti
sobvi
ousthatai
risdenser
andreact
. t
hanhydr
ogengas.

(
a) St
ateandexpl
aint
heobser
vat
ionmadeaf
tersomet
ime.

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 A whi
te deposi
tisf
ormed near t
he cot
ton woolsoaked i
n
concent
ratedinhydrochl
ori
caci
d.Theammoni
agasisl
essdense
andhaslightpar
ti
clesthusi
twil
ldi
ff
usef
ast
ert
hant
hehy
drochl
ori
c
gaswhichisdense.

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Rev
isi
onExer
cise

1. Whati
smat
ter
?

2. Withtheai
dofadiagr
am,descr
ibeanexper
imentthaty
ouwoul
d
usetoshowthatmatt
eri
smadeupoft i
nypart
icl
es.

3. Dur
ingacl
assdi
scussi
on,Emmanuelobser
vedt
hatBr
owni
an
moti
onwasonl
yexhibi
tedbysmal
lpart
icl
es.

(
a) I
sthi
sobser
vat
ioncor
rect
?

(
b)Expl
ainy
ouransweri
n(a)abov
e.

4. St
atet
heki
net
ict
heor
yofmat
ter
.

5. Di
sti
ngui
shbetweenthet
hreest
atesofmat
teri
nter
msoft
he
i
nter
molecul
arf
orces.

6. Whatf
act
ordet
ermi
nest
hest
ateofmat
ter
?

7. Expl
ainwhysol
i
dsar
enotcompr
essi
blewhi
l
egasesar
e.

8. Def
ineBr
owni
anmot
ion.

9. Duri
ngBrowni
anmot i
onexper
iment,thesmokepar
ti
clesmustbe
smallandl
i
ght.Expl
ainwhyi
tisnecessaryt
hatt
heparti
clesbe
l
ight
.

10.Smokeisint
roducedi
ntosmokecel
lwhi
chi
sthenv
iewedundera
micr
oscope.

(
a) Whatdoy
ouobser
vet
hrought
hemi
croscope?

(
b)Whatconcl
usi
oncanbedr
awnf
rom t
hisobser
vat
ion?

11.Temper
atur
eaf
fect
sBr
owni
anmot
ion.Expl
ain.

12.Lycopodium powderisli
ghtl
yspri
nkledonacl eanwatersur
face
i
nal argetray.Aredhotneedl
eisplungedintothecentr
eofthe
watersurface.St
ateandexplai
nwhati sobserved.

13. Def
inedi
ff
usi
on.

14.Descr
ibeanexper
imentt
odemonst
rat
ethepr
ocessofdi
ff
usi
on
i
n;

(
i) Li
qui
ds

(
ii
) Gases.

15.Nameandexpl
aint
hef
act
orst
hataf
fectt
her
ateofdi
ff
usi
oni
n
gases.

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Chapt
erSi
x THERMALEXPANS
ION
Def
ini
ti
on Ther
momet
ri
cLi
qui
ds

 Ther
malexpansi
onr
efer
stoi
ncr
easei
nvol
umeofabody  Theyi
nclude:
whenheat
ed.
a) Mercury

b) Al
cohol
Temper
atur
e
c) Oil
ofcr
eosot
e
 Temperat
urei
sthedegr
ee(ext
ent
)ofhot
nessorcol
dness
ofabodyonsomechosenscal
e. Pr
opert
iesofaGoodTher
momet
ri
cLi
qui
d

 Temper
atureismeasuredusingathermomet
eranditisa a) I
tshoul
dnotwetglass.
basi
cquant
itywhoseSIuni
tistheKelv
in.
b) I
tshoul
dexpandunifor
mly(
regul
arl
y).
0
 Degr
eeCelsius(C)isanotheruni
tinwhicht
emperatur
es
canbemeasured. c) I
tshoul
dbeagoodconductorofheat.

 Temper
atur
eisascal
arquant
it
y. d) I
tshoul
dbev
isi
ble.

Ther
momet
ers e) I
tshoul
dhav
ehi
ghboi
l
ingpoi
nt.

 A thermometer is an inst
rument used t
o measur e f
) I
tshouldhavelowfreezi
ngpoi
nt.
temper
atur
e.Therearemanyt ypesoft
hermomet
ers,each
 Note:Watercannotbeusedasat her
momet
erl
i
qui
d
desi
gnedforaspecif
icuse.
because:
Li
qui
d-i
n-Gl
assTher
momet
er(
CommonTher
momet
er)
(
a)I
twet
sgl
ass,
 The li
qui
d commonly used i
nal iqui
d– i n – gl
ass
(
b)I
texpandsi
rr
egul
arl
y(anomal
ousl
y),
ther
momet smer
eri cury
.Alcoholcanalsobeused.
(
c)I
tisabadconduct
orofheat
,
 Not
e:Al
i
quidusedint
her
momet
eri
scommonl
yknownas
t
her
mometr
icl
iqui
d. (
d)I
tisi
nvi
sibl
e(col
our
less)
,
Feat
uresofaLi
qui
d–I
n–Gl
assTher
momet
er (
e)I
thasar
elat
ivel
yhi
ghf
reezi
ngpoi
nt.

Compar
ison between Mer
cur
y and Al
cohol as
Ther
mometri
cLi
quids

Mer
cur
y Al
cohol
(
a)
ABul
b I
thas a high boi
l
ing I
thasalowboi
l
ingpoi
nt
0 0
poi
nt(
357C). (
78C).
 Contai
ns the thermomet
ri
cliqui
d.Itist n wal
hi l
ed to
i
ncreasesensit
ivit
yofthethermomet
er(i
.e.al
l
ow qui
ck I
thasarel
ati
vel
yhi
gher I
t has a l ow mel
ti
ng
tr
ansferofheat
). mel
ti
ngpoi –390C)
nt( . point(
-1150C).

(
b)Capi
l
lar
yBor
e Itis a good t
her
mal Itis a poor t
her
mal
 I
tal
lows t
he l
iqui
di nt
he bul
btor
ise and f
allwhen conduct
or. conduct
or.
t
emper
atur
echanges.
I
texpandsr
egul
arl
y. I
tsexpansi
oni
ssl
i
ght
ly
thasasmal
 I ldi
amet
ert
oincr
easei
tsaccur
acysot
hata i
rr
egul
ar.

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smal
lchangei
ntemper
atur
ecaneasi
l
ybemeasur
ed. I
tdoesnotwetgl
ass. I
twet
sgl
ass.

(
c)Gl
assSt
em I
tisopaqueandsi
l
ver
y. Iti s transpar
ent and
therefor
e has t o be
 I smadeupoft
ti hickgl
asstostr
engt
hent
het
her
momet
er
andther
efor
epr
otectt
heli
qui
dinsi
de. coloured to make i t
visi
ble.
 Thickgl
assalsoact
sasamagni
fyi
nggl
asst
omagni
fyt
he
l
iquidt
hread.  Not
es

I
. Alcoholthermometeristhebestf
oruseinverycol
d
condit
ionsbecausei t
sf r
eezi
ngpointi
sv er
ylow (-
1150c) but cannot be used i n a v ery hi
gh
temperaturebecausei t
sboili
ngpointi
sr el
ati
vel
y
l
ow( 780C) .

I
I. Mer cur
y t her
momet ersis bestforuse in high
temperatur
e because ofi t
s high boi
li
ng points
(3570c)butcannotbeusedinv er
ylowtemperature
becausei thasar el
ati
vel
yhigh fr
eezi
ng poi
nt( -
390c).

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Cal
i
brat
ingLi
qui
d-i
n–Gl
assTher
momet
er 1) Anuncalibr
atedmercuryther
momet eri
sat t
achedtoacm
scalewhichreads14cm i npur emelti
ngiceand30cm in
 At
her
momet
erhast
womai
nfi
xedpoi
nts: steam.Ifitreads10cm i nfreezingmi xt
ure,whati
sthe
temperat
ureofthef
reezi
ngmi xture?
0
I
. Theupperf
ixedpoi
nt(
100c) 0
o I
nme
lti
ngi
ce,
14c
mcor
res
pondst
o0C
0
I
I. Thel
owerf
ixedpoi
nt(c) 0
o I
nst
eam,
30c
mcor
res o100C
pondst
 Theupperfixedpointismarkedbyputti
ngthebulboft he 0 0
o ∴100C-0Cc
orr
espondst
o30c
m-14c
m
ther
mometer in st eam of water boi
li
ng at standard
atmospher
icpressureof76cmHg. o
0
100Cc
orr
esponds16c
mle
ngt
h
 Thelowerf
ixedpoi
nti
smar kedbyput
ti
ngt
hebul
boft
he 1c
m×100C
0
0
ther
mometerinpur
emelt
ingice. o 1c
mcor
res
pondst
o =6.
25C
16c
m

 Ther
angebetweenupperfi
xedpointandlowerf
ixedpoi
nt o Temper
atur
eoft
hef
ree
zingmi
xtur
eis
:
i
ssubdi
videdi
ntoequaldi
vi
sionsof10Ceach.
0 0 0
0C+(
10-14)
×6.
25C=-
25C
The Celsi
us (Cent
igr
ade) and Kel
vi
n (
Ther
mody
nami
c
Temper
atur
e)Scal
e

 TheCelsiusscalehasfixedpoi
ntsat00Cand1000Cwhi e 2) Af
l ault
yther
momet erreads18℃ aticepoi ntand80℃ at
steam point
.Det er
mi net hecorr
ecttemper at
urewhen i
t
theKelv
inscalehasf i
xedpoint
sat273Kf orpuremelt
ing
reads60℃.
i
ceand373Kf orst
eam orpureboil
ingwateratst
andard
atmospheri
cpressure. o Ati cepoi
nt,
0
18 Ccorrespondst
oactua
ll
0
y0C

 Temper
atur
eonCelsi
usscal
eandKel
vi
nscal
ear
erel
ated o Ats
tea
mpoi
nt,
80 Cc
orr
es
0
pondst
oac
tua
lly100C
0

byT(
: K)=θ(℃)+273.
0 0 0 0
o (
80C-18C)c
orr
espondst
oac
tua
lly(
100C-0C)
Absol
uteZer
oTemper
atur
e
0 0
o 62Cf
aul
tyc
orr
espondst
oac
tua
lly100C
 Thisisthelowesttemperat
ureonKelvi
nscalei
nwhi
cht
he
0 0
energyofthepart
iclesi
namat er
ial
iszero. 0 1C×100C 0
o 1Cfa
ult
ycor
res
pondst
oac
tua
lly 0 =1.
6C
62C
 I
tsv
al szer
uei oKel
vi
n(2730C)
- . 0
o Cor
rec
tte
mpe
rat
urewhe
nfa
ult
yoner
eads60Ci
s:

0℃ +( 18)
60- ×1.
6℃ =67.
2℃

Exer
cise

1) Afault
ymer cur
yther
mometerr
eads15℃ whendippedi
nto
melt
ingiceand95℃ wheninst
eam atnor
malatmospheri
c
pr
essure.Whatwouldthi
sther
mometerreadwhendipped
i
ntoaliqui
dat25℃

2) When mar
king t
he f
ixed poi
nts on a t
hermometeri
tis
Exampl
es obser
vedt
hatat0℃ t hemercurythr
eadi sofl
ength2cm

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3) Conver
teachofthef
oll
owi
ngf
rom Cel
siust
oKel
vi
n(Hi
nt:
use and9cm at
100℃.Whatt
emper
atur
ewoul
dcor
respondt
oa
T(K)=θ(℃)+273.
) l
engt
hof4cm?

200C
a) - Cl
i
nicalTher
momet
er
T=-
20+273=253K  Iti
saspecialtypeoft
her
mometerusedformeasur
ing
humanbodyt emperat
urewhoset
emperatur
erangeis
b) 00C
about350C-430C.
T=0+273=273K

c) 100C

T=10+273=283K

2730C
d) -  Thetubehasaconst
ri
cti
onwhi
chbr
eaksthemer
cur
y
thr
eadfort
emper
atur
ereadi
ngt
obetaken.
T=-
273+273=0K
 Aft
ert hether
mometerhasbeenr eadt
hemer
cur
yis
4) Conv
erteach ofthe f
oll
owi
ng f
rom Kel
vi
nto 0C (
Hint
:us
e ret
urnedtobulbbyal
ight
lyshaki
ngthet
her
momet
er.
θ(
℃)=T(K)-273.
)
 Methyl
atedspi
ri
tisusedt
ost
eri
l
izet
het
her
momet
er
a) 0K
af
teruse.
0
θ=0-273=-
273C
 Note:cli
nicalt her
mometercannotbe st eri
l
ized by
b) 167K boil
ingwat erbecauseitwil
lbreaksincet heboil
ing
pointofwat erisfarabov
ethet emperat
urerangeof
0
θ=167-273=-
106C thether
momet er.
c) 283K

θ=283-273=10℃

d) 3450K

θ=3450-273=3177℃

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Si
x’
sMaxi
mum andMi
nimum Ther
momet
er

 Thisthermometerrecor
dst hemaximum and mini
mum
temperat
urer
eachedinaplacedur
ingaspeci
fi
edperi
odof
ti
me,sayaday.

Obser vati
on:Whent heballisheated,itdoesnotpass
thr
ought her i
ngbutwheni tisleftont her i
ngfor
somet i
mes i tpasses through.Expl anation:When
heated, t
heballexpandsandsocannotgot hroughthe
ri
ng.Wheni tisleftont her i
ngf orsomet i
met he
temper atur
e of t he bal
ldecr eases and t he bal
l
contracts.Att hesamet imet her i
ngabsor bssome
heatf r
om t heballit
stemper at
ureincreasesandsoi t
expandsal lowingthebal
ltopasst hrough.

2. TheBarandGaugeExper
iment

Quest
ion
ModeofOper
ati
onoft
heSi
x’
sTher
momet
er I
nt hefi
gur
ebel
ow,atr
oom t
emper
atur
e,t
hebarf
it
sint
othe
gauge.
 Whent emperaturer i
ses,
thealcoholinbulbRexpandsand
pushesthemer curyupt heri
ghtl i
mboft heu-tube.The
mercurypushesi ndexYupwar ds.Thelowerendoft hi
s
i
ndexindicatesthemaxi mum t emperatur
ereachedduri
ng
thespeci
fiedperiod.

 Whent emperaturefal
ls,
thealcoholi
nbulbRcontractsand
mer curyispull
edback,r i
si
ngupi nthel
eftl
imb.Thei ndex
Xi st her
efore pushed upwards.Duri
ng contracti
on of
alcohol,theindexYi sleftbehindinthealcoholbyt he
fall
ingmer cury. Themi ni
mum t emper
atur
ei sreadf r
om
thel owerendofindexX.
(
a) Expl
ainwhatwoul
dhappenwhent
hebari
sheat
edandy
ou
Toresetthet
hermometer
,amagnetisusedt
oret
urnt
he tr
ytofiti
tint
hegauge.
st
eeli
ndicest
othemercur
ysur
faces.
Thebardoesnotf
iti
ntot
hegaugebecausei
texpandswhen
Expansi
onandCont
ract
ionofSol
i
ds heat
ed.

 When soli
dsareheated t
heyexpand (i
ncreasein si
ze/ (
b)Consi
deracasewherethebarisslight
lybi
ggert
hanthe
vol
ume)andwhencool edtheycont
ract(
decreasei
nsize/ gaugeatroom t
emperat
ure.Expl
ainwhatyouwilldoto
vol
ume). Mass ofthe soli
d doesnotchange when it makethebarf
iti
ntot
hegauge.
cont
ract
sorexpands.
Heatt
hegaugesot
hati
texpandsandt
hebarwi
l
lfi
t.
 Densityofthesol i
dincreaseswhent hebodyiscool
ed
(becausevolumedecr eases)anditdecreaseswhent
he
bodyisheated(becausevolumeincr
eases). Compar
ingExpansi
onandCont
ract
ionofDi
ff
erentMet
als

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Experi
ment
sto Demonst
rat
e Expansi
on and Cont
ract
ion of Quest
ion
Soli
ds
Anexper
imentwassett
ocompar
etheexpansi
onofdi
ff
erent
1. TheBal
landRi
ngExper
iment met
alsasshownbel
ow.

 Theballandri
ngexperi
mentapparat
usareasshowni
nthe
fi
gurebelow.Theballj
ustpassest
hrought
heri
ngatr
oom
temperat
ureandpressure.

Exampl
e

Thef i
gur
ebel
owshowsabi
met
all
i
cst
ri
patar
oom t
emper
atur
e
(
a) Expl
ainhowt
heexper
imentwor
ks (250C)

o When the met albaris heated i

texpands and pushes the
piv
otedpoi nt
erandt her eadi
ngistakenont hescale.Met al
barsofthesamesi zemadeofdi ff
erentmater
ial
sareattached
totheclamponeatat i
meandheat edforthesamel engthof
ti
me.Ther eadi
ngsont hescalear
erecordedandcompar ed. i
) Draw thesamebimet
all
i
cst
rpwhenat900c.Expl
i ain
theobserv
ati
on.
(
b)Whatpr
ecaut
ionsshoul
dbet
akent
oensur
efai
rresul
t

i
) Themet
alsshoul
dbeofsamel
engt
handdi
amet
er.

i
i
) Themet
alsshoul
dbeheat
edusi
ngsamebur
ner
.

Themet
alshoul
dbeheat
edf
orsamel
engt
hoft
ime.
When t
emperatur
ei ncreases abover oom temper
atur
e
al
umi
num expandsatafasterr
atethancopper
.
Li
nearExpansi
vi
ty

 Li
nearexpansi
vi
tyi
sthet
endencyofamat
eri
alt
oex
pand

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when heat ed.Dif

ferentmateri
als have di
ff
erentl i
near i
i
) Draw t
hebimet
all
i
cst
ri 250C.Expl
pwhenat- aint
he
expansi
vi
ties meaning thatt
heirrates ofexpansion or obser
vati
on.
contr
acti
onar enotthesameexceptaf ewmateri
als.

 Theunitofl
i
nearexpansi
vi
tyismeasur nperKel
edi vi
n.The
fol
l
owingaresomeexampl es;

When t
emperatur
e decr
eases bel
ow room temper
atur
e
Mat
eri
al Li
nearExpansi
vi
t K-1)
y(
al
umi
num cont
ractsataf
asterr
atet
hancopper
.

Al
umi
num 26x10-6

Br
ass 19x10-6 Appl
i
cat
ionsofExpansi
onandCont
ract
ionofSol
i
ds

Copper 8x10-6
16. 1) Expansi
onj
oint
sinSt
eam Pi
pes

 Pipes carryi
ng steam ar e fi
tted wit
h loops or
I
ron 12x10-6
expansionjoi
ntstoal
lowf orexpansionwhensteam i
s
passingthroughthem andcont r
actionwhentheyare
Concr
ete 11x10-6
cooled.Withouttheloopt heforceofexpansionand
contract
ionwill
causebreakageoft hepi
pes.
St
eel 11x10-6

TheBi
met
all
i
cSt
ri
p

 Bi
metall
icstri
pismadebyr ivet
ingtogethertwomet al
sof
di
ff
erentl
inearexpansi
vi
ti
es.Themet alwhichexpandsata
hi
gherrat
ewhenheat edcontr
actsfasterwhencooled.

 Considerabi met al
l
icst r
ipmadeofironandbr assatroom
temper atureandpr essureinfi
gur
e(a)below.Br asshasa
higherlinearexpansivi
tythanir
onandthereforeexpandsat
af asterr atethan iron.When thest r
ipi sheated toa
temper ature great
ert han room temper atur
ei tbends
towardsi ronasshowni nfi
gur b)andwhent
e( hestr
ipis
cooled,i tbendst owar dsbrassasshown i nf i
gure(c)
below.

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2. Fi
xi
ngofRai
l
wayLi
ne 5. I
nst
all
ati
onofTel
ephone/El
ect
ri
cWi
res

 Rail
waylinesar econstruct
edi nsectionswi thexpansion  They arel ooselyf i
xed to al
low for contr
acti
on.
gapsandt hesectionsheldtogetherbyfishplat
es.Thebolt Telephoneorel ect
ri
cwiresappeartobeshor t
erand
hol
esi nt herail
sar e ovalto all
ow freeexpansi onand tautinthemor ning.Whenitishot,t
hewi resappear
contr
act
ionofr ai
lsasthebol t
smov efreelyintheholes. l
ongerandsl ackened.

 A moder n method of al
l
owing for expansi
on and
contr
acti
oninrai
lway
sistoplanesl
antther ai
l
ssothat
theyover
lap.

6. TheBi
met
all
i
cMet
alAppl
i
cat
ion

 Oneoft hemostcommonappl icat

ionofabi metalli
c
stri
pisi nthei nthet hermost at.A t hermostatisa
3. Fi
xi
ngofSteelBr
idges device formai nt
aini
ng a st eady t emper at
ure.The
thermostatshownbel ow isusedf orcont rol
li
ngt he
 Inbri
dgesmadeofst eelgir
der
s,oneendisfixedandt
he temperature of an iron box.A heat er ci
rcui
ti s
otherendplacedonr oll
erstoall
ow forexpansi
onand connectedthroughtheelectr
ical ter
mi nals.
contr
acti
on.

4. Ri
vet
s  I
ft heironboxbecomest oohott hebimetal
li
cst ri
p
bends curvi
ng awayf rom the lowercontact.This
 Thickmet alplat
esinshipsandotherstr
uctur
esarejoi
ned
breaks the cont
act
s and switches of
ft he heater.
togetherbymeansofr iv
ets.Ari
veti
sfitt
edwhenhotand
Wheni tcool
s,thebi
met al
li
cstr
ipbendsclosi
ngupt he
thenhammer edflat
.Oncoolingi
tcont
ractspul
li
ngthetwo
gapbet weenthecontactsandtheheaterisswitched
platesfi
rmlytogether.
onagain.

 I
ftheironboxi srequi
redtobev eryhot( i
.e.high
t
emperatur
e),
thesett
ingknobisadj
ustedtopusht he
metalKsuchthatt
hecontactsar
etighttoget
her.For

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l
owtemper
atur
eranget
headjust
ingknobi
srel
eased
sot
hatt
heposi
ti
onKisl
owered.

 Ther
most ati
salsousedtocont
rolthet
emperat
ureof
el
ect
riccookers,el
ect
ri
cheater
sf orwar
mingrooms,
andfr
idges.

Expansi
onandCont
ract
ionofLi
qui
ds

ToDemonst
rat
eExpansi
onofLi
qui
ds

 Consi
derthe f
lask bel
ow f
il
led wi
th col
ored wat
eras
shownbel
ow.

Ef
fect
sofAnomal
ousExpansi
onofWat
er

1) Suppor
tAquat
icLi
fei
nPol
arCount
ri
esDur
ingWi
nter

 Duri
ngwi nterwaterf r
eezersi
ntoice.Icebeingl
ess
densethanwat erfl
oatsonwat er
.Sinceiceisapoor
conduct
orofheat ,i
tinsul
atest
hewat erbel
owagai
nst
heatl
osst oairaboveit.

 Whenthef
laskisheatedi
tisobser
vedthatwat
eri
nthe
gl
asst
ubef
allssl
i
ghtl
yandthenst
art
sri
si
ng.

 Thei ni
ti
alf al
loft hewat erlevelint het
ubei sduet o
expansi
onoft heflaskwhichget sheatedf
irst
.Thewater
star
tsexpandingwhenheatf inall
yreachesi
tanditr
isesup
2) Anomal
ousexpansi
onofwaterleadstofor
mat
ionof
thetubesinceliqui
dsexpandf ast
erthansol
ids.
i
cebagswhi
chposeagreatdangertoshi
ps.

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 Not e:Differ
entliqui
dsexpanddi fferent
ly(i.
e.theyhave 3) Itcauses weat her
ing ofr ocks si
nce when water
diff
erentratesofexpansion) trappedinfreezes;i
texpandst husbr
eaki
ngrocksinto
smal lpi
eces.
 I
ft heabov eexperimentwasr epeatedusingalcoholand
thenmet hyl
atedspi r
itf
ort hesamel engthoft meand 4) I
i tcausesbur st
ingofwat erpipeswhenwaterf
reezers
using same heat er,it woul
d hav e been noted t
hat inthem.
met hylat
edspi r
itexpandsmostf ol
lowedbyal coholand
fi
nal l
ywat er
. ExpansionofGases

Anomal
ousExpansi
onofWat
er Exper
imentt
oDemonst
rat
eExpansi
onandCont
ract
ionof
Gases
 Anomalousexpansionofwateri
sdefi
nedast
heunusual
behavi
orofwaterinwhichitcontr
act edand  Consi
swhenheat derthe setup bel
ow which can be used t
o
expandswhencooledbet 0
ween0and4C. demonst
rateexpansi
onandcont
ract
ionof gases.

 Consi
derheati
ngi cef r
om - 80C unt
ilitchangestowater
anditstemperatureincreasest o80C.A pl otofvol
ume
ver
sestemperatureforthewat erisasi nfi
gure(a)whi
le
densi
tyver
sestemperatureisasi nfigur
e(b)below.

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 Whent heflaskiswarmed,i sobser

ti vedthatt
helevelof 7) Thefi
gur
ebelow r
epresent
sabi
met
all
i
cst
ri
pofmet
alsX
watercol umni nsi
detheglasstubedropsindi
cat
ingt hat andYatr
oom temper
a t
ure
theairhasexpanded.Whent hef l
askiswarmedf urt
her,
somebubbl esareseenattheendoft het
ubeinwat eras
airescapesf r
om thef
lask.

 Whent hef
laski
scooled,wat
erlev sobser
eli vedtori
seup Thef
igur
ebel
owshowsi
tsshapewhendi
ppedi
ntocr
ushedi
ce
theglasst
ubebecausetheai
rinsi
det
hefl
askcontr
act
sto
creat
espace.

Exampl
es

1) Thefi
gurebelow showsabeam bal
ancemadeoutofconcr
ete
andr
einf
orcedwit
hst eel Sket
chadi agr
am i
nt hespacegiv
enbelow t
oshow t
heshape
whenthest r
ipisheatedtoat emper
atur
e abovet her
oom
temper
atur
e

Useadiagram t
oexpl
aint
hebehav
iouroft
heshapeoft
hebeam
whenheat
edup.

8) Givear easonwhyaconcr etebeam r einforcedwi thsteel

doesnotcr ackwhensubj ectedtoChangesi nt emperature.
Thebeam expandsl inear
ly.Thebeam r emainsst r
aightbutl onger Bothconcr eteandst eelhav esamer atesofexpansi on.
-6
thanbef oreheat i
ng.Bot hconcreteandst eelhav esamer atesof Theirval
u eo fl
inearexpansi
v i
tyis11x10 K
expansion.Theirval
ueofl i
nearexpansi
vit
yis11x10-6K
9) Aquaticanimalsandpl antsareobser v
edt osur vi
v einfr
ozen
2) St atetwol iqui
dswhi char eusedi nthermomet er.Alcoholand ponds. Expl
a i
nthisobservat
ion.
Mer cur
y. Wat erfreezesandt heicef ormedf l
oatsi nwat erbecause
3) Wi thar eason,st atewhichoft hetwol i
quidsin3( a)abov ei s i
tsde nsi
ty i
s l
ess t
hant hatofw ater
,insulati
n gw at
erbelow
usedt omeasur etemperatur
einareaswher etemperaturesare: i
t.T emp eratur
es increases dow n the p ond be cause of
(i
)Bel ow - 0
40C al cohol
,becausei thasal ow freezi
ngpoi ntof anoma lous expansi
ono fwa t
er.
–115oC.

(
i)1500C,
i mer
cur
y,becausei
thasahi
ghboi
l
i ntof357oC,
ngpoi

4) Whatdoy ouunder standbythest

atement‘l
owerf
ixedpoint
’ona
temperaturescale?
Thisisthet emperatur eofpuremelt
ingiceatstandar
d/normal
atmosphericpressure;

5) Name t wo adaptati
ons t
hat can be made t
o a mer
cur
y
thermomet ertomakeitmor
esensit
ive.
Usingathinwal l
edbul
b Usi
ng a
narrowercapil
l
arytube

6) Thefi
gurebel
owshowsabimet
all
i
cstr
ipmadeofbr
assandi
ron.
A marbl
eisplacedatendA ofthebimet
all
i
cstr
ipasshown
bel
ow:-

Stat
eandexpl
ainwhatwi
l
lbeobser
vedwhent
hebi
met
all
i
cst
ri
pis
st
rongl
ycool
ed

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Oncool i
ng,t
hebrasscont
ractsmor
ethani
ron,
hencebecomeshort
er
thanironandf ormsupwardscurv
e,maki
ngt hemarbl
etorolland
sett
leatthecentr
eofthecurv
e.

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Rev
isi
onExer
cise Expl
ainhow r
iseintemperat
urecausest
hepoi
ntert
o
moveinthedi
rect
ionshown.

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1. Onepr opert
yofal iqui
dthati
sconsi deredwhil
econstr
uctnga 9. I
i nthesetupshowni nfi
gurebel
ow,iti
sobservedthatthe
l
iquidinglassther
momet eri
st hattheli
quidexpandsmorethan l
evelofwat
eri
nit
ial
l
ydropsbef
orest
arti
ngt
orise.Expl
ain.
theglassforthesamet emperatur
echange.Stateanyothertwo
propert
iesoftheli
quidst
hatar
econsi der
ed.

2. Giv
ear easonwhyaconcret
ebeam rei
nfor
cedwithst
eeldoes
notcr
ackwhensubj
ect
edtochangei
ntemperat
ure

3. Explai
nwhyagl asscont
ainerwit
hthi
ckwall
sismoreli
kel
yto
crackthanonewithathi
nwal lwhenaver
yhotl
iqui
dispour
ed
i
ntoi t
.

4. Figur
e below shows a ci
rcui
t di
agr
am f
or cont
rol
l
ing t
he
temperat
ureofaroom.

10.Gi
veareasonwhywat
eri
snotsui
tabl
eli
qui
dforusei
na
t
hermometer
.

11.Thetemper at
ureofwateri
nameasur i
ngcyl
i
nderisl
owered
from about200cto00c.Sket
chagr aphofvol
umeagainst
i
) St
ateandexpl
aint
hepur
poseoft
hebi
met
all
i
cst
ri
p. temperatur
eassumingthatwaterdoesnotfr
eeze.
i
i
) Descri
behowthecircui
tcont
rol
sthet
emper
atur
ewhen 12.Fi
gur ebelow showsaf l
askfil
l
edwi thwat er
.Thef l
askis
theswit
chSisclosed. fi
ttedwithacor kthr
oughwhichat ubeisinser
ted.Whenthe
fl
aski scooledt hewaterlev
elrisessli
ghtlyandthenfall
s
5. Fi
gur
ebel
owshowsafir
ealarm ci
rcui
t.
steadi
ly.Expl
ain.

Expl
ainhowt
heal
armf
unct
ions

6. Figur
ebel
owshowsabimetal
li
cstr
ipatr
oom t
emper
atur
e.Br
ass
expandsmor
ethani
nvarwhenheat
edequal
l
y.
13.Acli
nicalthermometerhasaconstrict
ionint hebor
ejust
abov
et hebulb.St
atetheuseoft
hisconstr
ict
ion.

14.Fi
gurebel
ow showsanal
umi
num t
ubet
ight
lyst
ucki
na
Sket
chthebi
metall
i
cst
ri
paf
terbei
ngcool
edsev
eraldegr
ees
st
eelt
ube.
bel
owroom t
emperat
ure

7. Fi
gur
ebel
owshowsabi
met
all
i
cther
momet
er.

Explai
nhowt hetwotubescanbeseparat
edbyappl
ying
at emperat
urechangeatthesamej unct
iongi
venthat
aluminum expands moret han st
eelforthe same
temperat
urerise.

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8. Figurebelowshowsaflatbot
tomedfl
askcont
aini
ngsomewat . 15.I
er nanexper imentt oinvest
igat
et heunusualexpansionof
I
ti sheateddir
ect
lywi
thav er
yhotfl
ame.Expl
ainwhythef
laskis wateraf i
xedmassofwat erat00C washeat edunt i
lit
s
l
ikelytocrack. temperat
urereached200C.Ont heaxi
sprovided,sketcha
graphofdensit
yagainsttemperatur
eofthewat erfom 00c
r
0
to20C.

Chapt
erSev
en HEATTRANS
FER

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Def
ini
ti
onofHeat  Wood

 Heati
saf
orm ofener
gywhi
chf
lowsf
rom apoi
ntofhi
gher  Ai
r
t
emper
atur
etoanot
herpoi
ntofl
owt
emper
atur
e.
 Wat
er
Di
ff
erencesbet
weenHeatandTemper
atur
e
 Rubber
HEAT TEMPERATURE
 Pl
ast
ic
For
m ofenergythatf
lows Degree of hotness or
due t o t emperatur
e col
dness of a body in  Gl
ass
di
ff
erence. somechosenscale. Exampl
e

Thefl
ow ofheatcannot Can be measur
ed Thefi
gur
ebelowshowspi
ecesofwoodandir
onofequallengt
h
bemeasur
edpreci
sel
y. accurat
ely usi
ng a anddi
ametermai
ntai
nedi
ncont
actbyasheetofpaper.Afl
ame
i
s t hen passed ov er t he paper sev eral times.
ther
momet er
.

SIuni
tandj
oul
es(
J). SIuni
tisKel
vi
n(k)
.

St
ateandexpl
aint
heobser
vat
ionmade:
ModesofHeatTr
ansf
er
Thepaperget sbl
ackedontheregi
oncov er
ingthewoodenrod.
 The r
e ar ethr
ee modes ofheatt
ransf
er: conduct
ion, Thisisbecausewoodisapoorconductorofheatandtheref
ore
convect
ionandradi
ati
on. doesnotconductheatfrom thepaperandt her
efor
ethepaper
burns.I
ronisagoodconductorofheatandconductsheataway
Conduct
ion fr
om t
he paper
.

 Conduct
ioni
sthetransf
erofheatwi
thi
nanobj
ectwi
thout Fact
orsAffect
ingThermalConduct
ivi
ty
themovementoft
heobjectasawhol
e.
1. Natur
eofMat er
ial
s
Mechani
smsofHeatConduct
ion
 Natur
eofmat
eri
almeanswhatt
hemat
eri
ali
smade
(
a)Vi
brat
ionofmol
ecul
es of
.

(
b)Thr
oughf
reeel
ect
rons  Consi
dert
hesetupbel
ow.

Cl
assi
fi
cat
ionofMat
eri
alsI
nTer
msofConduct
ion

 Mater
ial
scanbeclassif
iedasgoodorpoorconduct
orsi
n
t
ermsofheatconduct
ion.

(
a)GoodConduct
ors

Goodconduct
orsar
emat
eri
alst
hatcanal
l
ow heatt
opass
t
hrought
hem e.
g.

 Copper

 Si
l
ver  I
tisobserv
edthatthewaxat
tachedtocopperdrops
fi
rstf
oll
owedbythatonal
uminum, i
ronl
eadandt hat
 Al
umi
nium ofwooddidnotdropsi
ncewoodi sapoorconductor
.

 Br
ass Pr
ecaut
ions

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 Mer
cur
y (
a)Rodsofsamedi
amet
ert
obeused.

 I
ron (
b)Rodsequall
engt
htobeused.

 Zi
nc (
c)Waxoft
hesamesi
zet
obeused.

 Ti
n

 Leadet
c.

(
b)PoorConduct
ors(
Insul
ator
s)

 Thesear
emat er
ial
swhi
chdonotr
eadi
l
yal
l
owheatt
opass
thr
oughthem e.
g.

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2. The Thi
ckness/Diameter
/Cr
oss Sect
ion Ar
ea oft
he  I
ti s observ
ed thatwax on rod B dropped f
ir
st.
Conduct
or Therefor
e, ther
mal conducti
vi
ty incr
eases wi t
h
decreaseinl
engt
hoftheconduct
or.
 Considerthesetupbel
ow;
Precauti
ons

(
a)Rodspl
acedatequaldi
stancef
rom heatsour
ce.

(
b)Rodsofsamemat
eri
alused.
 Itisobservedthatthewaxonthethi
ckerir
onroddr
ops (c)Waxofthesamesizeused.
fi
rst.Thi
si sbecausemoreheatfl
owsthroughathi
cker
conductorperuni
tti
me. (
d)Rodsofsamethi
cknessused.
 Therefore,conducti
vit
y of conduct or
si ncr
eases wi
th Lagging
thi
cknessoft heconductor.
 Laggi ngreferstothecov er
ingofagoodconductorof
Precauti
ons heatwi t
hani nsul
ati
ngmat er
ialt
oreduceheatloss
throughsurfaceeff
ects.
(
a)Equaltimeofexposureoft herodstoheat.
 Consi derthesetupbel ow;
(
b)Equallengthandtypeofr odsused.

(
c)Samesi
zeofwaxused.

(
d)Rodspl
acedatequaldi
stancesf
rom t
heheatsour
ce.

3. Temper
atur
eDi
ff
erence

 Consi
dert
hesetupsAandBbel
ow.
 Plot
softemper
atur
ev ar
iat
ionf
rom t
hehotendt
othe
coldendwithl
aggingandwi t
houtl
aggi
ngonsame
axeswil
lbeasf
oll
ows;

 I
tisobservedthatwaxinsetupBdroppedfi
rstbecauseof
great
ertemperaturedi
ff
erentt
haninA.Therefor
e,heatis
tr
ansfer
redfasterwhentemper
atur
edif
fer
enceisgreat . Appl
er i
cat
ionsofLaggi
ng

 Ir
onpipescarry
ingsteam f
rom boil
ersorsteam wel
l
s
arecover
edwi ththi
ckasbest
osmat er
ialwhichi
san
Pr
ecaut
ions i
nsulat
ortoreduceheatl
ossfrom steam.

(
a)Ther
odsofequaldi
amet
erused. Ther
malconduct
ivi
tyI
nLi
qui
ds

(
b)Rodsofequall
engt
hused.  Li
qui
dsar
egener
all
ypoorconduct
orsofheat
.

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(
c)Waxofsamesi
zeused.

(
d)Waxplacedatequaldi
stancef
rom oneendoft
her
odi
n
eachcase.

(
e)Rodsofsamemat
eri
alused.

5. Lengt
hoft
heConduct
or

 Consi
dert
hesetupbel
ow;

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ToDemonst
rat
ethatWat
eri
saPoorConduct
or Appl
i
cat
ionsofGoodandPoorConduct
orsofHeat

Exper
iment1 (
a)Cookingutensilsandboil
ersaremadeofmet al
st hat
conductheatr api
dlywhil
etheirhandl
esaremadeof
 Consi
derthesetupbelowfordemonst
rat
ingt
hatwat
eri
s i
nsulators(
poorconductors)
.
apoorconduct
orofheat.
(
b)Moder nbuil
dingsar emadeofdoubl ewall
swi t
han
 i
nsulatorbetween thewal l
st o mini
mizeheatloss
from t he house and t heref
ore maint
ain stable
temperatur
e.

(
c)Fi
ref i
ght
ersputonsui
tsmadeofasbestoswhi
chi
sa
poorconductorofheatto keep them saf
e whi
le
putt
ingofff
ir
e.

(
d)Bir
dsf l
aptheirwi ngsaftergett
ingwett ointroduceair
pocketswi thi
nt heirfeather
st hi
shel pst omi nimize
 Aftersometi
mesi tisobservedthatwat
eratt hetopofthe heatlossfrom theirbodies.
tubeboil
swhiletheiceremainedunmelted.Waterisapoor
conductorofheat.Glassusedformakingt estt
ubeisalso (
e)In experi
ment si nvolvi
ng heat i
ng li
quids i n glass
apoorconductorofheat. vessel.Thev esselisp l
acedo naw ir
eg augeb ecause
thegaugei sagoodconduct orofheati tt her
efore
spreadstheheatt oal argeareaofthev essel
.

Exper
iment2 Conv
ect
ion

 Anot
herexperi
mentthancanbeusedt
oshowthatwat s  Conv
eri ect
ionist
hepr
ocessbywhi
chheati
str
ansf
err
ed
apoorconduct
orofheati
sasshownbelow. thr
oughflui
ds.

ToDemonst
rat
eConv
ect
ioni
nLi
qui
ds

Exper
iment1

 Considerthe diagr
am below i n whi
ch potassium
permanganatecryst
alisputatonecorneri
nabeaker
contai
ningwaterandthebeakerheat
edatthatpoint.

 I
tisobservedthatthewaxcoatingonbeakercontaini
ng
mercur
ymel t
edwhilethatonbeakercontai
ningwat
erdid
notmelt
.Thisisbecausemercuryisagoodconductorof
heatwhi
lewateri
sapoorconductorheat
.

Ther
malConduct
ivi
tyi
nGases  Aft
ersomet ime,i
tisobser
vedthatapur
plecol
orat
ion
ri
ses up from potassi
um per
manganateforming a
 Gasesar
epoorconduct
orsofheat
.Thesetupbel
owcan ci
rcularloop.Thi
si sduet ocreat
ionofconvect
ion
beusedt
osuppor
tthi
sfact. curr
en t
s i
nw at
er.

Exper
iment2

Consi
dert
hesetupbel
ow

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 Iti
sobservedthatt
hemat
chst i
ckhel
dwithi
ntheunbur
nt
gasregiondoesnotgetigni
tedbecausegasisapoor
conduct
orofheat.

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 I
ti s obser
ved t
hatt hepur pl
ecolourat
ionofpot um 2. Engi
assi neCooli
ngSystem
permanganatemov esi ntheanti
-cl
ockwisedi
recti
oninthe
tube.Thisisduetocr eati
onofconvecti
oncurrentbyheat  Engi
necooli
ngisenhancedbybot
hconduct
ionand
whosedi r
ecti
onisanti-cl
ockwise convect
ionpr
ocesses.

Conv
ect
ioni
nGases

 Consi
dert
hesetupshownbel
ow.

 Themetalsurf
aceconduct
sawayheatf rom engi
ne.
Thi
sheatsupthewat
ersett
ingupconvect
ioncurr
ents
whi
chcir
culat
esasshowninthedi
agram.

 Iti s obser
ved thatthe smoke i
s sucked i
ntot he box  Thehotwat erispumpedi ntotheradiat
orwhichhas
thr
oughchimneyPandexi tsthr
oughchi mneyQ.Thisi s thin copperfins thatconductawayheatf r
om t he
duetoconvectioncur
rent
swhicharesetupwhent heairin wat er
.
theboxisheated.
 Thef insar emadeofcopperbecausei ti
sthebest
APPLICATIONSOFCONVECTI ONINFLUI DS conduct orofheat.Theyarepaintedblackbecausea
blacksur f
aceisagoodabsor berofheat.
1. Venti
lati
on
 Fastf lowing ai
rpastf ins speeds up the cool
i
ng
 Vent i
lat
ionref
erstothesuppl
yoffreshairt
otheroom. process.

3. Domest
icHotWat
erSy
stem

 Warm ai
rexhal edbytheoccupant softheroom ri
sesand
getsoutthroughv ent
il
atorssinceiti
sl essdense.Fr
esh
col
dairfl
owsi nt
ot heroom throughwindowsanddoor s.
Thiswayconv ecti
oncurrenti
ssetupandt her
ei sal
way s
suppl
yoffreshair.

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 Hotwat errisesupbecauseoft helower

ingofit
sdensiy Appl
t icati
onofTher
malRadi
ati
on
whenheat ed.
1. SolarHeat
er
 Col
dwat ermov edownf r
om thecoldwatertankt
ot he
boi
lerbecausei ti
srel
ati
vel
yheavier
.

 Theexpansi
onpi pehasanout l
etforexcesswat
ert
hat
coul
dhaveresul
tedfr
om ov
erheati
ng

 Thepipet
hatconveysthehotwat
erandt
hecy
li
nderar
e
l
aggedtomini
mizeheatl
osses.

Ther
mal
Radi
ati
on

 Thermalr adi
ati
on ist he process by whi
ch heat i
s
tr
ansfer
redthroughvacuum.Inthermalr
adi
ati
ont
heref
ore
matteri
snotinvolv
edintransf
erofheat

 I
tisthroughthispr
ocessofradi
ati
onthatr
adi
antheat
r
eachestheear
th’
ssurf
acef
rom t
hesun.

 Thehi
gherthetemperat
ureofabodyt
hemor
etheamount
oft
her
mal r
adiati
on.

Absor
pti
onandEmi
ssi
onofRadi
antHeat

 Agoodabsor berofradi
antheati
salsoagoodemi tt
erof
radi
antheatwhil
eapoorabsorberofradi
antheati
salsoa
pooremitt
eroftheheat.

 Consi
dert
hesetupbel
ow.

 Copperpi
pei
susedbecauseiti
sagoodconductorof
heatandwil
lconductheati
ntothewat
erinsi
det he
pi
pe.Iti
spaint
edblackcol
ourisagoodabsor
berof
heat
.

 Theglasscoveral
l
ow radi
antheatf
rom thesunto
passthr
oughandprev
entst
heweakerener
gyemit
ted
aft
er.

 Theblackcoppercol
l
ect
orabsorbsheatenergyand
conductsi
ttocopperpi
peswhichtr
ansmitittothe
water.

 Thei
nsul
ati
ngmat
eri
alpr
event
sheatf
rom bei
ngl
ost
fr
om t
hepi
pe.

 Thecopperpi
peiscoi
l
edsever
all
ytoi
ncr
easesur
face
 I
tisobser
vedt hatwaterl
evelinl
i
mbAr isesupwhilet
hat areaf
orabsor
pti
onofheat
.
i
nlimbBfall
s.Thisisbecauseboi
li
ngtubeBr ecei
vesmore
heatt
hanboil
ingtubeAwar mingtheai
rinsideitmor
e.The

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ai
rexpandsandtheref
orepushesdownt
hewat
eri
nli
mbB.
Asaresultwat
erlev
elinli
mbAr i
ses.

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2. Ther
mosFl
ask 6. Housesinhotareashavethei
rwall
sandroofspai
nted
wit
hbr i
ghtcol
ourstorefl
ectawayheatwhil
ethosein
col
dar eashav
ewal l
sandr oof
spaint
edsil
verybri
ght
toref
lectasmuchheataspossibl
ebacktothehouse.

7. Ket
tle,cooki
ngpansandi r
onboxeshavepol
i
shed
sur
facestoreduceheatl
ossthr
ought
her
malr
adi
ati
on

Rev
isi
onExer
cise

1. Twosi mi laropentinswi t
hequalamount sofwaterat
800cwer el ef
ttocool .IftinAi sshi
nyandt inBi s
blackened,sket chont hesameaxest hegraphsof
temperat ureagainstt
imef orthetwoti
ns.
2. Thef i
gur ebelowshowsaboxwi t
htwoglasstubesA
 Thest opperr
ubberpadandrubberringpadprev
entheat andBpr ojecti
ngfrom thetopofar ect
angul
arwooden
l
osst hroughconduct
ionsi
ncerubberisapoorconduct
or boxwi thr emovableglassfront.
ofheat

 Sil
ver
edwallpr
event
sheatl
ossthroughr
adiat
ionsi
ncet
he
shi
nnysur
faceisapoorr
adi
atorandemit
terofheat
.

 Vacuum prevent heat l

oss through conducti
on and
convect
ionsi
ncethet womodesofheatt r
ansferrequi
re
materi
almedi
um fortr
ansf
erofheat.

 Shockabsorberpr
event
sbreaki
ngoft
hegl
asswal
l
sduet
o
pressur
efr
om theoutsi
de. (
i) Whatwi l
lbe t he dir
ecti
on of the smoke
thr
ought hebox?
 Vacuum sealpr eventsairfrom reoccupy
ingthevacuum.I
t
(ii
) What concl usi
on can be made f rom the
i
st hr
oughthevacuum seal t
hatairwassuckedout.
observ
ation?
(ii
i
) Whyar ethev ent
il
ati
onsforaroom madehigh
uptheroof?
3. GreenHouseEffect( HeatTrap) 3. Studythesetup bel ow and useitto answerthe
quest
ionsthatfoll
ows:
 Gr een houseef f
ecti sa phenomenon i n which heati
s
all
owedt opasst hroughat ranspar
entmateri
albutdoes
notpenetr
atetotheout side.Thiswayheataccumul at
esi
n
thegreenhousecont i
nuously.

 Gr
eenhousesareusedtoprov
ideappr
opr
iat
econdi
ti
onsi
n
pl
ant
sespeci
all
yincol
dareas.

4. Sol
arConcent
rat
ors

(
a)Whatdoest heexperi
mentil
lust
rat
es?
(
b)Whatt wo fact
ors shoul
d one considerwhen
select
ingtherodtobeused?
(
c)Statetheobserv
ati
onsmadei nthi
sexperiment
.

4. Expl
aint
heGr
eenhouseef
fect
.

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5. Namet
woexampl
esofgr
eenhousegases.

 Concav erefl
ectori
susedt or ef
lectradi
antheatfr
om t
he
sun into a common poi nt(focus).Temperat
ureatthi
s
pointisv er
yhi ght
hereforetheconcentrat
edheatcanbe
usedf orpurposesl
ikeheati
ngwat er.

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1. Thediagr am belowshowstheessent
ialf
eat
uresofa
solarheatingpanel.Asmallel
ect
ri
cpumpcircul
atest
he
l
iquidthrought hepipes.

St
atebr
ief
lywhy
:

i
. Thepi
pesandmet
alpl
atesar
ebl
ackened.

i
i
. Ther
eisamat
eri
alf
ibr
egl
assont
hepanel
.

2. Thef
igur
ebel
owshowsanel
ect
ri
cir
on.

Twometalpl
atesAandBar
eri
vet
edt
ofor
m abi
met
alst
ri
p
asusedabov
e.

(
i) Whi
chmet
alexpandsmor
e

(i
i
) Expl
ainhowt
heel
ect
ri
cir
onwor
kswhent
hepower
i
son

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Chapt
erEi
ght ELECTROS
TATI
CSI
I
ntroduction Exer
cise
 El ectr ostati
csi sabr anchofphy sicst hatdeal swi thst ati
c 1. Twoballoonsinfl
atedwi t
hairareti
edwi t
hstri
ngsand
electricitywhi chi sanon- mov i
ngel ect ricchar geont he held1met reapart.Bothbal
loonsarerubbedwi t
hf ur
.
surfaceofanobj ect . Whydot heball
oonsmov eapartwhenbr oughtclose
 Al lsubst ancesar emadeofat oms. At omshav et hreesub toget
her?
-atomi cpar ti
cl esnamel y: 2. Foreach si t
uati
on below state whetherthe force
 Pr ot ons betweenthem isrepulsi
veoratt
racti
ve.
 Neut r
ons
 El ect r
ons
 Pr otonshav eaposi tivechar ge.El ect ronshav eanegat i
ve
char ge.Neut ronsdonothav eanychar ge( i
.e.t heyar e
neut ral).
TypesofChar ges
 Posi tivechar ge( s).Thesechar ge(s)ar eobt ai nedwhen
anat om losesanel ect ron( s).
 Negat i
v echar ge( s).Thesechar ge( s)ar eobt ai nedwhen
anat om gai nsanel ect ron( s)
 TheSIuni tofchar gei st hecoul omb, C.
 Achar gedat om ( posi t
ivel yornegat i
v ely)i scal ledani on.
 Abodyt hathasnei theranegat ivechar genoraposi ti
ve a) Conduct or sandI nsul ators.
char ge cont ai ns an equalnumber of pr otons and  Subst ances whi ch do notal low el ectrons t o pass
electrons( Neut ralat om) .Whent hesechar gesar eequal throught hem ar ecal ledi nsulat ors.
i
nnumber ,abodyi sel ect r
icallyneut r al.  Subst ances whi ch al low el ectrons t o pass easi ly
El
ectrostat icChar gesofaMat eri
al throught hem ar ecal ledconduct ors.Ther easonswhy
 Ahar dr ubberr odgai nsmi l
lionsofel ect ronswheni tis they( met als)conducteasi l
yi sbecausewi thi
nany
rubbedwi thawoolcl ot h.Thecl othl osesel ectronst othe met alsomeel ect ronsar enotat t
ached t o specifi
c
rod and becomes posi tively char ged. The r ubber atomsbutar efreet owanderabout .
becomesnegat ivelychar ged.  I fy ouwer et ohol damet alr odandr ubi twi thwool
 Whengl assr odi sr ubbedwi thf ur,thef url osesel ectrons woul di tbechar ged?NO Howev erify ouf itpol yt
hene
tot hegl assr od.Gl assr odbecomesnegat i
velychar ged handl e ont ot he met alr od i tcan be char ged by
andf urbecomesposi ti
v elychar ged. rubbi ngi t.Weexpl ainthi sbysay ingt hatthepol yt
hene
 Abodyi ssai dt obeposi ti
vel ychar gedi fi thasanexcess i
sani nsul atorandwi llnotal l
ow el ectronst omov e
ofposi ti
v echar gesori thasl ostsomeel ect rons. throughi tonal ongi tssur face.Whenani nsul at
oris
 Abodyi ssai dt obenegat i
v elychar gedi fi thasanexcess rubbed,t he el ect r
ons whi ch ar et r ansfer r
ed come
ofel ect r
ons i .e. I fithasgai nedsomeel ect r
ons. from at oms on t he sur face.The met als become
 Thef ol l
owingmat erialsbecomesnegat iv elychar gedby char gedbyel ectronsf rom t hewool .Buti ft hemet al
fri
ctionwhenr ubbed: i
sdi rectlyhel d,t hese el ect ronsi mmedi ately ‘leak’
 Pol y thene awayt ot he ear tht hr ough t he hand on t he body
 Mostpl ast ics wher easwhent hehandl eisi nsulated t heyr emai non
 Eboni t
e the met albecause t hey cannotpass t hrough t he
 Thef oll
owi ng on t heot herhand becomesposy i
tivel
y i
nsul at i
nghandl e.
char gedwhenr ubbed: ChargingMet hods
 Acet at e Thefollowi ngmet hodsar eusedt ochar gemat erials:
 Per spex (a)I nduct ion
 Gl ass (b)Cont act
 Fur (c)Separ ati
on
TheBasi cLawofEl ect r ost atics
 I tst at es t hat l ike char ges r epel ,unl ike char ges
at
tract
.

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(a)I
nduction (
b)Contactmethod
Chargi
ngpolystyrenebal
lnegati
velybyinduct
ion  Suspendthepolystyr
enebal
lcoat
edwithal
umini
um
 Suspendt hepolyst
yreneballcoatedwithalumi
nium usi
ng usingdrysi
lkthr
ead.
drysil
kthread.  Bri
ngachar gedglassrodcl
osetobutnott
ouchi
ng
 Br ing aposit
ivel
y charged glass r
od close t
o butnot thesuspendedball.
touchi
ngt hesuspendedball
.

Note:Theposit
ivechar
gesar
erepel
l
edwhil
ethenegat
ive  Bri
ngachargedglassrodi
ncont
actwi
tht
hebal
l
,
chargesareatt
ractedt
other
od. rol
l
ingi
toverthesurf
ace.
 Toucht hesideoft
hebal
lawayfr
om t
heglassr
odwi t
hthe
finger
.

 Wi
thdr
awt
hechar
gedr
od.
Note:Electronsfl
ow fr
om theear
thtoneut
ral
i
zet
heposi
ti
ve
chargeont heball
.
 Whi l
ehol dingtheglassrodneart
heball
,wi
thdr
aw t
he
fingerandthentheglassr
od.

Notes
a) Whenaposi ti
verodisrolledont heball
,someoft he
negati
vechar gesi
nducedi nthebal lar
eneutral
izedby
Note: The r emaining negative char ges r edi
str
ibute someposi ti
vechargesont her od.
themselvesunif
ormlyont heball. b) Wh en the rod is wit
hd r
a wn,t he posi
tiv
e charges
 When a bodyi s char
ged byi nduct
ion,i
tacqui r
es the redi
str
ibutethemselvesalloverthesurfaceoftherod.
chargest
hatareopposi
tetotheinduci
ngcharge. c) When a body i s charged by cont actmet hod,it
acquir
eschar gesthatar esimi l
artotheonesont he
Questi
on: chargi
ngrod.
Expl
ainbyuseofdi agramshow t heabov emat eri
alcanbe Questi
on:Explai
nhowamat er i
alischargednegativ
elyby
char
gedposit
ivel
ybyinduct
ionmethod. contactmethod

(
c)Separ ati
onMet hod
 Placet wospher esAandBt ogethersot
hattheyf
orm
asi ngleconductor.
 Bring a char ged pol
ythene r
od close t
o butnot
touchingspher eA.

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 Mov esphereB awaysoast obr eakthecontact

,whi e  I
l tconsistsessent i
allyofamet alcap( brass)andr od
holdi
ngthechargedr odi
nposi
tion. (boast)atwhi chisconnect edapi eceofv eryt hin
met alf oi
lcal led t he l eaf ( somet imes gol df oil
,
aluminum) suppor ted wi th a pi ece of i nsulating
mat er
ial( could be cor k,cel lulose acet ate)whi ch
formspar tofaboxwi t
hgl asssl i
des.
 Themet alcasingpr otect st heleaff rom t heeffectof
thedraught .
 Thegl asswi ndow ist r
anspar entf orobser vati
ont obe
made.
 Ther od issuppor t
edbyapl ugofgoodi nsulators
 Withdr
awt hechargedrodandtestthetwospheresusi
nga
whichst opschar gesgi vent othecapf rom spreadi ng
negati
vel
ychargedr odfort
hepresenceandtypeofcharge
tothecaseandhencel eaki ngaway .
i
neachspher e.
 Thecapi sci r
culart oensur euni for
m di stri
buti
onof
chargeoni t.

 Eart
hing-Process ofl
osing charges t
o orgai
ning
char
ges f rom the ear
t h thr
ough a conduct
or.
Representedbythesymbol:

Chargi
ngaGol dLeafEl ect r
oscopebyCont act
 Anel ectroscopei schar gednegat i
velybybr i
ngi nga
Exer
cise chargedpol yt
henest ri
pupt ot heel ectroscopeand
rollitov ert he el ectroscope cap.The negat ivel
y
Whenachar gedrodishel
dcloset
oamet alsphereplacedon
charged pol ythene r od r epel st he negat ive char ge
aninsul
atedstand,t
hechar
gedist
ri
but
ionont hesphereisas
whichspr eadsont hepl ateandt hel eaf ,maki ngt hem
shownbelow.
repeleachot herhencel eafdi vergence.I fthepr ocess
i
sr epeated sev eralt i
mes t he leafdi vergence wi ll
keepsi ncr easingunt ilitreachest hemaxi mum poi nt.
This way t he el ect roscope i s sai dt o hav e been
chargedbycont act.
 The met alcap,l eafand r od wi l
lt her eforer emai n
diverged.
 I ndampweat her ,thispr ocessmaybedi fficult.Itis
(
a)Whatist hesignofchargeontherod? helpedi far azorbl adei scel l
ot apedont ot hecapso
(
b)Descri
beasi mpl emethodtocharget
herod. thatitproj ectsov ert heedge.Ther azoredgewi l
lt hen
(
c)Expl
ainwhyt hefarsideofthemet alspherehasa bef oundt ogat hert hechar gemor er eadilyt hant he
posi
tiv
echar ge. capal one.
(
d)Whathappenst ot hechar
gesont hemet alspher
e,i
f  To char ge an el ect r
oscope posi ti
v ely,a char ge
thechargedrodi smovedawayf r
om thesphere? cell
uloseacet atest ripisr ubbedal ongt heedgeoft he
TheGol
dLeafEl
ect
roscope cap.El ectronsar eaccept edf rom t hecapt ot hest ri
p
whichmeanst hatt hecapandl eafgai nanetposi ti
ve
charge.
 Thel eafther eforedi vergesagai n.

Chargi
ngaGol dLeafEl ectroscopePosi t
ivelybyInducti
on
 Toucht hecapoft heelectroscopewi thyourfingerto
ensurethati
tisf ull
ydischarged.
 Br i
ng a char ged r od (-)close tot he cap oft he
unchargedelect r
oscope.
 Whi letherodr emainsini t
sposi t
ion,touchthecap.
 Wi thdrawthef ingerandsubsequent lyremov etherod.

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Observati
ons
 Whent hechar gedrod( -)i
sbroughtcl
oset
othecap,
theleafri
ses.
 Whent hecapi stouchedwhi l
etherodisi
nposi
ti
on,
theleafdiv
ergencedecr eases.

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 Whent hef i
ngeri swi thdr awnandt het hent her od, thel eaf
div erges.
Explanat ion Charge on Char ge Ef
fectonleaf
Whent her odi sbr oughtcl oset ot hecap,el ect ronsar e el
ectroscope brought di
vergence
repel led t ot he pl ate and t he l eafmaki ng t he l eaft o near t he
div erge. cap
When t he cap i st ouched,el ect rons f l
ow t ot he ear th + + I
ncrease
thr ought hebody . - - I
ncrease
When t he ear th connect ion i s br oken byr emov ing t he + - Decrease
fingerandt her od,t heposi tivechar gesr edist ri
but esont o - + Decrease
thel eafandt hepl at e.Thel eafasar esul tdi vergesandt he +or- Uncharged Decrease
elect roscopebecomesposi tivelychar ged. body
UsesofEl ect roscope
1. Det ect ingt hepr esenceofchar geonabody
 Char gedbodi esbr oughtneart hecapwi l
lcauset he Char
gesi nAir
leaft or ise( diver ge) .Ift hel eafdoesn’ tdi v erget he Ai
rcanbechar gedby :
bodyi sunchar ged.  Heat ing
2. Measur ingt hei nsul atingpr oper tiesofanobj ect (
mat erial)  Radi ati
ons
 Char get heel ect roscopeandbr ingt heobj ectt ot het op Appl
icat
ionsofElectrost
ati
cCharges
oft heel ect roscopeandear tht heel ect roscope.The
 El ectr
ostat
icspreci
pit
ator
s
rat e atwhi ch t he l eaff al li st he measur e oft he
 Fi ngerpri
nting
conduct ingabi lit
yoft heobj ect .
 Spr aypainti
ng
3.Tomeasur ethequant ityofchar geonachar gedbody
 phot ocopying
 I fabodybei ngt est edhasl ittlechar geoni tt hel eafof
theel ect roscopewi lldiv ergeal ittleandi ft hebodyhas
DangerofElectrost
atics
muchchar geoni tt hel eafwi lldiv ergemor e.
 Rubbi ngliquidmol eculescanbechar ged.Ifthel i
quid
4.test ingt hesi gnofchar geonachar gedbody
isi nfl
ammabl e,i t can spark and expl ode.I ti s
 I fachar gedbodyi sbr oughtneart hecapofachar ged
advisabletost oref uelsinmet alcanssot hatany
el ect roscope,t hel eafoft heel ect r
oscopewi lldi verge
chargesgener atedcont inual
l
yleakout .Thi si st he
mor ei ft hebodyandt heel ect r oscopehav esi mi lar
reasonbehindt hepr esenceofloosechai nint ankers
char gesandt hel eafdi v er gencewi l
ldecr easei ft he
carryi
nginfl
ammabl eli
quids.
twohav edi fferentchar ges.
Testingf orchar ges
a) Char ge an el ect r oscope negat ively .Br ing a negat i
v ely Assi
gnment
char gedpol y thenest r
ipcl oset ot hecap.Not icet hatt he 1.A nyl
on dr
ess st
icks on the bodyand
l
eafdi v er gesf urther . cr
ackl
eswhenremoved.Expl
ain.
b) Br ingupaposi tivechar gecel l
ul oseacet at est r i
pcl oset o
thesamenegat ivel ychar gedel ect roscope.Not icet hatt his
2. You are given a positi
vel
y charged
timet hel eafcol lapses( decr easei ndi v ergence. )
c) Pl acey ourhand on anyunchar ged met alcl oset ot he el
ectr
oscope and a char
ged body.Explai
n
char gedel ect roscope.Not iceagai nt hatt hel eafcol lapses. howyouwi l
ldet
erminethety
peofthecharge
 Not et hatt her esul tsi nexper iment s(b)and( c)wer et he onthechargedbody.
samehencet hecol lapsi ngoft hel eafi snotev i
dencef or
thepr esenceofachar gedbody .We cant her efor e st at e 3.You ar e prov
ided wit
ht he f
oll
owi ng:
ther ulef ort est i
ngachar geasf ollows: pol
ythene r od,duster and a uncharged
1) I ft hel eafofchar geel ect roscopedi ver gesf ur therwhena el
ectroscope.Expl
ainhowy ouwi
l
lchargethe
bodybr oughtcl oset ot hecapt hent hatbodyi schar ged.
2) Thesi gnoft hechar geont hebodyi st hesameast haton
el
ectroscopenegati
vely
.
theel ect roscope.
 I ncr easei ndi vergencei st heonl ysur ewayoft est ingt he
signofchar geonabody .Not et hatchar gingbycont acti s
notasur ewaybuti nduct i
oni s.

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Chapt
erNi
ne CELLSANDS
IMPLECI
RCUI
TS
I
ntr
oduct
ion Not
es

 Elect r
icalenergyisusedforl
i
ghting,Heat i
ngandoperati
ng a) Aci rcuitthatall
owschar gest omov ei
nacompl ete
el
ect r
onicdev icessuch asT.V,comput ers,hi
gh speed pathwhent heswit
chi sclosedissai obeacl
dt osed
tr
ainset c.Thisener gyi
scarri
edt hroughconductor
sl i
ke cir
cuit.
wires.
b) A circuitthatdoesnotal low chargestomov eina
El
ectr
icCur rent compl etepat hsuchaci rcuitissaidtobeanopen
(brokencir cui
t)
.Openci r
cuitcanalsobeasar esul
tof
 Elect r
iccur r
entistherat
eoffl
owofchar ge(fl
owofcharge l
ooseconnect ionofwires.
perunitt i
me).SIuniti heamper
st e( A)
c) For cl ari
ty and neat ness, symbols are used in
 Fr om thedef i
niti
onabove, representinganelectr
icalcircui
t.

Cha
rge,
Q
Cur
rent
,I=
Ti
me,t

Q
I= ,Q=I
t
t

Exampl
e

Calcul
atet
heamountofcurr
entfl
owingthr
oughabul
bif360 Dev
ice Sy
mbol
coulombsofchar
gef
lowsthr
oughiti
n3.5minut
es.
Di
rect
i Ct
onofe
hl
lFl
e owofEl
ect
ri
cCur
rent
Sol
uti
on
 Conventi
onal
ly,
thef l
owofcurrenti
sfrom t
heposi
ti
ve
Q ter
minaBat
ltt
oer
y
the negati
veterminalofthe cel
l
.Itis
I=
t opposi
tetothedirect
ionoff
lowofelectr
ons.
360 Switch
I=  Thei
nstr
umentf ormeasuri
ngelect
ri
ccur
renti
scall
ed
3.
5x60 anammet erwhileelect
ri
ccurr
entfl
owiscontr
oll
edby
avar
iabl
er esi
stor.
=1.
714A
Bul
b/f
il
ament
Ty
pesofEl
ect
ri
cCur
rent l
amp
a) Di
rectcur
rent
(d.
c)–whi
chf
lowsi
nonedi
rect
iononl
y

b) Al
ter
nati
ngcurr
ent
(a.
c)–whi
chr
ever
sesdi
rect
ionwi
tha Wires crossi
ng
gi
venfr
equency wit
h no
connect
ion
Si
mpl
eEl
ect
ri
cCi
rcui
ts
Wi
res crossi
ng
 A simpl
e electri
c ci
rcui
tconsi
stofa cel
l
,a bul
b and
wi
thconnecti
on
connect
ingwires.

Fi
xedr
esi
stor

Pot
ent
ial
div
ider

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Thetablebel
ow shows Cel
l
sinPar
all
el
some ofthe elect
ri
cal
 Twoormor ecell
sareplacedsi
debyside,theposi
tiv
e
symbols used i n
termi
nalsjoinedtogetherandthenegati
vet er
minal
s
drawi
ngcir
cui
ts.Fuse alsoconnectedtoget
her.

Capaci
tor  Whencel
l
sarei
nparal
l
elarr
angementt
hei
re.
m.f
.is
t
hesameast
hee.
m.f
.ofonecel
l.

 Curr
enti s suppl
ied f
ora l
ongert
ime i
n par
all
el
connect
ionofcell
s.
Rheost
at

Ammet
er

Note:Cellsshoul
d shoul
d bearr
anged i
n par
all
elonly
whent heyhavethesamee. m.
fother
wiseonewilldr
ain
t
heot her.
Vol
tmet
er
Bul
bsi
nSer
iesandPar
all
elConnect
ion

Bubsi
nPar
all
el

Gal
vanomet
er  Eachbulbfunct
ionsindependent
ly.I
fonegoesof
f,
other
scont
inuel
ight
ing.

 Ther
e’sdecr
easedresi
stanceasthecurr
enthasmany
al
ter
nati
veloops(completepaths)t
hroughwhichto
El
ect
romot
iveFor
ce(
E.m.
f)andPot
ent
ialDi
ff
erence fl
ow.

 Elect
romoti
vefor
ce( E.
m.f
)refer
stovolt
ageacrossthe  Bul
bsinpar al
l
elhavethesamepot
ent
ialdi
ff
erence
termi
nalsofabatt
eryinanopencir
cui
t(whennocurr
ent butdi
ff
erentamount
s ofcur
rent
.
fl
owsi nt
hecir
cui
t)
.

 Potenti
aldif
fer
ence( Pd)r
efer
stothevolt
ageacrosst he
t
erminal
sofabat t
eryinaclosedci
rcui
t(whencurrentis
f
lowingintheci
rcui
t).

 Potent
ialdi
ff
erenceandE.m. far
emeasur
edinvolt
sbyan Bul
bsinSer
ies
i
nstrument caled v
l olt
met er.A vol
tmeter i
s alway
s
connectedi
nparall
el(
across).  Ifonebulbgoesof
f,ot
her
sal
sogoof
f.

 Thedif
fer
encebet
weenPotenti
aldif
fer
enceandE.m.
fis  Ther si
e’ ncreasedr esi
stancethusthebulbsmightnot
knownaslostv
olt
age e.
m.f=P.
d+los
t beasbr i
ghtast hoseinparall
elconnecti
on.
vol
tag
e
 Bul
bsi nser i
eshav ethesamecur rentbutdi
ffer
ent
los
tvol
tag
e=e .
m.f-
P.d potent
ialdi
ffer
ence.

 Thi
sv olt
agei
slostbecauseoftheopposit
iont
othef
low
ofchargeswi
thi
nthecel
l(i
nter
nalr
esi
stance)

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Connect
ingCel
l
sinSer
iesandPar
all
el

Cel
l
sinSer
ies

 Twoormor ecel
lsareconnect
edsucht hattheposit
ive
ter
minal
ofonei
sjoi
nedtothenegat
ivet
erminalofanot
her
one.
Not
e:Bul
bsinparal
lelar
rangementl
i
ghtbr
ight
ert
han
 Twoormor
ecel
l
sconnect
edi
nser
iesmakeabat
ter
y t
hoseinser
iesar
rangement.

Not
e:Connecti
ngcell
sinser
iesi
ncr
easest
hee.
m.fandcur
rent
i
ntheci
rcui
tishigher
.

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Example Not
e:
An elect
ri
cian i
nst
all
ed el
ect
ri
c wiri
ng in a house and
1) Mat er
ial
s whose el
ect
ricalpropert
ies fal
lbetween
connect
edthebul
bsandtheswit
chesasshowninthebel
ow.C
thoseofconductor
sandi nsul
ator
sar erefer
redtoas
semi conduct
- orse.
g.si
l
iconandger manium.

2) Somel i
quidssuchasdi lut
esulphur i
caci d,sodi
um
chl
ori
desol uti
onand potassi
um hy droxi
deconduct
el
ectr
ici
ty.Theyar
eref
erredtoaselectrol
ytes.

Sour
cesofEl
ect
ri
cit
y

 Mai
nsour
ces:

 Chemi calcel
ls
(a) Explai
nwhathappenswhenswi t
ch:
(i) S1isclosed.  Generators
OnlybulbB1willl
ight
;
(ii
) S2isclosed.  Solarcell
s
BulbB1 andB2 li
ghtsbutwithlessbr
ight
ness
 Ot
hersourcesinclude:
becauseofincreaseinr
esist
ance.
(ii
i
)S3isclosed.
 Thermocoupl es
BulbB1B2andB3wi llal
ll
ightbutwit
hmuchl essbr
ight
ness
compar edtoa(ii
)  Piezoelectri
city

(
b)(i
)Usingaredr
awndiagram showt
hebestposi
ti
ont
he ChemicalCel
ls
bulbsshoul
dbeinst
all
ed.
ThesearecellsthatproduceanE.m. fasar esul
tofa
chemicalr
eact
ions.Theyar
ecategor
izedint
otwo:

I
. Pr
imar
ycel
l
s

 Thesear
ecell
swhichcannotber
echar
gedf
oruse
agai
ne.
g.si
mplecel
l
.

Si
mpl
eCel
l

(i
i)Explai
nwhyy ouconsiderthearr
angementi n(b)(i
)
abov etobet hebest.
Whent hebulbsar econnect
edsucht hatt
heyareinparall
el,
the
ci
rcuitrésist
ance is si
gnif
icant
lyreduced;and hence mor e
curr
entf l
ow,t hebulbl i
ght
swi thequalbri
ghtnesssincet he
operat
ionv ol
tageisthesame;

Conduct
orsandI
nsul
ator
s
Def
ectsofasi mplecell
 Conduct orsaremat eri
alsthatall
owel ect
ri
ccurrenttofl
ow
throught hem e.
g.copper ,
silv
er,graphi
teandalumini
um.  Pol ar
izati
on – accumul at
ionofbubbl esar oundt he
copperpl at
e( posit
ive pl
ate)
.Thi s def
ectpr ov
ides
 Insulat
orsar emat eri
alsthatdonotal l
ow fl
ow ofelect
ric
i
nsulati
on tothef l
ow ofcur r
entand al so setsup
currentthroughthem e.g.plasti
c,paperandrubber.
some“ local
”cellswi t
hcopperwhoseel ect r
onf low
tendstoopposet heflow ofelect
ronsfrom t hezinc

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plat
e.Theov er
allef
fecti
sincr
easeint hei
nter
nal
resi
stance oft
he cel
l,whi
ch r
educes t
he f
low of
curr
ent.

 Localact
ion–thezincplateisdepl
eted(
eat
enaway
)
asitreactswithdil
utesulphuri
cacid.I
mpuri
ti
esi
n
zi
ncpromotelocal
action.

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Way
sofcor
rect
ingPol
ari
zat
iondef
ect
: TheDr
yCel
l

 Additi
onofpot assi
um dichromat
e( depolari
zer
).Oxy
gen
fr
om thedepolari
zercombineswit
hthehy drogenat
omsto
producewater
.

 Remov
ingcopperpl
ateandbr
ushi
ngof
fthegasbubbl
es.

Way
sofcor
rect
ingLocalact
iondef
ect
:

 Useofpur
ezi
nc.

 Coat
ingzi
ncwi
thmer
cur
y(amal
gamat
ion)
.

TheLecl
anche’
cel
l

Local
act
ionandPol
ari
zat
ionhav
ebeenmi
nimi
zedi
nthi
scel
l
.

 I
tisr
efer
r oasdr
edt ycel
lbecausei
thasnol
i
qui
d.

 Theammonium chl
ori
desoluti
onintheLecl
anche’
cel
l
i
srepl
acedwit
ht heammoni um chl
ori
dejel
l
yorpaste
whi
chisusedastheelect
rol
yte.

 Manganese(
IV)oxi
deandactast
hedepol
ari
zer
.

 carbon powderincreases t
he sur
face ar
ea oft
he
posit
iveel
ectr
ode(carbonRod)

 Thezinccaseact i
ngasthenegati
veelect
rodegets
depl
etedbyt heammonium chl
ori
deandchangest o
zi
ncchlor
ide.Local
act
ioni
sstil
ladef
ectint
hiscel
l
.

 Thecel
lcannotber
enewedoncethechemicalact
ion
st
ops.Anewdrycel
lhasane.
m.fofabout1.
5V.
 The car
bon rod (
posi
ti
veter
minal
)is sur
rounded wi
th
manganese(
IV)oxi
demixedwi
thcar
bonpowder. Car
efort
hedr
ycel
l

 Carbonpowderincreasestheef
fect
ivear
eaoft
hepl
ates  Lar
gecurr
entsshoul
dnotbedr
awnf
rom t
hedr
ycel
l
hencereducedr
esistance. wit
hinashor
tti
me.

 The manganese ( IV) oxi

de acts as a depol arzer  Thet
i er
minal
sshoul
dnotbeshor
ted.
(depol
ari
zat
ionissl
owthuslargecur
rentscannotbedr
awn
 Thecel
lsmustbest
oredi
ndrypl
aces.
outofthi
scellst
eadi
lyf
oralongtime).
Usesoft
hedr
ycel
l
s
 Local
act
ioni
sst
il
ladef
ecti
nthi
scel
l
.
 Dr
ycellsar
eusedint
orches,
cal
cul
ator
sandr
adi
os.
 Thecel li
susedf orpurposeswherecur
rentisnotdrawn
from itf ora verylong ti
me,li
ke operati
ng bel
l
s and
telephoneboxes.I
thasal ongerl
if
espant hanthesimpl
e
cell. I
I. Secondar
yCell
s:

 Thesear
erechar
geabl
ecel
l
s.

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 Theyarealsocaledst
l or
agecell
sastheycanst
ore
el
ectr
ical
energyaschemi
calener
gy.

 Examples arethe Lead-

acid accumul
atorand t
he
Nickel
-al
kal
ineaccumul
ator
.

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Lead–aci
daccumul
ator Mai
ntenanceoft
heAccumul
ator
s

 Consistofposi
ti
v eandnegati
veplat
eswhicharemadeof 1) The l evelof the electrol
yte shoul
d be checked
l
ead-anti
monyalloy. regularl
yandmai ntai
nedabov et heplates.Topping
shouldbedonebydi st
il
ledwater;NOTACI D!
 Theplatesaredi
ppedinsulphuri
caci
dsoluti
onwhichisan
el
ectrol
yte. 2) Theaccumul atorshouldbechargedwhent hee.m.fof
the celldrops below 1.8 V and when t he r
elat
ive
 Thecapshav esmal lventholeswhich al
low gasesto density oft he acidisf al
ls below 1.12 (usi
ng a
escape(02andH2) hydromet er
).

 I
fthedensi
tyoftheaci
dbecomest
ool
owt
heaccumul
ator 3) Largecurr
entsshoul
dnotbedr
awnf
rom t
hebat
ter
y
i
ssaidtobedischar
ged. foralongti
me.

 I
tischar
gedbyconnect
ingad.
csour
ceasshownbel
ow. 4) Shouldnotbelefti
nadischargedcondit
ionforalong
peri
odassul phati
onmayt akeplace.(thelead(II
)
sul
phatedeposit
sontheplateshardenupandcannot
beconvert
edbacktolead(I
I)oxideandlead.
)

5) Shor
ting/ov
erchar
gingoft
heaccumul
atorshoul
dbe
avoi
ded.

6) The terminal
s shoul
d al
way
s be keptcl
ean and
greased.

7) Theaccumulat
orshoul
dnotbedi r
ect
lyplacedont
he
groundduri
ngstor
age.Itshoul
dber est
edonsome
i
nsulat
orl
ikeawoodenblock.
 Thi si
st hemostrel
iable,l
onglasti
ngandcost
-ef
fect
iveof
thesecondar
ycell
s.A12Vl ead-aci
daccumul
atorhassix Al
kal
ineAccumulator
s:
cel
lsconnect
edinseries.
 The elect
rol
yteinthiscaseisan al
kal
i
nesol
uti
on,
Capaci
tyofanAccumulator suchaspotassi
um hydr
oxi
de.

 Thisi
stheamountofcur
rentt
hatcanbedr
awni
nagi
ven  Thecommont y
pesar
eni
ckel
-cadmi
um andni
ckel
-
ti
mefrom t
hebat
ter
y. i
ronaccumul
ators.

 I
tisexpr
essedi
namper
e-hour
s(Ah)
.

Exampl
es

1. Abatt
eryi
srat
ed120AH.Howl
ongwi
l
litwor
kifi
tst
eadi
l
y
suppl
i
esacurr
entof4A?

c
apa
cit
y=c
urr
enti
nampe
res
×ti
mei
nhour
s

120AH=4A×t
ime Advant
agesofAl
kal
i
neAccumul
ator
sov
erLead– Aci
d
Accumulat
ors
120AH
t
ime= =30hour
s 1. Lar
gecurr
entscanbedr
awnf
rom t
hem ov
erashor
t
4A
per
iodoft
ime.
2.Thecurr
entcapaci
tyofanaccumulat
oris40Ah.Fi
ndthe
amountofcur
rentfl
owingi
ftheaccumul
atori
susedfor600 2. Theyr
equi
rev
eryl
i
ttl
eat
tent
iont
omai
ntai
n.
minut
es.

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c
apa
cit
y=c
urr
enti
nampe
res
×ti
mei
nhour
s 3. Theyareli
ghter(
mor
epor
tabl
e)t
hant
heLead–aci
d
accumulat
ors.
600
40AH=I×
60 4. Theycanbekeptinadischar
gedcondi
ti
onf
orav
ery
l
ongti
mebeforethecel
l
sar er
uined.
40AH
I= =4A
10H

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Di
sadv
ant
ages 1. Youareprov i
dedwithacarbat ter
y,aswit
chandtwo
headl
ight
sofacar .Draw apossibleci
rcui
tdiagr
am
1. Theyar
ever
yexpensi
ve. fort
hearrangementthatwillal
l
owt hedri
vert
oswitch
onthetwolightssi
multaneousl
y.
2. Theyhav
eal
owere.
m.fpercel
l
.
2. (a)Draw awel
l-
label
led di
agr
am ofadr
ycel
land
UsesofAccumul
ator
s expl
ainhowi
tworks.
Theyareusedinships,hospi
tal
sandbuil
dingswher
elar
ge (b)Whataret
hedef
ect
sandt
her
emedi
esi
nthe
cur
rent
smightbeneededforemergency
. wor
kingofadr
ycel
l
?
Di
ff
erencesbet
weenpr
imar
yandsecondar
ycel
l
s (
c)Howar
edr
ycel
l
smai
ntai
ned?
Pr
imar
ycel
l
s Secondar
ycel
l
s 3. Ei
ghtdrycel
lscanbear r
angedtopr
oduceat
otal
e.
m.fof12V,
justl
i
keacarbat
ter
y.
Cannotber
echar
gedaf
ter Ar
erechar
geabl
e
use a. Whati
se.
m.fofani
ndi
vi
dualcel
l
?

Smal
l cur
rent can be Largecurr
entcanbedr
awn b. Whyisitpossibl
etostar
tthecarwit
hthelead-
aci
d
dr
awnfr
om them fr
om them accumulat
or,butnotwit
heightdr
ycell
sinseri
es?

4. (a)Dr
awtwoseparat
ediagr
amsshowi
ng al
ead-
aci
d
accumul
atorwheni
tis:
Rev
isi
onExer
cise a) Char
ging

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9. In terms of el ectr
ons, di
sti
ngui
sh between good b) Di
schar
ging.
conductor
s,poorconduct
orsofel
ect
ri
cit
yandinsul
ator
s.
(b)Descri
bethechangest
hatcanobser
veddur
ingt
het
wo
10.(
a)Def
inecur
rentandst
atei
tsSIuni
t. processesabove.

(b)(
i)Achar geof180coul ombsf l
ow throughal amp ( c)Whyi sitdanger oustolightacigarettenearachar ging
everyminute.Cal culat
ethecur r
entfl
owi ngthroughthe carbat tery?
l
amp.
5. (a)Whatdoy ouunder standbyt heterm capacityofa
(i
i)Calculatet he numberofel ectrons involv
ed l
ead -
aci
da ccu mu l
ator
?
(chargeofelectroni 6x10-19C)
s1.
(b)Whyi sitef f
ect i
v etochar geacarbat t
eryov eral ong
11.Abat terycir
culateschar geroundaci r
cuitfor1.5mi nutes. ti
mewi thav erysmal lcurrentratherthanabi gcur rent
I
ft hecur r
enti shel d at2. 5A,whatquant i
tyofchar ge wi thi
nashor tt i
me?
passest hewi r
e?
(c)Acarbat teryisr ated40Ahandi tisexpectedt osupply
12.Defineelectromot i
vef orceanddisti
ngui
shi tfrom potental aconst
i antcur rentf or120mi nut
es.Whati st hestrength
di
fferenceofacel l
. ofcurrentdelivered?

13.(
a)Dr
awaci
rcui
tdi
agr
am oft
hree-
cel
ltor
ch. 6. St
ateatleastfi
veprecaut
ionsthatyouwoul
dtaket
o
maint
ainaccumulat
orsinyourl
aborator
y.
(
b)Whatdoy
ouunder
standby
?
7. Stat
etheadv antageanddisadv
antageoflead-
aci
d
(
i)Openci
rcui
t? accumul
ator
sov ertheal
kal
i
neaccumulat
ors.
(
ii
)Cl
osedci
rcui
t? 8. Thef
igur
ebel
owshowst
hesetupf
orasi
mpl
ecel
l
.
14.Expl
ainwhyl
i
ght
sinahousear
ewi
redi
npar
all
elandnoti
n
seri
es.

15.(a)Giv
ethr
eedi
ff
erencesbet
weenpr
imar
yandsecondar
y
cell
s.

(b)I
nmaki
ngasimpl
ecell
,thetwoel
ect
rodesusedar
e
notoft
hesameki
nd.Expl
ain.

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a)Namet
heEl
ect
rodeAandt
hesol
uti
onB

b)St
atet
wor
easonswhyt
hebul
bgoesof
faf
terashor
tti
me

16.Stateoneadv antageofalead-
acidaccumulat
orov
eradry
cell
17.Stateonedefectofasi mplecel
landexplai
nhowitcanbe
corr
ected.
18.Thediagram belowshowsasi mplecel
l:
-

a. Namezandsol
uti
ony

b. Nameandexpl
aint
hedef
ectt
hatoccur
satpl
atez

c. Give one met

hod ofpr ev
ent
ing t
he def
ectt
hat
occur
satthecopperpl
ate

19.Expl
ainwhyeight1.
5Vcell
sarrangedinser
iestogivea
tot
alof12Vcannotbeusedtostartacar
.Butcarbat
ter
y
of12Vstar
tsacar

20.Define the t
erm toppi
ng as used i
n simpl
e cel
l
s and
cir
cuit
s.
21.I)A gi r
lopened up aused up drycelland f
ound t
he
fol
lowing:
a. Thezinccasi
ngwasdepleted

b. Thecel
lwaswat
ery

I
I)Namet
hecel
ldef
ect

I
II
)Threeident
icalbulbsareconnect
edinser i
eswit
habat t
ery
ofdrycells.Atf i
rstthebulbsshinebr ightl
ybutgradual
ly
becomedimmer .Usingthesamecells,explai
nhowy ouwould
i
ncreaset
hebrill
i
anceoft hebul
bs

22.A carbat t
eryrequires t
opping up wi
th di
sti
ll
ed wat
er
occasionall
y.Explain whythisis necessar yand why
dist
il
ledwat eri
sused
23.Stat
eoneadv antageof:
a. Alead-aci
daccumul ati
veoveradrycel
l

b. Adr
ycel
lov
erl
ead-
aci
daccumul
ator

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Chapt
erTen RECTI
LINEARPROPAGATI
ONOFLI
GHT
AND
REFLECTI
ONATPLANES
URFACES
I
ntr
oduct
ion  Makeasmal lholeineachoft hethr eecardboards
ensuri
ngt hatall
theholesareatt hesamehei ght
.
 Opt icsisabr anchofphy sicswhi chstudiest
hebehaviour  Thelampsposi t
ionedinsuchawayt hatarayofli
ght
ofli
ghtasi ttr
aversesvariousmedi a. passest hr
oughal lt
heholes.
 Opt ical instr
ument s such as camer as,mi cr
oscopes,  Whent hecar dboardisdispl
acedbymov i
ngitsli
ghtl
y
peri
scopesandl awsgov erni ngtheirworki
ngfor
m amaj or totheonesi de,theey ewillnotseet helamp.This
partofthisbranchofphy sics. showst hatli
ghttravel
sinast r
aightl
ine.
 Lighti saf or
m ofener gy .Li ghtregul
atesyourdai
lylif
e.
Youneedl i
ghttoseet hesi ze,shapeandcolourofthi
ngs RaysofLightandBeam ofLi ght
aroundy ou.  Ar ay is a nar row stream ofl i
ghtofnegl i
gibl
e
thi
cknesswhi leabeam ofl i
ghti sacol l
ect
ionofrays
Sour
cesofLi ght ofli
ght.

 Therear etwo: l
umi nous( incandescent)andnon- l
umi nous
 Lumi nousobjectsar et hosewhi chpr oducetheirownl ight Ty
pesofbeams
e.g.sun,candles,el
ect ri
clamps, glowingwor mset c.  A beam inwhichraysar
epar
all
elt
oeachot
heri
s
 Non-luminousobj ectsar et hosewhi chdon’tgiv
et hei
rown edpar
cal
l all
elbeam.
l
ightbutr efl
ectlightt hatcomesf r om aluminousobj ect.
Thesear eobjects.Exampl esar e:t
hemoon, paper,youet c.
 Youcanseeanobj ectclear l
yiflightfrom itentersy our
eyes.

Tr
anspar ent,
TranslucentandOpaqueObj ects
 Tr ansparentobj ect saret hosewhichal low l
i
ghttopass
throught hem e. g.agl asswi ndow,clearwat er
,t heair  Abeam i
nwhi cht
heray
sconv
ergeatapoi
nti
scal
l
ed
aroundy ou.Al lt hesesubst ancesletlightpasst hrough aconv
ergentbeam.
them.
 Opaqueobj ectsar ethosewhi chcannotallowli
ghttopass
throughthem e. g.wool ,steel,Br
ick.
 Tr anslucentbodi esar et hosewhi chletli
ghtpasst hrough
them, butscatterinal ldirecti
onse.g.lampshades,frosted
glass,somepl asticet c.

Rect
ili
nearPropagat
ionofLi ght
 Thi sisthepropert yoflighttotrav
elinast rai
ghtli
neina
medium ofhomogeneouspr opagat
iondensity.
 Li ghtdoesnott ravelar oundcorner
s.Thef ormati
onof
 Abeam i
nwhicht
her
aysspr
eadsoutf
rom apoi
nti
sa
shadowsshowst hatl i
ghtt rav
elsinast r
aightli
ne.When
anopaquebodyi spl acedi nabeam oflight,ashadow i
s
di
ver
gentbeam
formed.
Demonstrati
ngRecti
linearPr opagati
onofLight

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ThePi
nhol
eCamer
a

 Api n-holecamer ai smadeusi ngasmal lrectangul

arbox
withapi nhol eatoneend,al argerectangularholeatone
end,al argerectangularholeattheotherend.
 Ther ectangularholeatt hebacki scov eredwithascr een
ofspeci alpaperl i
kegr easeproofpaperwhi chlet
ssome
l
ightpasst hroughi t(i
.e.i
tistr
anslucent). ho=objecthei
ght
hi=i
magehei ght
Adv
antage u=objectdist
ance
 I ti
sabl etof ormf ocusedi magesont hef i
lm ofobjects v=imagedi st
ancefr
om pi
nhole
bothnearandf arfrom thecamer a. Giventhatmagnifi
cati
oni
sm, then
hi v hi v
I
mageFor mat i
onbyaPi nholeCamer a m = or m= andso =
ho u ho u

Examples
1. A pinholecamer aofl ength15cm f or
msani mage
3cm highofamanst anding9m i nfr
ontofthecamera
whatistheheightoft heman?
hi v
=
ho u
0.03m 0. 15m
=
ho 9m
0.03m×9m
ho= =1.8m
TheLength(Size)OfImage 0.15m
 Thel engthoft hei
magef or
meddependson: 2. LampAofhei ght6cm st andsinf r
ontofapi nhol
e
a) Thedi stanceoftheobjectfrom thepi nhole camer aatadistanceof24cm.Thecamer ascreenis
b) Thel engthofthecamer abox 8cm from the pinho l
e .Wh atis t
he hei
ghto fthe
i
mage?
MAGNI FI
CATI ON hi v
=
 Thi sisther ati
ooftheimagesi zetot heobjectsizeort
he ho u
rat
ioofthei magedistancetotheobj ectdi st
ance. hi 0.08m
Ima g
es ize =
Magni
fica
tion= 0.06 m 0.24m
objectsize 0.08m
hi= ×0.06m
0.24m
imagedistanc
e hi=2m
Ma gnif
ica
tion=
obje
ctdistanc
e

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Exer
cise ShadowFor
medbyaPoi
ntSour
ce
1. Ani mage100mm l ongofaman2m t allispinnedont opof
a pin-
hole camera.The distance ofpi n holef rom the
screenifthemanisstanding6cm from thepi nhol
e.
2. Anobject1m tallf
ormsani mage5cm t allf
rom thescreen
ofapi nholecamera.Findthedistanceoft heobj ectfr
om
thepinholeoftheobjectifthelengthoft hecamer aboxis
40cm.

Eff
ectont heI mageFor medbyt hePinholeCamer aOn:
(a) Manypi nholes
 Eachpi nholewillformi t
simager esul
ti
ngi ntobri
ghterbut  Apoi ntsourceoflightisonewhi chissmal lenough
blurredi mage. forallther aysofl i
ghttocomeef fecti
vel
yf rom a
(b)Lar gepinhole singlepoint
.
 Al argehol eisequi v
alenttoseveralhol
esandwi l
lproduce  Theshadowi sunif
orml yandtot
allydarkalloverand
brighterbutbl ur
redimage. isc al
ledu mbra.Th eu mbrel
lash apee dgeso nthe
 Howev er,ashar pi magecanbepr oducedwher eawi de sh adows hows t
hat l
ightt
ravel
s ona str
aightli
ne.
holeorsev eralholeshav ebeenusedbysi mpl
ypl aci
nga
conv erginglensi nfrontofthemanyhol esandi ncontact ShadowsFor medbyanExt endedSour ceofLight.
witht hebox.Theconv exlensbringsallraysfrom apoint
onobj ectt ouniquepoi ntonthescreen.

Thepi n-holecamer acanbemodi fi

edasf ollowsi nor dert o
takephot ogr aphs:
 Shoul d be pai nted bl ack on t he inside t o eli
mi nate
reflectionofl ight .
 Tr ansl ucentscr eent ober eplacedbyl i
ght -
tightlidwi th
phot ogr aphicf il
mf i
ttedont hei nside.
 Shoul dbecov eredwi t
hat hinbl ackcardwhi chact sasa
shut ter.  Anext endedsour ceofl i
ghtisl ar
geenoughf orrays
Theexposur et imeofapi n-holecamer adependson: tobeseent ocomef r
om manypoi nts.
 Si zeoft hepi n-hole  Theshadow i sl argerandhasacent r
aldarkregion
 Li ght i
ngcondi tions ca l
led umb ra surroundedar ingo fp ar
ti
alshado w
 Sensi ti
v i
tyoft hef i
lm ca l
led pen umb ra.
 Lengt hoft hecamer a
Appli
cat i
onofext endedl i
ghtsour ces
Advant ageoft hePi nhol eCamer aov ertheLensCamer a a) La mp shadesa reu sedat h omet opr ovi
deamor e
 The pi nhol e camer ai s preferred tot he l ens camer a p l
ea sant ki
n do fli
ghtni
ng.
becausei tdoesnotpr oducedi storti
on. b) Fluor escentt ubes are usual ly surr
ounded by a
Thedi sadv ant agesofusi ngapi nhol ecamer a: frosteddi ffuset oscatterthel i
ght&r educeshadow
a) I tt akesal ongt imef ori maget obef or medsi ncet he shar pness.
amountofl i
ghtpassi ngt hr
ought heholeissmal l.
b) I tcannotbeusedt ot akephot ogr aphsofmov ingobj ects. Eclipses
Anecl i
psei sthet otalorpartialdisappearanceofsun
Shadows raysas se enfrom the ear
th.
 Ashadowi sashadecastbyanobj ectblockingdi r
ectr ays
ofl ight.Thef ormat ionofshadowsdependsont hef act TheSol arEclipseorEcl i
pseoftheSun
thatl i
ghtt ravelsi nast raightli
ne
Thesi zeoft heshadowf ormeddependson:
a) Si zeofsour cesofl i
ght .
b) Si zeofopaqueobj ect.
c) Di st ancebet weent heobj ectandsour ceofl i
ght.

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 Ther ayfr
om t hesourceAOi scall
edthei nci
dentr
ay.
 Thesolarecl
ipseoccur
swhent
hemooncomesbet
ween Ther aythatbouncesof ffrom theMirrorOi scal
led
thesunandtheeart
h therefl
ectedray.ONist henor mal.
 Theangl ebet ween incidentr ayand thenor malis
TheAnnul
arEcl
i
pseoft
heSun caledAngl
l eofi nci
dentangl e,Ibetweent henormal
andtheRef l
ectedrayiscalledangleofrefl
ecti
on.

TheLawsofRef lecti
on
1. The angl e ofi ncidence i
s equaltothe angl
e of
ref
lection.
2. Thei ncidentray,normalandrefl
ect
edrayatthepoi
nt
ofincidenceal l
li
eont hesameplane.

 Itoccurswhent hedi
stanceofsepar
ati
onbetweenthe TypesofReflect
ion
eart
handt hemoonisgreat
.Theumbraofthemoondoes a) Regul
a rorSpecularRefl
ecti
on
nottot
all
ycovert
hesunedgeofthedar
kdi hemoon. I
skoft toccurswhenpar alleli
ncidentraysareref
lect
edpar
all
el
toeachotherwhenr efl
ect
ingsurfaceissmooth.

LunarEcl
i
pseorEcl
i
pseoft
heMoon

b) Ir
regul
arorDi
ff
useRef
lect
ion
Paral
l
elinci
dentr
aysarerefl
ect
edi
ndi
ff
erentdi
rect
ions
for

 Theecl ipseoft hemoonoccur swhent heear thcomes

betweent hesunandt hemoon.
 Whent hel unarecl i
pseoccurs,itlastslonger(about1hr)
thanthesol areclipsebecauset hemooni smuchsmal l
er
thantheear t
h.
 Dur i
ngat otallunarecl i
psesomel ightreachest hemoon
duetor efractionbyt heeart
h’satmospher e&makei tlook
acopper ycol our. I
mageFormationbyaPlaneMi rr
or.
 Thei mageofan obj ectseen in a planemi r
roris
REFLECTIONBYPLANEMI RRORS. for
medbyr ay
sofl
ighttrav
elli
nginst
raightl
ineswhich
 Whenar ayofl ightmeet saplanemi rr
oritisrefl
ecti
on. areref
lect
edaccor
dingtot helawsofrefl
ect
ion.
 Anor dinarymi rr
ori smadebydeposi t
ingat hinlayerof
metal,oftensi l
verpai ntatt
hebackoft hegl asswhichacts
asther efl
ect i
ngsur face.

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Exer
cise

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From theabov ediagram onecanseet hatt heimagef ormedin 1. Fi

ndt henumberofi
magesf
ormedwhenmi
rr
orsar
e
aplanemi rr
orisalway s: i
nclnedat20o
i
a)Erect(Upri
ght)
b)Asf arbehindthemi rr
orasobjecti
sinf rontofit. 2. Findtheangl
ebet
weent
womi
rr
orsi
f35i
magesar
e
c)Virt
ual. formed
Av i
rt
ualimagei sone:
 whi chcannotberecei
v edont hescreen 3. Atwhatanglewouldtwomir
rorsbeincl
i
nedi
fthe
 whi chisformedbyt hei ntersecti
onofv ir
tual numberofi
magesfor
medar
e(i)17 (i
i
)29?
rays. Rot
ati
onofaMi
rr
or
c)Lateral
lyi
nv er
tedi.e.l
eftappear
sont her ight&viceversa
d)Thesamesi zeast heobject
.  When a mi
rr
orisr ot
ated t
hrough an angl
eθt
he
r
efl
ect
edrayt
urnst
hrough2θ.
I
mageFor
mat
ioni
nPar
all
eli
nMi
rr
ors
 Hence,t
her ef
lect
edrayalway
st ur
nsthrought
wice
t
heanglethr
oughwhichthemir
rori
srot
ated.

Exer
cise

1. Ami r
rori
srotat
edthr eof15o t
oughanangl hrough
whatangl
edoesther
eflect
edr
ayt
urn?

2. A mir
rorisrotatedt
hroughacertai
nangleandt
he
r
efl
ectedrayturnedt ough40o whatangl
hr ehadt
he
mir
rorbeentur
ned?

3. Ani nci
dentr aymakesanangl eof25owit
hthenormal.
 Whenanobj ectisplacedbet weentwoparallelmi rr
orsas
I
ft hemi rroristurnedt hrough9ointheant
icl
ockwi
se
shownabov eaninf
init
enumberofi magesar efor med.
dir
ect i
onf rom thehor izontal
,thr
oughwhatangleis
 Eachi mageseeni nonemi r
roractsasav i
rt
ualobj ect
ther ef
lectedrayrotated?
whichintur
nformsani magei ntheothermir
ror.
 The image becomes f aint
er because l
i
ghtener gy is Appl
icationofPl aneMi r
rors
absorbedbythemirrorateachsuccessiver
eflection.
 Thenumberofi magesf ormedbyt womi r
rorsi ncli
nedat ( a)ThePer i
scope
anangleisgiv
enbyt heformula.
360
n= –1
ϴ

 Aperi
scopeconsi
stsofapl
anemirr
orspar
all
elt
oone
anot
herandi
ncli eof45ot
nedatangl othehori
zontal
.

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 Theyar
eusedt
ohel
poneseeov
eranobst
acl
e.

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 Per
iscopesin submar
inesusepr
ismsi
nst
ead ofpl
ane b) Thel
engt
hoft
hecamer
aismadel
onger
.
mir
rorsbecause.
c) Thesingl
ehol
eisr
epl
acedbyf
ourpi
nhol
escl
ose
1. Thesi
l
verpar
toft
hemi
rr
oreasi
l
yget
sdamaged toget
her.

2. Thi
ckmi
rr
orspr
oducemul
ti
pler
efr
act
ions 5. Def
inet
het
ermr
efl
ect
ionofl
i
ght
.

3. Ther
eisnol
ater
ali
nver
sionwi
thpr
isms. 6. St
atet
heLawsofr
efl
ect
ionofl
i
ght
.

7. Themi r
rorAB andCD ar
eatr
ightangl
est
oeach
other
.
(
b)Useofpl
anemi
rr
orsi
ninst
rumentscal
es

 Pl
ane mir
ror
s are of
ten used behi
nd poi
nter
s as
i
nstr
ument
stoimpr
ovet
hereadi
ngaccur
acy
.

 Whenthepointeri
sviewedatanangl
eit
simagewi
l
lbe
seent
hroughthepl
anemirr
or.

 Theimageseenwi l
lenabl
ethereadertoknowt hatr
eading
bei
ngt akenwil
lhaveaner r
orduet oparal
lax.Thereader
wil
ltherefor
eposi
ti
ont heeyevert
ical
l
ysot hattheimage
ofthepointeri
snotseenandhenceacor r
ectreadi
ngwi l
l
betaken. a) Whatisthev al
ueoft
heangleofi
nci
denceof
therayPQont hemir
rorAB?
 Thesportsgal
vanomet
erusesar
ayofl
i
ghtasapoi
nter b) Compl et
et he di
agr
am to show the pat
h
i
nstead. takenbyt herayPQafterr
efl
ect
ionatboth
mirror
s.
(
c)Thekal
eidoscope
c) Det
ermi
ne:
 I
tappl
i
est
hepr
inci
pleofmi
rr
orsi
ncl
i
nedatanangl
e.
I
. Angl
eofr
efl
ect
iononAB.
 Itconsi
stsoftwomirrorsM1 andM2 pl
acedt
oeachot
her
at600toeachotheri
nsideat
ube. I
I. Angl
einci
denceonCD.

 Theinst
rumentisusedbydesi
gner
stoobt
aini
deason I
II
. Angl
eofr
efl
ect
iononCD.
syst
emati
cpatt
erns.
8. I
fagi r
lwalksawayf
rom apl
anemi
rr
orataspeedof
Rev
isi
onExer
cise 2m persecond,

1. (a)Sallywentt oMar ysalontohav eherhai rdressed.The I. I nwhatdi

recti
ondoesherimagemove?
salonhadt wopar al
l
elmi rr
orsplacedont hewal l
swhi ch
are3met ersapart
.Whi l
ewai t
ingtobeattendedt o, shesat
atadi stanceof1met erfr
om oneoft hewal lsandnot iced I
I. Wi thwhatspeeddoesheri
magemov e?
thattherewer emul t
ipleofheri neachmi r r
or.Det ermine
9. Thefigur
ebelowshowsmi rr
orsABandCDi ncl
i
nedat
thedistancebet weent het wonear esti
magesf ormedi n
ri
ghtangles.A r
ayPO makesanangl eof30o wit
h
thetwomi rr
ors.
mirr
orABhasasshown.
(b)Twoplanemir
rorsar
eplacedatanangleof600asshown
0
below.Ar
ayofli
ghtmakesanangleof40 wit
hmi rr
orm1and
goestost
r i
kemi
rrorM2.Fi
ndtheangl
eofr ef
lect
ionofMi
rror
M2

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2. Whati
srect
il
inearpr
opagat
ionofl
i
ght
?
(
i) Showthepat
hoft her
ayaft
erref
lecti
onf
rom
3. Drawar aydi
agr
am t
oshowhowapi
nhol
ecamer
afor
ms bothmi
rr
ors.
animage. (
ii
) Whatistheangl
eofinci
denceont hemir
ror
CD?
4. St
atet he changes t
hatwoul
d occuri
nthe si
ze and
br
ight
nessoft hei
magefor
medif

a) Theobj
ectdi
stancei
smadel
arge.

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