Notes for Quantitative and Qualitative Research (SE 491/492)

Research
Purpose: Research aims to generate new knowledge or validate existing knowledge. It seeks to
answer specific questions, test hypotheses, or develop theories. Research can be conducted in
various fields, such as natural sciences, social sciences, humanities, and more.
Types of Research:
1. Basic Research: Also known as fundamental or pure research, it seeks to expand
knowledge without immediate practical application. It aims to understand underlying
principles and mechanisms.
2. Applied Research: This type of research aims to solve specific practical problems. It is
directly applicable to real-world situations and often leads to innovations and
improvements.
3. Descriptive Research: It aims to describe characteristics of a phenomenon or population.
4. Exploratory Research: It is conducted to explore a new area where little information is
available.
5. Explanatory Research: It seeks to explain the causes and effects of a phenomenon.
6. Predictive Research: It aims to forecast future occurrences based on current data.
Methodology: Research follows a structured and systematic methodology, which includes:
1. Formulation of Research Question or Hypothesis: Defining what the research seeks to
find out.
2. Literature Review: Reviewing existing knowledge and research to build a foundation.
3. Research Design: Planning the approach, whether qualitative, quantitative, or mixed
methods.
4. Data Collection: Gathering data using various techniques such as experiments, surveys,
interviews, observations, and secondary data analysis.
5. Data Analysis: Analyzing the collected data using statistical or thematic methods.
6. Interpretation: Drawing conclusions and making inferences based on the analysis.
7. Reporting: Sharing the findings through academic journals, conferences, reports, or
books.
Outcomes: Research outcomes contribute to the body of knowledge in a field. They may lead to
new theories, models, or practical applications. Peer review and publication in academic journals
are common for ensuring the credibility and dissemination of research findings.

Evaluation
Purpose: Evaluation aims to assess the value, effectiveness, or impact of a program, project, or
policy. It is used to inform decision-making, improve performance, and ensure accountability to
stakeholders.
Types of Evaluation:
1. Formative Evaluation: Conducted during the development or implementation of a
program to provide feedback for improvement.
 2. Summative Evaluation: Conducted after the completion of a program to assess its overall
impact and effectiveness.
3. Process Evaluation: Examines the implementation process to understand how a program
operates and identifies any issues or barriers.
4. Outcome Evaluation: Focuses on the results and impacts of a program, determining
whether the goals and objectives were achieved.
5. Impact Evaluation: Looks at the broader, long-term effects of a program, including
unintended consequences.
Methodology: Evaluation uses a variety of methods, both qualitative and quantitative, to gather
and analyze data. The methodology is often more flexible and pragmatic than research. Common
steps include:
1. Defining Objectives: Clearly stating what the evaluation aims to achieve.
2. Developing Evaluation Questions: Identifying specific questions to guide the evaluation.
3. Designing the Evaluation: Planning the approach and selecting appropriate methods.
4. Data Collection: Gathering data through surveys, interviews, focus groups, observations,
and document reviews.
5. Data Analysis: Analyzing data to assess performance against criteria such as
effectiveness, efficiency, and relevance.
6. Interpretation: Interpreting the findings to provide meaningful insights.
7. Reporting: Communicating the results to stakeholders through reports, presentations, and
other formats.
Outcomes: The outcomes of evaluation are used by program managers, funders, policymakers,
and other stakeholders to make informed decisions, improve program performance, and
demonstrate accountability. Evaluation findings can lead to program modifications, policy
changes, or the allocation of resources.
Key Differences
1. Purpose: Research seeks to generate new knowledge, while evaluation aims to assess the
value and effectiveness of existing programs or interventions.
2. Scope: Research has a broader and more general scope, while evaluation is specific to a
particular context or program.
3. Methodology: Research follows a more rigid and structured methodology, whereas
evaluation is more flexible and pragmatic.
4. Outcomes: Research outcomes contribute to academic knowledge and theory, while
evaluation outcomes inform practical decision-making and improvement efforts.
Both research and evaluation are essential for advancing knowledge and practice in various
fields.

Why research is of value?

Research is valuable because it provides a structured, systematic approach to obtaining

information that is designed to be as accurate and reliable as possible. Here's why research stands
out:
 1. Systematic Inquiry: Research involves a systematic process of inquiry, which includes
defining a problem, collecting data, analyzing it, and drawing conclusions. This
structured approach helps minimize bias and errors, leading to more reliable information.
2. Empirical Evidence: Research relies on empirical evidence—data collected through
observation or experimentation. This contrasts with intuition or anecdotal evidence,
which may not be as dependable.
3. Peer Review: Research findings are often subject to peer review, where other experts in
the field evaluate the work. This process helps ensure that the research methods and
conclusions are valid and that any errors are identified and corrected.
4. Replicability: One of the key aspects of research is replicability. Other researchers can
replicate the study using the same methods to verify the results. This helps confirm the
reliability of the findings.
5. Transparency: Research typically involves documenting methods, procedures, and
findings in detail. This transparency allows others to understand, evaluate, and build upon
the work.
6. Objective: Unlike personal experiences or intuition, research aims to be objective. By
following established methodologies and avoiding biases, research provides a clearer,
more accurate picture of the issue at hand.

Ways of Knowing:
1. Sensory Experience – the most immediate way of knowing. Sensory knowledge is
undependable; it is also incomplete. The data we take in through our senses do not
account for all (or even most) of what we seem to feel.To obtain reliable knowledge,
therefore, we cannot rely on our senses alone but must check what we think we know
with other sources.
2. Agreement with Others- while agreement with others can be a valuable way to verify and
validate sensory information, it is not infallible (reliable). Checking with others can help
confirm or correct our own perceptions and improve decision-making.
3. Expert Opinion-
4. Logical Reasoning
5. Scientific Method

Chapter 2 : The Research Problem

What Is a Research Problem?
A research problem is an issue or difficulty someone finds unsatisfactory and seeks to change or
improve. It can stem from various sources, including research literature, practical contexts, or
personal experiences.
Characteristics of Good Research Questions
1. The question is feasible (i.e., it can be investigated without expending an undue amount
of time, energy, or money).
Feasibility is an important issue in designing research studies. A feasible question is one
that can be investigated with available resources

2. The question is clear (i.e., most people would agree as to what the key words in the
question mean). What exactly is being investigated?
constitutive definition —that is, to use what is often referred to as the dictionary
approach.
clarification by example
operational definition
 3. The question is significant (i.e., it is worth investigating because it will contribute
important knowledge about the human condition). In essence, we need to consider
whether getting the answer to a question is worth the time and energy (and often money).

4. The question is ethical (i.e., it will not involve physical or psychological harm or damage
to human beings or the natural or social environment of which they are a part).

5. Research question investigates relationships

Chapter 3- Literature Review