AE.1 Lecture 2

Lecture-2
The pn Junction
Nebiyu Tenaye
Addis Ababa University

Addis Ababa Institute of Technology
School of Electrical and Computer Engineering
Applied Electronics I
ECEG-2131
October 8, 2024
Nebiyu Tenaye (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 October 8, 2024 1 / 26
Overview
Overview
1 Overview
2 Objective
3 The pn Junction
Physical Structure
Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals
The Drift Current IS and Equilibrium
The Depletion Region
Operation with an Applied Voltage
Qualitative Description of Junction Operation
The Current-Voltage Relationship of the Junction

Objective
Lecture Objectives
In this lecture you will learn the following:

The structure and operation of the pn junction
A basic semiconductor structure that implements the diode and
plays a dominant role in semiconductors.

The pn Junction Physical Structure
The pn Junction
Physical Structure
The pn junction structure comprises

p-type semiconductor
n-type semiconductor
metal contact for connection
Figure 1: Simplified physical structure of the pn junction. As the pn junction implements

the junction diode, its terminals are labeled anode and cathode.

The pn Junction Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals
Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals
The state of pn junction with open-circuit terminals is

p-type material contains majority of holes
these holes are neutralized by equal amount of bound negative
charge.
n-type material contains majority of free electrons
these electrons are neutralized by equal amount of bound positive
charge
bound charge
is charge of opposite polarity to free electrons/holes of a given
material
neutralizes the electrical charge of these majority carriers
does not affect concentration gradients

When a pn-junction is newly formed (when the p-type and n-type semi-
conductors first touch one another):
1. The p-type and n-type semiconductors are joined at the junction.
Figure 2: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

2. Bound charges are attracted (from environment) by free electrons

and holes in the p-type and n-type semiconductors, respectively.
They remain weakly “bound” to these majority carriers; however,
they do not recombine.
3. Diffusion begins. Those free electrons and holes which are closest
to the junction will recombine and, essentially, eliminate one
another.

4. The depletion region begins to form: as diffusion occurs and free

electrons recombine with holes.

When bound charges neutralize the electrical attraction of majority carriers to one
another, diffusion occurs.
5. The “uncovered” bound charges effect a voltage differential across

the depletion region. The magnitude of this barrier voltage (V0 )
differential grows, as diffusion continues.
Figure 5: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals) and

the potential distribution along an axis perpendicular to the junction.

6. The barrier voltage (V0 ) is an electric field whose polarity opposes

the direction of diffusion current (ID ). As the magnitude of V0
increases, the magnitude of ID decreases.

7. Equilibrium is reached, and diffusion ceases, once the magnitudes

of diffusion and drift currents equal one another – resulting in no
net flow.

pn-junction built-in voltage (V0 ): is the equilibrium value of

barrier voltage. And it is defined as,

NA ND
V0 = VT ln (1)
n2i
Where;
V0 =barrier potential
VT =thermal voltage
NA =acceptor doping concentration
ND =donor doping concentration
ni =concentration of free electrons in intrinsic semi-
conductors
Generally, it takes on a value between 0.6 and 0.9V for silicon at
room temperature.
This voltage is applied across depletion region, not terminals of pn
junction.
Power cannot be drawn from V0 .
The Drift Current IS and Equilibrium
In addition to majority-carrier diffusion current (ID ), a component

of current due to minority carrier drift exists (IS ).
Specifically, some of the thermally generated holes in the p-type
and n-type materials move toward and reach the edge of the
depletion region.
There, they experience the electric field (V0 ) in the depletion
region and are swept across it.
Unlike diffusion current, the polarity of V0 reinforces this drift
current.
Because these holes and free electrons are produced by thermal
energy, IS is heavily dependent on temperature.
Any depletion-layer voltage, regardless of how small, will cause the
transition across junction. Therefore, IS is independent of V0 .

Drift current (IS ): is the movement of these minority carriers.

electrons from p-side to n-side of the junction.
Note that the magnitude of drift current (IS ) is unaffected by level

of diffusion and/or V0 . It will be, however, affected by
temperature.

The Depletion Region

The depletion region is not always symmetrical.
Because, NA > ND a typical situation in practice..
And, because concentration of doping agents (NA , ND ) are unequal,
the width of depletion region will differ from side to side.
The depletion region will extend deeper in to the “less doped”
material, a requirement to uncover the same amount of charge.

Figure 10: The charge stored in both sides of the depletion region, and
the built-in voltage V0 .

The pn Junction Operation with an Applied Voltage
Operation with an Applied Voltage

The figure below shows pn-junction under three conditions:
(a) Open-circuit: where a barrier voltage V0 exists.
(b) Reverse bias: where a dc voltage VR is applied.
(c) Forward bias: where a dc voltage VF is applied.
Figure 11: The pn-junction with an applied voltage.

The pn Junction Operation with an Applied Voltage
Qualitative Description of Junction Operation

reverse bias case forward bias case
the externally applied voltage the externally applied voltage
VR adds to (reinforces) the VF subtracts from the barrier
barrier voltage V0 voltage V0
increases effective barrier decreases effective barrier
this reduces rate of diffusion, this increases rate of diffusion,
reducing ID increasing ID
if VR > 1V , ID will fall to 0A
the drift current IS is the drift current IS is
unaffected, but dependent on unaffected, but dependent on
temperature. temperature.
increased barrier voltage will decreased barrier voltage will
be accompanied by be accompanied by
increase in stored uncovered decrease in stored uncovered
charge on both sides of charge on both sides of
junction junction
wider depletion region smaller depletion region
The pn Junction The Current-Voltage Relationship of the Junction
The Current-Voltage Relationship of the Junction

When a forward-bias voltage (VF ) is applied to the pn-junction:
1. Initially, a small forward-bias voltage (VF ) is applied. It, because
of its polarity, pushes majority carriers (holes in p-region and
electrons in n-region) toward the junction and reduces width of
the depletion zone.
Note, however, that this force is opposed by the built-in voltage
(V0 ).

2. As the magnitude of VF increases, the depletion zone becomes thin

enough such that the barrier voltage (V0 - VF ) cannot stop
diffusion current – as described in previous slides.
Note that removing barrier voltage does not facilitate diffusion, it
only removes the electromotive force which opposes it.

3. Majority carriers (free electrons in n-region and holes in p-region)

cross the junction and become minority charge carriers in the
near-neutral region.

4. The concentration of minority charge carriers increases on either

side of the junction. A steady-state gradient is reached as rate of
majority carriers crossing the junction equals that of
recombination.
Note: For the open-circuit condition, minority carriers are evenly
distributed throughout the non-depletion regions. This
concentration is defined as either np0 or pn0 .

5. Diffusion current is maintained - in spite of low diffusion lengths

(e.g. microns) and recombination - by constant flow of both free
electrons and holes towards the junction.
Note: For the open-circuit condition, minority carriers are evenly
distributed throughout the non-depletion regions. This
concentration is defined as either np0 or pn0 .

The total diffusion current is the sum of components attributed to

free electrons and holes. And is given as:

I = IS eV /VT − 1 (2)
Where;
I = total current
VT = thermal voltage
IS = saturation current
diffusion current is not dependent on the concentration gradient of
minority charge carriers.
It is most dependent on two factors: applied forward-bias voltage
and doping.

saturation current (IS ): is the maximum reverse current which will

flow through pn-junction.
It is proportional to cross-section of junction (A).
Typical values for IS , for junctions of various areas, range from
10−18 A to 10−12 A.
Figure 17: The pn junction I-V characteristic.

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Lecture-2

Addis Ababa University

Nebiyu Tenaye (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 October 8, 2024 2 / 26

In this lecture you will learn the following:

Nebiyu Tenaye (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 October 8, 2024 3 / 26

The pn junction structure comprises

Figure 1: Simplified physical structure of the pn junction. As the pn junction implements

Nebiyu Tenaye (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 October 8, 2024 4 / 26

Operation with Open-Circuit Terminals

The state of pn junction with open-circuit terminals is

Nebiyu Tenaye (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 October 8, 2024 5 / 26

Figure 2: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

Nebiyu Tenaye (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 October 8, 2024 6 / 26

2. Bound charges are attracted (from environment) by free electrons

Figure 3: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

4. The depletion region begins to form: as diffusion occurs and free

Figure 4: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

5. The “uncovered” bound charges effect a voltage differential across

Figure 5: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals) and

Nebiyu Tenaye (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 October 8, 2024 9 / 26

6. The barrier voltage (V0 ) is an electric field whose polarity opposes

Figure 6: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

Nebiyu Tenaye (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 October 8, 2024 10 / 26

7. Equilibrium is reached, and diffusion ceases, once the magnitudes

Figure 7: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

pn-junction built-in voltage (V0 ): is the equilibrium value of

The Drift Current IS and Equilibrium

In addition to majority-carrier diffusion current (ID ), a component

Nebiyu Tenaye (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 October 8, 2024 13 / 26

Drift current (IS ): is the movement of these minority carriers.

Figure 8: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

Note that the magnitude of drift current (IS ) is unaffected by level

Nebiyu Tenaye (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 October 8, 2024 14 / 26

The Depletion Region

Figure 9: The pn junction with no applied voltage (open-circuited terminals).

Nebiyu Tenaye (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 October 8, 2024 16 / 26

Operation with an Applied Voltage

Figure 11: The pn-junction with an applied voltage.

Qualitative Description of Junction Operation

The Current-Voltage Relationship of the Junction

Figure 12: The pn-junction with an applied voltage.

2. As the magnitude of VF increases, the depletion zone becomes thin

Figure 13: The pn-junction with an applied voltage.

Nebiyu Tenaye (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 October 8, 2024 20 / 26

3. Majority carriers (free electrons in n-region and holes in p-region)

Figure 14: The pn-junction with an applied voltage.

4. The concentration of minority charge carriers increases on either

Figure 15: The pn-junction with an applied voltage.

5. Diffusion current is maintained - in spite of low diffusion lengths

Figure 16: The pn-junction with an applied voltage.

Nebiyu Tenaye (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 October 8, 2024 23 / 26

The total diffusion current is the sum of components attributed to

Nebiyu Tenaye (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 October 8, 2024 24 / 26

saturation current (IS ): is the maximum reverse current which will

Figure 17: The pn junction I-V characteristic.

Nebiyu Tenaye (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 October 8, 2024 25 / 26

Nebiyu Tenaye (AAiT/SECE) Lecture-2 October 8, 2024 26 / 26

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