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11.2 BIOLOGICAL CLASSIFICATION

Two kingdom system:

 Given by Linnaeus (1735).

 Classified all organisms into two kingdoms i.e. plantae and animalia
 This system was based on morphological features only.
Merits - Easy to do and understand.
Demerits - Did not distinguish between eukaryotes and prokaryotes, unicellular and multicellular,
photosynthetic and non photosynthetic.
- Large number of organisms do not found any category.

Three kingdom system:

 Given by Ernst Haekel (1866).

 Classified all organisms into three kingdoms i.e. Protista, Plantae and Animalia.

Four kingdom system:

 Given by Copeland (1956).

 Classified all organisms into four kingdoms i.e. Monera, Protista, Plantae and Animalia.

NEED OF A BETTER SYSTEM OF CLASSIFICATION:

The system which can take into consideration characteristics like; cell structure, nature of wall, mode of
nutrition, habitat, methods of reproduction, evolutionary relationships etc.

Five kingdom classification:

Given by R.H.Whittaker (1969).
Classified into Monera, Protista, Fungi, Plantae and Animalia.
His criteria include: Cell structure, Thallus organisation, Mode of nutrition, Reproduction and phylogenetic
relationship.

(I). KINGDOM - MONERA

Kingdom of prokaryotes which includes only Bacteria.
Important components of bacterial cell:
I. Cell envelop- It consists of three components

 Glycocalyx
 Cell wall (single layered in gram +ve and two
layered in gram –ve).
 Cell membrane

Glycocalyx or mucilage sheath:

It is called slime layer if loose.
It is called capsule if thick and tough; found in parasitic forms. E.g. Bacillus anthracis
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It is usually composed of polysaccharides with or without proteins.

Functions - Preventive from dessication, phagocytosis, chemicals, drugs, viruses etc.
- Attachment.
- Virulence
Cell wall:
Rigid solid covering which provides shape and structural support to the cell.
In Gram+ve: Single layered and smooth - 20-80 mm thick
- Made of peptidoglycan (70-80%), lipids etc.
- Contains teichoic acid (form receptor sites)
In Gram-ve: Two layered and wavy - 8-12 mm thick
- Outer membrane made of lipopolysaccharides, lipids, proteins
- Has porins.
- Inner membrane made of peptidoglycan and lipids
Peptidoglycan is polymer of N-acetyl glucosamine and N-acetyl muramic acid.
Amino acid present in wall- Diaminopimelic acid or lysine.
The enzyme lysozyme can dissolve cell wall.
Periplasmic space is there between cell wall and cell membrane.
Plasma membrane:
Made of phospholipid bilayer with extrinsic and intrinsic proteins.
Bacterial membrane is metabolically active- takes part in respiration, synthesis of lipids and cell wall
components.
Structure associated with plasma membrane:
Mesosome:
Discovered by Fitz James (1960).
Develops as ingrowth from plasma membrane.
It is of two types - Septal – Connects nucleoid with plasma membrane.
- Takes part in replication of nucleoid.
- Help in septum formation.
- Lateral- Not connected with nucleoid.
- Contains respiratory enzymes (equivalent to mitochondria).
Flagella:
Made up of three parts i.e. Basal body, hook and filament.
Basal body have ring like swelling - L, P, S, M in gram–ve and S, M in gram+ve.
Hook is curved; thickest part which connects basal body to filament.
Filament is long tubular structure made up of ‘flagellin protein’.
Pili:
Longer, fewer and thicker outgrowths develop in response to F+ factor.
Mostly present in Gram-ve bacteria.
Made of pilin protein.
Help in forming conjugation tube and attachment.
Fimbriae:
Small bristle like fibres on cell surface in large numbers (300-400 per cell).
Help in attachment.
Nucleoid:
Also called Genophore, Prochromosome etc.
Consists of single circular strand of DNA duplex supercoiled with help of RNA and polyamines.
It is called naked DNA because lack histone proteins and absence of nuclear envelop.
Inclusion bodies:
Non living structures present in cytoplasm.
Example- Volutin granules (function as storage reserve of phosphate), sulphur granules, iron
granules, magnetite granules.
Gas vacuoles; protect bacteria from harmful radiations.
Food reserve: Bacteria-Glycogen, PBH (poly-β-hydroxy butyrate)
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Blue green algae- Cyanophycean starch

Plasmids:
Discovered by Heyes and Lederberg (1952).
Called episome if associated with nucleoid temporarily.
Can be - Non Useful- Cryptic plasmid
- Useful – F plasmid- Contain genes for conjugation.
- R plasmid- Carry genes for antibiotic resistance.
- Col plasmid- Produce toxins called colicins or bacteriocin.

ENDOSPORES:
Highly thick walled and resistant spores formed due to adverse environment.
It can easily tolerate a temperature of ±100OC.
This resistance developed due to thick cell wall, low water content and an anticoagulant Dipicolinic acid.
Example- Clostridium tetani, Bacillus anthracis

SEXUAL REPRODUCTION (Conjugation/ Transformation/ Transduction):

I. Conjugation:
Discovered in E.coli by Lederberg and Tatum (1946).
Bacteria showing conjugation are dimorphic i.e. Have two type of cells - Male (Donor) F+
- Female (Recipient) F-
Male have 1-4 sex pili on surface and fertility factor in plasmid.
If two come in contact or nearner, a pilus of male cell establishes a conjugation tube with female cell.
It includes two methods:
(a). Sterile male method: Plasmid having fertility factor replicates.
One copy transfers to recipient.
Recipient also become donor F- to F+
This phenomenon of reversibility of sex is called ‘sexduction’.
(b). Fertile male method: F+ plasmid get integrated to bacterial chromosome or DNA.
The donor cell in this case Hfr, meta male or super male.
Integrated F+ factor breaks bacterial DNA at one end of its attachment.
Bacterial chromosome now undergo replication.
A copy of freed and passed to recipient cell through conjugation tube.
Generally few genes are transferred only.
A merozygote is formed.

II. Transformation:
Discovered by Griffith (1928).
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Absorption of DNA segment from surrounding medium by a living bacterium.

E.coli undergoes transduction in presence of calcium chloride.

III. Transduction:
Transfer of foreign genes by means of viruses.
Discovered by Zender and Lederberg (1952).

RESPIRATION
Can be - Aerobic -Obligate aerobes. E.g. Bacillus subtilis
-Facultative aerobes. E.g. Rhodopseudomonas
- Anaerobic -Obligate aerobes. E.g. Clostridium botulinum
-Facultative anaerobes. E.g. Halophilus

NUTRITION
Can be -Autotrophic (Photoautotrophic, chemoautotrophic)
-Heterotrophic (Saprophytic, symbiotic, parasitic)

I. Photoautotrophic bacteria:
Have photosynthetic pigment i.e. Bacteriochlorophyll (In purple bacteria) and bacteriophaeophytin (In green
sulphur bacteria).
Photosynthetic bacteria are anaerobic; no oxygen evolved in bacterial photosynthesis and hence called
anoxygenic photosynthesis.
Water is not used for hydrogen.
These bacteria usually live near bottom of ponds, lakes (because oxygen is less and reduced sulphur is in
plenty).

II. Chemoautotrophic bacteria:

Manufacture their organic food from inorganic raw materials with help of energy derived from oxidation of
an inorganic substance.
Chemical energy obtained is trapped in ATP molecules.
E.g. Nitrifying bacteria (Nitrosomonas, Nitrobacter).

III. Saprophytic bacteria:

These are bacteria which are involved in - Fermentation (Breakdown of carbohydrates)
- Putrefaction (Breakdown of proteins)
- Decay (Breakdown of organic compounds)
Latest use in biodegradation of organic pollutants like petroleum spillage. E.g. Pseudomonas

IV. Symbiotic bacteria:

E.g. E.coli (Resides in human gut and produce vitamin B, K)
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Rhizobium (Resides in root nodules of leguminous plants)

V. Parasitic bacteria:
Lives with a host and may or may not develop disease. Develop disease in host due to either breakdown of
host cells or by liberation of toxins (Clostridium tetani, Vibrio cholerae).

ARCHAEBACTERIA
Also known as “living fossils”.
These are most primitive prokaryotes, evolved after the evolution of first life.
Lack peptidoglycan in their wall instead has protein and non-cellulosic polysaccharides.
Three major types: Methanogens, Halophiles and Thermoacidophiles.

a). Methanogens:
These are anaerobic autotrophs which occur in marshy areas; convert formic acid and CO2 into methane.
E.g. Methanobacterium; CO2 + 4H2 CH4 + 2H2O

b). Halophiles:
Occur in extreme saline conditions.
Are aerobic chemoheterotrophs; but under anaerobic conditions form ATP directly from Sunlight.
E.g. Halobacterium.

c). Thermoacidophiles:
Live under high temperature and high acidity. E.g. hot sulphur springs.
Under aerobic conditions oxidise sulphur to sulphuric acid.
Under anaerobic conditions reduce sulphur to hydrogen sulphide.
E.g. Thermoplasma

MYCOPLASMA
Discovered by Noctard and Raux (1898).
Also called PPLO or Pleuropneumonia like organisms.
Lack cell wall, can change their shape (pleomorphic).
Genetic material is single DNA duplex which have
replicating disc at one end to assist in replication.
Ribosome 70S type.
Also called ‘Jockers of plant kingdom’.
Cause diseases. E.g. Pleuropneumonia in domestic animals,
little leaf disease of brinjal, witches broom in plants.
Are resistant to wall attacking antibiotics.
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Are affected by metabolism affecting antibiotics. E.g. Tetracyclins.

CYANOBACTERIA
Gram +ve photosynthetic prokaryotes.
Photosynthetic thylakoids or chromatophores lie freely in cytoplasm; contain chlorophyll a, caretonoids
(chlorophyll b absent).
Stored food- Cyanophycean starch, lipid globules and protein molecules.
Perform oxygenic photosynthesis.
Evolved 3 billion years ago.
Found in every environment.
E.g. Trichodesmium erythraeum- Red sea named because of it.
May be unicellular, colonial or filamentous.
Covered by mucilaginous sheath and have one or more strands called TRICHOMES.
Cell wall is 4 layered (Peptidoglycan in 2nd layer).

Heterocyst:
Large sized thick walled cells in filamentous cyanobacteria. E.g. Nostoc.
Photosystem-II absent, mucilage sheath absent.
Has nitrogenase enzyme, specialized to perform nitrogen fixation.
Importance: Serve as food. E.g. Spirulina, Nostoc.
Nitrogen fixation. E.g. Anabaena (Azolla-Anabaena).
Spirulina- Rich in protein (55-68%).
Nostoc -Also called Moonspit, fallen star, star jelly.
-Show symbiotic association with Anthoceros.
-Used as food.
-Help in replenishment of nitrogen in soil.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE:
I. Harmful activities:

 Spoilage of food.
 Food poisoning. E.g. Botulism by Clostridium botulinum (In canned food).
 Destruction of Penicillium. E.g. Bacillus brevis
 Deteriorate quality of soil (by denitrification, desulphurification).
 Cause diseases- over 90% of human diseases and 40% of plant diseases.

II. Beneficial activities:

 Help in decay and decomposition of dead bodies.

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 Help in sewage disposal.

 Nitrogen fixing bacteria fix atmospheric nitrogen into nitrogenous compounds. E.g. Azotobacter
 Ensilage- Preserved cattle feed, formed by preserving or fermenting action of bacteria.
 In dairy industry- Lactic acid bacteria (Streptococcus lactis) - Yogurt, curd, cheese.
 Chemicals - Lactic acid - Lactobacillus
- Acetic acid - Acetobacter aceti
- Butyric acid - Clostridium acetobutylicum
 Antibiotics - Neomycin - Streptomyces fradiae
- Streptomycin - Streptomyces griseus
- Polymixin - Bacillus polymyxa
- Tetracyclin - Streptomyces aureofaciens
 Vitamins - Riboflavin (B2) – Clostridium butylicum
- Cobalamine (B12) – Bacillus megatherium

(II). KINGDOM- PROTISTA

This kingdom was proposed by Ernst Haekel (1866).
Consists of all single celled eukaryotes.
Characteristics:
Mostly aquatic.
Are microscopic, eukaryotic.
Have cell membrane externally.
Have membrane bound organelles like mitochondria, golgi complex, endoplasmic reticulum, 80S ribosomes
etc.
Flagella with 9+2 fibrillar arrangement.
Locomotion:
May be i). Pseudopodial- Slow creeping type of locomotion with help of pseudopodia. E.g. Amoeba
ii). Flagellar- By whip like movement of flagella. E.g. Dinoflagellates
iii). Ciliary- By oar like movement of cilia -Isochronic-All the cilia of a cell beat together.
-Metachronic- Cilia beat one after other.
Nutrition: Photosynthetic. E.g. Diatoms
Holozoic. E.g. Amoeba (includes phagocytosis, pinocytosis)
Saprophytic. E.g. Slime moulds
Parasitic. E.g. Trypanosoma, Giardia
Mixotrophic. E.g. Euglena
Symbiotic. E.g. Trichonympha and Lophomonas in intestine of termites.
Secrete cellulose digestive enzymes and convert cellulose into glucose.

Reproduction: Asexual –Binary fission

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- Multiple fission
- Plasmotomy- Fission of multinucleate protist into 2 or more multinucleate offspring
by division of cytoplasm without nuclear division. E.g. Opalina
- Budding
- Spore formation
Sexual – Originated in protists. Ceratium Majority Monocystis Ceratium Plasmodium

- Involves meiosis (Zygotic, gametic) and syngamy (Isogamy, anisogamy, oogamy)

- Also by conjugation i.e. union of 2 individuals to exchange their haploid pronuclei.

MAJOR GROUPS
1. Dinoflagellates
Mostly marine but some fresh water also.
Sometimes cause ‘Red tides’. E.g. Gonyaulax, Gymnodinium
Some show bioluminescence. E.g. Noctiluca, Gonyaulax, Pyrocystis.
Are photosynthetic.
Some dinoflagellates are poisonous to vertebrates, produce ‘saxitoxin’- Cause paralytic shell fish poisoning
Structure: One transverse
Unicellular, motile, biflagellate (heterokont) One longitudinal
Cells are generally covered by a rigid coat, theca or lorica of cellulose.
The nucleus is large called mesokaryon.
Plastids have chlorophyll a and chlorophyll c.
A non contractile vacuole called ‘Pusule’ present near flagellar base.
Help in floating or osmoregulation

Reserve food: Starch and oils

Reproduction: Asexual through cell division
Sexual (isogamous or anisogamous)
E.g. Noctiluca - also called “the night light”.
- Known for bioluminescence.

2. Chrysophytes:
Includes i). Diatoms ii). Desmids

(a). Diatoms:
Occur in aquatic and moist terrestrial habitats.
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Free floating or bottom dwellers.

Siliceous shell called frustules of diatoms do not decay and pile up at the bottom of water body and form
heaps called diatomaceous earth.
Frustule made of two valves i.e. Epitheca and hypotheca
Do not possess flagella except in reproductive state.
Are of two types depending on symmetry Pinnate- Bilateral symmetry. E.g. Navicula
Centric- Radial symmetry. E.g. Melosera
Contain chlorophyll a and chlorophyll c and fucoxanthin.
Reserve food is oil, leucosin (polysaccharide), volutin globules (proteinaceous).
Reproduce commonly by binary fission.
Sexual reproduction Isogamous
𝐺𝑟𝑜𝑤𝑡ℎ
Oogamous→ Fertilization→ Zygote→ Auxospore
E.g. Cymbella, Navicula

Importance:

 Chief producers.
 Inert, hence used in filtration of sugars, alcohols, oil, antibiotics etc.
 Polishing agents.
 Sound proofing of rooms.
 Good pollution indicators.

(b). Desmids:
Are unicellular green algae, have chloroplast.
Cells have two distinct halves.
Sexual reproduction occurs by conjugation.
Found mainly in fresh water (unpolluted).

3. Euglenoids
Euglena like unicellular flagellates which possess pellicle instead of cell wall.
Occur in fresh water and damp soils.
Show euglenoid movements or metaboly i.e. creeping movements by expansion and contraction of body.
Nutrition: Mixotropic Photoautotropic- In presence of light
Heterotrophic- In absence of light (saprophytic, holozoic)
Body covered by pellicle, have parallel strips called myonemes.
Pellicle is made of mainly protein and small amount of lipid and carbohydrates.
Have two flagella, one long and one short.
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Flagella are tinsel (bear hair) and arise from basal granule called blepharoplast.
Epical invagination has 3 parts cytosome
Cytopharynx
Reservoir- Have orange-red eye spot or stigma
- Eye spot have pigment- Astaxanthin
In area of roots of two flagella have swelling called ‘paraflagellar body’. It perceives stimulus of light along
with eye spot.
Have contractile vacuole for osmoregulation.
Possess chlorophyll a and chlorophyll b.
Reserve food as paramylon (a polysaccharide) or paramylon bodies (β-
1,3 glucan)
These are different from starch and glycogen (Not stained with iodine).

Reproduction:
Longitudinal binary fission.
During unfavourable conditions- Palmella stage i.e. colonial aggregate
formed during unfavourable conditions.

Example: Euglena (called plant animal), Phacus

4. Slime moulds
Commonly called ‘fungus animals’ or ‘protistian fungi’.
Lack chlorophyll.
Live amongst decaying vegetation, have phagotrophic or saprophytic nutrition.
Produce spores within sporangia.
Have cell wall of cellulose/ somatic parts lack cell wall

Are of two types Acellular/ plasmodial-Found on dead and decaying matter

-Have somatic diploid multinucleate phase called plasmodium.
-E.g. Tubifera
-Under unfavourable conditions form either cyst or sclerotium
-Cyst: Plasmodium divides to small multinucleate fragments
and secretes thick covering to form cyst.
- Sclerotium: Whole plasmodium secretes thick covering
around and called sclerotium.
Cellular -Found in damp soil.
-Have somatic haploid, uninucleate cells called myxamoeba.
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-Under favourable conditions it secretes a rigid cell wall of cellulose

and form microcyst.
E.g. Dictyostelium

5. Protozoans
Term coined by Goldfuss (1817).
First studied by Leeuwenhoek (1677).
Divided into four groups:
i). Flagellate ii). Amoeboid iii). Sporozoans iv). Ciliated

i). Flagellated:
Possess flagella for locomotion.
Body covered by pellicle.
Asexual reproduction by binary fission.
Examples:

 Trypanosoma gambiense - Cause sleeping sickness.

- Vector- Tse-Tse fly (Glossina palpalis).
- Reserve host- Antelope
 Trypanosoma cruzi - Cause ‘Chagas disease’- south American trypanosomiasis.
- Contaminate humans through faeces of ‘triatomid bugs’.
 Leismania donovani - Cause kala azar or dum-dum fever.
- Vector- Sandfly
- Reservoir host- Dogs, cats

 Giardia intestinalis or Giardia lamblia - Called ‘Grand old man of intestine’.

- Occurs in upper part of ‘human small intestine’.
- Cause ‘giardiasis’.
 Trichomonas vaginalis - Inhibits vagina of women, cause leucorrhoea.
- Transmission by coitus.
 Trichonympha companula - Symbiont in intestine of termites.
- Secrete cellulose digesting enzymes b-glucosidase.

ii). Amoeboid protozoans:

Develop pseudopodia; these are temporary protoplasmic outgrowths.
Have four types of pseudopodia.
Pseudopodia used for locomotion and phagocytosis.
Nutrition holozoic.
Asexual reproduction by fission, budding, spores.
Sexual reproduction through syngamy.
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Examples:
Amoeba proteus - Discovered by Russel Von Rosenhoff (1755).
- ‘Sol-gel’ theory of amoeboid movement by “Hyman”.
Pelomyxa - Called as ‘Giant amoeba’.
Entamoeba histolytica - Discovered by Lamble (1859).
- Resides in upper part of ‘human large intestine’.
- Cause amoebic dysentery or Amoebiasis.
- Two forms - Magna- It is pathogenic
- Minuta- It is non pathogenic
- form cyst called ‘Tetra nucleate cyst’.
- Medicine- Metrogyl or Flagyl
Radiolarians - Radiolarian skeleton form deposits called Radiolarian ooze.
Foraminiferons- Their calcareous shells form deposits called Forminiferan ooze.
Heliozoans - E.g. Actinophrys; called Sun organism.

iii). Sporozoans:
All are endoparasite.
Locomotory organelles absent.
Nutrition- Parasitic
Examples: Plasmodium - Digenetic - Primary host- Mosquito (sexual phase)
- Secondary host- Human (asexual phase)
Monocystis - Live as endoparasite in seminal vesicles of earthworm.
Eimeria - Cause caecal coccidiosis in chickens.

iv). Ciliated protozoans:

Develop a number of cilia during their life cycle.
Cilia used for locomotion or driving food.
Body covered by pellicle.
Show ‘nuclear dimorphism’ - Macronucleus (vegetative nucleus) -Control metabolic activities, growth.
- Micronucleus (reproductive nucleus) –Takes part in reproduction,
Often possess minute ejectable ‘trichocysts’ for defence.
Have contractile vacuole for osmoregulation.
Reproduction - Asexual- Transverse binary fission or budding.
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- Sexual- Conjugation
E.g. Paramecium-The slipper organism
-Microphygeal nutrition.
-Feeding apparatus consists of peristome, vestibule,
buccal cavity, cytostome, cytopharynx.
-A temporary opening called ‘cytopyge’- used to pass
indigested food.
-Have large macronucleus and small micronucleus.
-Reproduction – Asexual (Transverse binary fission)
- Sexual - Conjugation
- Autogamy- self fertilization
- Endomixis- Parthenogenesis
- Cytogamy- Conjugation + Autogamy
- Hemixis- Called ‘Purification act’
- Macronucleus breaks down into few pieces.
- Some pieces reunite and form macronucleus other
degenerate.
- Two types - Killer- Have kappa particles, produce Paramecin.
- Sensitive- No kappa particles.

(III). KINGDOM- FUNGI

Father of mycology- P.A.Michelli
Father of modern mycology- Anton de Berry (discovered Phytophthora infestans)
Father of Indian mycology- Sir E.J.Butler
Nature- Heterotrophic organisms.
Habitat- Cosmopolitan; occur in air, water and soil and on animals and plants.
- Prefer warm and humid places.

Body organisation:
Filamentous except Yeast.
Body consists of long, slender, thread like structure called
HYPHAE.
A hypha consists of one or more cells surrounded by tubular cell
wall.
Hyphae are divided into cells by internal cross walls called septa
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usually perforated.
Septa can be a). Dolipore b). Simple (Have woronin bodies)
Network of hyphae is called MYCELIUM.
Some hyphae are continuous tubes filled with multinucleated cytoplasm called COENOCYTIC HYPHAE.
Cell wall contains Chitin and polysaccharides.
Nutrition- Saprophytic primarily or parasitic or symbiotic (lichen/ mycorhizza)
Reproduction - Vegetative- Fragmentation/ Fission/ Budding
- Asexual- By spores called conidia/ sporangiospores or zoospores.
- Sexual- By oospores, ascospores and basidiospores.
- Involves- Plasmogamy, karyogamy and meiosis (in zygote)
Food reserve- Glycogen
Fungi are achlorophyllous.
Habitat: Terrestrial - E.g. Aspergillus
Aquatic - E.g. Achyla
Parasitic - E.g. Elternaria solani
Symbiotic - E.g. Micorrhiza, lichens
Coprophilous- Fungi which grows on dung. E.g. Coprinus radiatus, Panaeolus semiovatus
Keratinophilic- Animal parasitic fungi cause cutaneous fungal infections. E.g. Acremonium, Chrysosporium
Lignicolous fungi- Wood degrading fungi. E.g. Armillaria, Serpula lacrymans
Importance of fungi:

 Production of enzymes. E.g. Cellulase, α-amylase (Aspergillus)

Invertase (Saccharomyces)
Invertase catalyzes hydrolysis of sucrose.
 Role in agriculture. E.g. Formation of humus.
 Biological control of pests. E.g. Gambusia fish controls Anopheles
 Role in research. E.g. Saccharomyces (Baker’s yeast) and Neurospora (Bakery mould) are modal
systems in biological research.

Harmful effects:

 Distruction of wood.
 Spoilage of paper, leather and paints.
 Spoilage of food. E.g. Rhizopus (Bread mould)
 Cause diseases. E.g. Liver cancer because of Aflatoxins produced by Aspergillus flavus.
Plant diseases. E.g. Early blite of potato- Elternaria solani

Life cycle of fungi:

Two phases - Vegetative (somatic)
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- Reproductive

Vegetative phase:
Plasmodium- Multinucleated, amoeboid mass of protoplasm
Unicellular- Yeast only
Filamentous- Hyphae and mycelium
- May be sepatate. E.g. Aspergillus
Aseptate. E.g. Rhizopus
Dimorphic- Some fungi exhibit both Unicellular- When grow parasitically
Multicellular- When grow in culture media

Reproductive phase:
1. Vegetative: Fragmentation, Fission and Budding
2. Asexual: By spores (Conidia, Sporangiospores, zoospores)
3. Sexual: By spores (Oospore, ascospore, basidiospore), Plasmogamy, Karyogamy, Meiosis
Halocarpic fungi: When vegetative phase and reproductive phase do not exist simultaneously and
vegetative phase transforms to reproductive phase with time.
Eucarphic fungi: Both reproductive and vegetative phase exists simultaneously.
Haustorium: Intracellular absorbing structures of obligate
parasitic fungi.
They secrete enzyme which digest food in host cell which is
absorbed by haustorium.

(I). PHYCOMYCETES:
 Also called Algal fungi.
 Mycelium aseptate and coenocytic.
 Habitat - Aquatic
- Terrestrial (moist and damp places)- on decaying wood
- Obligate parasite on plants.
 Reproduction: Asexual (Zoospore motile or
Aplanospore non motile)
Chlamydospore/ Arthrospore or oidia/ Sporangiospore
 Sexual reproduction:
Homothallic (monoecious)- Both sexes on same body
Heterothallic (Dioecious) - No distinct sex organs
(anthredium or oogonium)
Zygospore formed after fusion of two gametes

 E.g. Rhizopus, Mucor, Albugo, Phytophthora infestans

*Phytophthora infestans- Caused Irish famine which was due to
‘late blight of potato’.
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(II). ASCOMYCETES:
 Also called Sac fungi; it is largest class of fungi.
 Unicellular
 Nutrition- Saprophytic/decomposers/Parasitic/Coprophilous
 Mycelium branched and septate.
 Reproduction: Asexual → Conidia (formed on conidiophores) germinate and form mycelium
Sexual → Ascospores
E.g. Aspergillus (Weed of laboratory), Neurospora crassa (Drossophilla of plant kingdom), Yeast,
Penicillium crysogenum, Claviceps purpurea (produce ergot of rye; yield LSD)

(III). BASIDIOMYCETES:
 Also called club fungi.
 Mushrooms (tertiary mycelium is what we eat)
 Habitat- Soil, trees, as parasite in living plant bodies as rusts and smuts.
 Mycelium: Branched and septate
 Reproduction: Asexual - By fragmentation
- Spores are not known
Sexual - Fusion of two gametes (Dikaryon stage present)
Basidium (on Basidiocarp)
Basidiospore (4)

 Have dolipore septa

 E.g. Agaricus, Ustilago* (smut), Puccinia* (rust)
*Ustilago and Puccinia lack basidiocarp and lack dolipore septa

(IV). DEUTEROMYCETES:
 Also called Imperfect fungi.
 Reproduction- Asexual (By conidiospore)
 Mycelium- Septate and branched
 Nutrition- Mainly decomposers; some are parasitic and saprophytic also.
 E.g. Alternaria, Trichoderma

LICENS
Study of Lichens: Lichenology
Father of Lichenology: Acharius
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Licens: They are composite or dual organisms formed by the stable and self-supporting association of
fungus and an alga. Fungal partner is known as mycobiont (90-95%) and algal partner is known as
phycobiont or photobiont (5-10%).

 Fungal partner is mostly from ascomycetes but others are also found.
 Majority of photobiont are unicellular and common is a green alga Tribauxia.
 Cyanobacteria associated with lichen thallus are Nostoc, Scytonema and Gloeacapsa.
Chimeras or joint thalli: When more than one alga has been found to be associated with lichen thallus; it is
called joint thalli.
Nature of association: Three views regarding association-
I. Parasitic: This view is supported by the fact that in some cases the fungal partner develops haustorium in
photobiont. Secondary when both partners are separated mycobiont dies and photobiont survives.
II. Symbiotic: Proposed by “De Bary”.
Mycobiont supplies minerals and water to photobiont.
Photobiont provides carbohydrates and N2 compound.
III. Helotism: According to this view the fungal partner derives more benefits from algae, whereas the
benefits drawn by algae are far less, therefore the association is a “beneficial slavery” for the algae.
Lichens are biotropic: That means they obtain their food from living associate.

Habitat:
 Saxicolous (Barren rocks)
 Endolithic (Inside the rocks)
 Terricolous (On soil surface)
 Corticolous (On bark of tree)
 Folicolous (On other leaves) Epiphytic

On the basis of thallus morphology, lichens are of three types:

I. Crustose lichens- Secrete a sticky substance and attached to substratum. E.g. Graphis
II. Foliose lichens- Attached to substratum from a single point only. Have rhizoids which help in
attachment. E.g. Parmelia
III. Fructose lichens- They are radial in symmetry, freely branched and resembles like a tiny bush. E.g.
Cladonia

Internal structure of lichen thallus:

Two types:
1. Homoiomerous thallus- Algae and fungi are homogenously distributed. E.g. Collema
2. Heteromerous thallus- Algae and fungi distributed in different zones. E.g. Parmella
Classification: Lichens
Ascolichens Basidiolichens
Gymnocarpeae Pyrenocarpeae
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VEGETATIVE STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH LICHEN THALLUS

1. Breathing pores: Found on upper surface of foliose lichens. These are small pore like structures where
the cortical hyphae are loosely interwoven.
- Are aerating in nature.
2. Cephellae: These are cup like cavities present on the lower surface of some foliose lichens.
- Are aerating in nature.
- When cephallae is not lined by cortex it is known as pseudocephalae.
3. Cephalodia: Hard, dark coloured gall like swellings on the free surface of some lichen thallus are known
as cephalodia.
4. Isidia: Small outgrowths on the upper surface of lichens thallus, consisting of an outer cortical layer
followed by an algal layer. Increase photosynthetic surface of lichen thallus.

REPRODUCTIVE STRUCTURES ASSOCIATED WITH LICHEN

Soredia: Sall rounded granules which develop in the form of
greyish-white or green powder over the upper surface of lichen
thalli.
- Each soredium consists of one or few algal cells surrounded
by branched fungal hyphae.
- When soredia develop in an organised manner they occur in
the form of localized pustule also known as SORELIA.
- Sorelia are produced from algal layer of lichen thallus.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE OF LICHENS

1. In ecology: Crustose lichens are pioneer in xerosere succession. They produce CO2 which reacts with
water to produce carbonic acid which withers the rock leads to soil formation.
2. Food: Parmelia- Used in Tamilnadu as food.
Cetraria icelanica- Iceland moss
Cladonia rangiferina- Reindeer moss
3. Medicine: Peltigera canina (Dog moss)- Used in hydrofovea.
4. In industry:Everina prunestrii (oak moss)- Perfumes
Rocella- Litmus
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Orchil- Purified to form orcein; used for cytological examination.

5. Pollution indicator- Lichens do not grow in polluted areas

VIRUS
Non cellular organisms that are characterised by having an inert crystalline
outside living cell.
Infection (entry into host)
Replication of its genetic material
Multiple copies
Death of host cell
Infect fresh cells/hosts

 Name given by Pasteur D.J.Ivanowsky (1892) means venom or poisonous fluid.

 Discovered first on tobacco called TMV.
 Contagium vivum fluidum (Infectious fluid) called M.W.Beijerinek (1898)
 W.M.Stanley (1935) showed that virus can be crystallized and crystals are mainly proteins.
 Are obligate parasites.
Plant viruses- ssRNA- Phytophage
Animal viruses- ss/ds RNA/ ds DNA – Zoophage
Bacterial virus- dsDNA – Bacteriophage
Examples: Mumps, Small pox, Herpes, Influenza, AIDS
Symptoms in plants: Mosaic formation, leaf rolling and curling, yellowing and vein clearing, dwarfing

Life cycle: (i) Lytic (Virulent) (ii) Lysogenic (Non virulent)

Lytic:

 Infection phase (I) Adsorption (II) Penetration

 Latent phase/Eclipse phase - Preparation for lysis
- Disrupt host nucleoid
 Vegetative/Mature phase - Replication of genome
- Formation of viral protein
- Maturation
 Liberation phase - Lysis, Release

Lysogenic:

 Non virulent form of life cycle.

Absorption → Penetration → Prophase formation → Lysogeny (when host carrying a prophage)
-Repressor- Doesn’t allow virus to take up machinery of host If induction

- Integrase- Fuses viral genome to a specific site of host genome Repressor do not formed

Lytic cycle

Temperate stage
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Viroids:

 These are free RNA molecules that lack protein coat.

 Smaller than viruses; RNA of low molecular weight.
 Discovered by T.O.Diener (1971)
 E.g. Potato spindle tuber disease
Prions: Protein particles which act as obligate parasites. These are resistant to protease action.
E.g. Cause mad cow disease
Retrovirus: Viruses that have reverse transcriptase enzyme which form DNA of its RNA. E.g. HIV