The Early Turkish Empire of Delhi (1206-1290)

Introduction

 The Early Turkish Empire, often referred to as the 'Slave Dynasty,' lasted from 1206 to
1290 AD.
 Despite being called the 'Slave Dynasty,' most rulers were not slaves when they ascended
the throne. They were manumitted before becoming rulers. "No slave could ascend a
throne unless he had obtained a letter of manumission from his master." (The
History of Medieval India by Ishwari Prasad).
 The early Sultans of Delhi were predominantly of Turkish origin, not Afghan or Pathan.
"The early Sultans of Delhi were Turks and not Afghans or Pathans." (The Delhi
Sultanate by Peter Jackson).

Foundation of the Empire

 Qutbuddin Aibak: Originally a Turkish slave who rose through ranks to become a
powerful figure in Indo-Pakistan history.
o Purchased by Qazi Fakhruddin, who educated him, Aibak was later sold to
Muhammad Ghuri, where he earned a high rank. "Qutbuddin was purchased
 early in life by Qazi Fakhruddin Kufi of Nishapur, who gave him the best
education and most efficient training." (The Slave Kings in India by R.C.
Majumdar).
o Played a pivotal role in Ghuri's Indian expeditions and expanded the empire by
conquering several key cities, including Delhi, Ranthambore, and Qanauj. "He
had also due share in the conquest of Benares, Kalinjar, and Mahoba." (The
History of India as Told by Its Own Historians by H.M. Elliot and John Dowson).
o After Ghuri's death, Aibak became Sultan of Delhi and defeated rivals like
Tajuddin Yalduz, securing his rule over Punjab. "He defeated Tajuddin Yalduz
in a battle and forced him to flee to Kuhistan." (The Delhi Sultanate by A.L.
Srivastava).
 Aibak’s Achievements:
o Laid the foundation of Muslim rule in Indo-Pakistan. "Aibak was the first
independent Sultan who laid the foundation of Muslim rule in Indo-
Pakistan." (The History of Medieval India by Ishwari Prasad).
o His reign was marked by significant conquests and the establishment of peace and
stability across the empire. "He took great pains in establishing peace and
tranquility throughout his dominions." (The Slave Kings in India by R.C.
Majumdar).
o Aibak died suddenly in 1210 AD and was buried in Lahore. "He suddenly died
on November 1210 A.D. when playing Chaugan (polo) and was buried at
Lahore." (The History of Medieval India by Ishwari Prasad).

Successors of Aibak

 Aram Shah: Succeeded Aibak but proved inefficient and unpopular.

 Iltutmish (1211-36): A more capable ruler, known for stabilizing the empire during a
tumultuous time.
o Faced and subdued various internal revolts and external threats. "He had to fight
against Tajuddin Yalduz, the ruler of Ghazni, and Nasiruddin Qubacha of
Sind." (A Comprehensive History of Medieval India by Farooqui Salma Ahmed).
 o Took action against rivals like Yalduz and Qubacha and suppressed rebellions in
Bengal and Bihar. "Iltutmish suppressed the rebellious nobles and crushed
the power of the rivals like Yalduz and Qubacha." (The Delhi Sultanate by
Peter Jackson).
 Iltutmish’s Achievements:
o Strengthened the Sultanate by defeating rival chiefs and consolidating power. "To
him belongs the credit of having saved the infant Muslim empire in the sub-
continent from being nipped in the bud." (The Slave Kings in India by R.C.
Majumdar).
o Recognized by the Abbasid Caliph as the Sultan of India. "In 1229, Iltutmish
received a robe of honour and a patent of investiture from the Khalifah of
Baghdad." (The History of Medieval India by Ishwari Prasad).
o Undertook significant conquests, including Ranthambore and Gwalior, and
managed to avoid the Mongol menace by diplomacy. "He diplomatically
warded off the Mongol menace by refusing to give refuge to Jalaluddin, the
son of Khwarizm Shah." (The Delhi Sultanate by Peter Jackson).
o Nominated his daughter, Raziya, as his successor before his death in 1236 AD.
"Before his death, Iltutmish nominated his daughter Raziya as his successor,
considering her more capable than his surviving sons." (A Comprehensive
History of Medieval India by Farooqui Salma Ahmed).

Raziya Sultan (1236-40)

 First female Sultan: Raziya ascended the throne amidst resistance from conservative
nobles who were against a woman ruler.
o Despite opposition, she managed to stabilize the kingdom for a brief period before
being defeated by rebellious nobles led by Altunia. "She overcame the
opposition of her enemies with her courage and superior diplomacy." (The
History of Medieval India by Ishwari Prasad).
o Raziya was killed in 1240 AD after her unsuccessful attempt to reclaim her throne
with Altunia’s support. "Both Raziya and Altunia were defeated and killed by
some Hindu robbers in 1240." (The Slave Kings in India by R.C. Majumdar).
Ghiyasuddin Balban (1266-86)

 Accession and Challenges: Balban ascended the throne after the death of Sultan
Nasiruddin Mahmud, under whom he had served as Prime Minister.
o Faced internal revolts, a threat from the Mongols, and lawlessness in different
parts of the empire. "The whole country was vibrating with an atmosphere of
unprecedented stress and storm." (The Delhi Sultanate by Peter Jackson).
 Policies and Reforms:
o Emphasized royal authority and introduced Persian court etiquette to enhance the
prestige of the Sultanate. "Balban maintained a strict and splendid court after
the manner of the old Persian kings." (The History of Medieval India by
Ishwari Prasad).
o Reorganized the army and took strict measures to suppress rebellions, particularly
among the Mewatis and the insurgents in the Doab. "He inflicted a crushing
defeat upon the Mewatis." (The History of India as Told by Its Own Historians
by H.M. Elliot and John Dowson).
o Set up a strong spy network and was known for his strict administration of justice.
"Balban was very strict in the administration of justice. He did not show any
partiality even to his own kith and kin." (A Comprehensive History of
Medieval India by Farooqui Salma Ahmed).
 Mongol Threat: Balban prioritized defending the empire’s north-western frontier from
Mongol invasions. His efforts successfully held off the Mongols during his reign. "He
reorganised the army and rebuilt forts in strategic locations to guard against the
Mongol threat." (The Slave Kings in India by R.C. Majumdar).
 Death of Prince Muhammad: Balban's son, Prince Muhammad, was killed during a
Mongol raid, which severely affected the Sultan. "The death of Prince Muhammad
gave a terrible shock to the old Sultan and hastened his own death." (The Delhi
Sultanate by Peter Jackson).
 End of Balban’s Reign: Balban died in 1287, leaving a lasting legacy as a strong ruler
who restored order and stability to the empire. "Balban died in 1287 after a reign of
 about 22 years." (A Comprehensive History of Medieval India by Farooqui Salma
Ahmed).

Critical Analysis: Causes of Success

 Military Superiority: The Turkish rulers had an organized and superior military system.
"The Turkish armies were superior in terms of military tactics and organisation."
(The Delhi Sultanate by A.L. Srivastava).
 Political Disunity in India: The fragmented political landscape, along with disunity
among Indian rulers, contributed to the success of Muslim conquests. "The disunity
among the Rajput rulers made it easier for foreign invaders to succeed." (The
History of India as Told by Its Own Historians by H.M. Elliot and John Dowson).
 Islamic Zeal: The unity and zeal of Muslim forces contrasted with the divisive caste
system in Hindu society. "The brotherhood of Islam inspired the Muslim soldiers,
while the caste system divided Hindu society." (The History of Medieval India by
Ishwari Prasad).

Conclusion

 Legacy of the Early Turkish Sultans:

o Qutbuddin Aibak, Iltutmish, Raziya, and Balban were key figures who established
and strengthened the Turkish rule in India. "Balban was the strong dictator
needed to restore order and stability to the Sultanate." (The Slave Kings in
India by R.C. Majumdar).
o The dynasty's main achievements include the consolidation of Muslim rule in
northern India, suppression of internal revolts, and resistance against external
threats like the Mongols. "Balban’s policy of blood and iron successfully
crushed all threats to the Sultanate." (The History of Medieval India by Ishwari
Prasad).
o Despite internal struggles and eventual decline, the Early Turkish Empire laid the
foundation for subsequent Muslim dynasties in the region. "The Early Turkish
 Sultans paved the way for the military and administrative reforms of
Alauddin Khalji." (The Delhi Sultanate by Peter Jackson).

Leading Features of the State System under the Sultans of Delhi

Introduction

 The Early Turkish Empire, often referred to as the Delhi Sultanate, was a centralized
monarchy that lasted from 1206 to 1526. The Sultans of Delhi were responsible for the
establishment of an organized and hierarchical system of governance.
 This system was highly influenced by Islamic principles, particularly in administration,
law, and taxation. Many prominent Muslim historians such as Ziauddin Barani and
Shams-i-Siraj Afif have documented the governance and policies of the Delhi Sultanate.

1. Centralized Monarchy

 The Sultan was the supreme authority, embodying both political and religious powers.
According to Ziauddin Barani, the Sultan's position was regarded as divinely ordained,
allowing him to exercise absolute power over military, judicial, and administrative
matters. The Sultan claimed the divine right of kings, often seeking recognition from the
Abbasid Caliph for legitimacy.
 Barani, in his work Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, highlights that the Sultan's authority stemmed
from both religious and political claims, ensuring a close relationship between
governance and Islamic law.

2. Military-Feudalism (Iqta System)

 The Iqta system was the backbone of the military and administrative structure. Military
commanders (known as muqtis) were granted iqtas (land assignments) in exchange for
military service and revenue collection.
 The Fatawa-i-Jahandari, written by Ziauddin Barani, describes the role of iqtadars in
maintaining law and order, stating that the Sultanate's military strength was heavily
dependent on the efficient management of iqtas.
  Shams-i-Siraj Afif, in his work Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, provides further insights into the
iqta system, highlighting its economic importance and its role in the Sultanate's ability to
maintain a large, standing army.

3. Role of Nobility (Aristocracy)

 The nobility, referred to as Amirs or Umara, played a significant role in governance,

holding considerable military and administrative power.
 Shams-i-Siraj Afif writes extensively on the relationship between the Sultan and the
nobility during the reign of Firuz Shah Tughlaq, pointing out that the Sultan needed to
balance the power of his nobles to avoid rebellions and preserve stability.
 Barani, particularly in his work Fatawa-i-Jahandari, notes the importance of controlling
the nobility and maintaining a balance of power within the Sultanate, especially during
the reign of Sultan Balban, who adopted the policy of blood and iron to curb the
influence of the nobility.

4. Administrative Structure

 The administrative hierarchy was centralized, with the Sultan at the top. Key officials in
the Sultanate included the Wazir (prime minister), the Ariz-i-Mamalik (head of the
military), and the Qazi-ul-Quzzat (chief judge).
 Ziauddin Barani explains the functioning of the administration in Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi,
detailing how the Sultanate relied on a network of officials to maintain order, enforce the
law, and ensure revenue collection. The wazir, according to Barani, was often the Sultan's
closest advisor and oversaw finance and taxation policies.

5. Iqta System (Revenue and Land Grants)

 The Iqta system was central to the revenue collection process. Muqtis collected taxes on
behalf of the Sultan and retained a portion of the revenue to maintain their troops.
 Barani and Afif both emphasize the importance of the iqta system in maintaining the
military strength of the Delhi Sultanate. In particular, Barani states in Tarikh-i-Firuz
Shahi that the iqta system allowed the Sultan to keep control over large territories without
 the need for direct administration, relying on the loyalty of muqtis to manage their
respective regions.

6. Justice and Legal System

 The legal system under the Sultans of Delhi was based primarily on Islamic law
(Sharia), though customary law was applied to non-Muslim subjects. The Qazi was
responsible for ensuring justice and maintaining the Islamic judicial system.
 Ziauddin Barani, in his Fatawa-i-Jahandari, describes the role of the Qazi-ul-Quzzat
and the application of Sharia across the Sultanate. He also discusses the discretionary
powers of the Sultan in matters of justice, particularly when dealing with non-Muslim
subjects, who were governed under separate laws in civil matters.

7. Religious Policy

 The Sultans were patrons of Islam, promoting religious institutions and supporting the
spread of Islamic education.
 Barani details how the Sultans promoted Islam through the building of mosques,
madrasas, and khanqahs (Sufi hospices). However, their religious policies also allowed
for tolerance of non-Muslim subjects under the condition that they paid the jizya tax, in
line with Islamic principles governing dhimmis (protected non-Muslims).
 Ibn Batuta, the famous Moroccan traveler and historian, who spent time in India during
the reign of Muhammad bin Tughlaq, noted the coexistence of religious tolerance
alongside the Sultanate’s efforts to spread Islamic values.

8. Economic Policies

 The Sultanate's economy was primarily based on agriculture, with land revenue being the
principal source of income. The kharaj (land tax) and jizya (poll tax on non-Muslims)
were the main taxes levied on the population.
 Ziauddin Barani, in Tarikh-i-Firuz Shahi, describes the reforms introduced by Sultans
like Alauddin Khalji, who attempted to regulate market prices to ensure the affordability
of essential goods and prevent hoarding.
  Afif also comments on the reforms implemented by Firuz Shah Tughlaq, who
introduced new methods of tax collection and attempted to alleviate the tax burden on
peasants through agricultural development schemes.

9. Military Organization

 The military was the backbone of the Sultanate, with the Sultan himself acting as the
supreme commander. The military was composed of infantry, cavalry, and elephants,
with a focus on mounted troops for swift mobility in warfare.
 Barani, in his Fatawa-i-Jahandari, outlines the military reforms of Alauddin Khalji,
including the dagh (branding of horses) and huliya (descriptive rolls of soldiers), which
were introduced to curb corruption and ensure the loyalty of the troops.

10. Relations with Foreign Powers

 The Sultans of Delhi maintained diplomatic and military relations with neighboring
Islamic and non-Islamic states. One of the primary concerns of the Sultanate was
defending the north-western frontier from Mongol invasions.
 Ibn Batuta records several instances of Mongol threats during his time at the Delhi court
and describes how the Sultans fortified the frontiers to defend against external attacks.

11. Cultural and Architectural Patronage

 The Sultans were great patrons of art and architecture, blending Persian, Central Asian,
and indigenous Indian styles to create the distinctive Indo-Islamic architectural style.
 Barani describes the construction of the Qutb Minar, the Alai Darwaza, and other
architectural marvels in Delhi during the reigns of various Sultans. These structures
symbolized the power and cultural sophistication of the Sultanate.

Conclusion
 The state system under the Delhi Sultans was characterized by a centralized monarchy,
a military-feudal structure, and a system of revenue collection that enabled the Sultans
to exercise control over a vast and diverse empire.
 Prominent Muslim historians, including Ziauddin Barani and Shams-i-Siraj Afif,
provide valuable insights into the functioning of the Sultanate, highlighting the balance of
power between the Sultan, the nobility, and the military.
 The Sultanate was successful in maintaining religious diversity, promoting economic
stability, and defending its borders from external threats, thus laying the foundation for
future Muslim rule in India.