LITERATURE REVIEW –

 Corrosion Study:
Lucy Li [1] introduces the critical issue of corrosion in aircraft structures, highlighting its potential for high
maintenance costs and catastrophic failures. Lucy Li positions various sensors, including Surface Acoustic Wave
sensors and graphene-based sensors, as instrumental in corrosion detection and monitoring within aircraft structures.
Notably, graphene-based sensors are emphasized for their ability to detect specific corrosion by-products and improve
the reliability of corrosion detection processes. Furthermore, discusses the industry's transition towards corrosion- and
crack-condition-based aircraft management strategies, aiming to facilitate early corrosion detection and integrate
corrosion rates into structural integrity assessments. This approach is anticipated to yield reduced maintenance costs
and enhanced aircraft availability, marking a significant advancement in ensuring the safety and reliability of aircraft
operations.

Mohd Rizal Arshad [2] provides an overview of the challenges and advancements in underwater sensor technology.
He emphasizes the crucial role of such technology in exploring ocean resources while highlighting challenges like bio-
fouling and limited energy resources. Mohd Rizal Arshad also discusses future challenges such as standard interfaces
and stability improvement, showcasing ongoing research in areas like optical fibre sensors and high-resolution
instruments. Overall, his introduction offers a comprehensive perspective on the current state and future directions of
underwater sensor technology.

W. J. Woodfin [3] introduces the importance of electrochemical sensors in measuring toxic gases and oxygen levels.
These sensors serve as dosimeter-alarms, ensuring workplace safety by providing time-weighted averages for toxic
gases. Some are tailored for intrinsic safety in explosive atmospheres, monitoring gases like SO2, H2S, and CO. often
integrated into combination monitors, they allow simultaneous tracking of multiple substances. Manufacturers offer
guidelines for calibration and usage, ensuring accurate and reliable performance. Woodfin offers a comprehensive
overview of electrochemical sensors' applications and significance in safety and environmental monitoring.

Yuichi Minagawa [4] discusses the development of compact Surface Plasmon Resonance (SPR) sensors for mobile
robot olfaction underwater, enabling efficient chemical detection. These sensors can be tuned to various substances for
enhanced selectivity using specific coatings. Experimental findings indicate challenges in water sample collection
impacting sensor response. Additionally, integrating electrochemical sensors with SPR sensors can further improve
chemical detection capabilities in underwater robots. Overall, Minagawa highlights advancements and challenges in
underwater sensor technology, particularly in enhancing chemical detection capabilities for mobile robots.

Serge Kernbach [5] presents a novel approach using nonlinear oscillators coupled by electric fields in water to enable
collective tasks in underwater robotics. These oscillators form a collective electrochemical sensor sensitive to
environmental parameters and spatial dynamics of Autonomous Underwater Vehicles (AUVs). Applications include
detecting AUV numbers, distances, dielectric objects, behaviour synchronization, and self/non-self discrimination. The
technique extends the range limitations of single AUVs and has been tested in both fresh and saltwater environments.
Additionally, a swarm of AUVs can interact with an electrical mirror to collectively recognize global situations.
Kernbach's work explains an innovative method that enhances underwater robotics capabilities through collective
sensing and interaction.

Xiaoqun Mao [6] introduces a new three-electrode electrochemical sensor designed with graphene nanocomposites
and ZnSe quantum dots for accurate detection of chemical feedstock residues. The sensor demonstrates effectiveness
with good conductivity and coverage performance for detecting chemical ions. Mao's work optimizes the sensor's
detection system, determining optimal conditions for chemical suppression time and amount in the electrode system.
Additionally, the sensor exhibits a high average recovery rate of chemical ions, indicating its accuracy in detecting
residues. Overall, Mao's research contributes to advancing electrochemical sensor technology for precise chemical
residue detection, with potential applications in various industries.

Brajesh Barse [7] introduces advancements in electrochemical sensor technology, emphasizing their low-cost, high-
sensitivity detection solutions with variable reporting signals. The importance of nanomaterials in enhancing sensor
performance is highlighted, particularly through the use of glassy-carbon electrodes with gold nanoparticles, which
show improved stability and sensitivity for detecting analysts like HCG. Electroanalytical sensors are also noted for
their increasing attention due to their selectivity and sensitivity across various fields. Additionally, the role of
nanocomposites, such as conducting polymers and nanoparticles, in enhancing biosensor sensitivity and selectivity is
discussed. Barse provides valuable insights into the ongoing advancements in sensor technology and their potential
applications across different industries.

Christine Chevallareau [8] introduces an innovative approach to coordinated underwater navigation, blending bio-
inspiration and a follower-leader multi-agent strategy. This approach utilizes direct servo control of electric
measurements, ensuring convergence of the control law for precise navigation. Additionally, the concept of zero
dynamics is highlighted, playing a crucial role in analysing closed-loop systems by characterizing the behaviour when
controlled outputs are zero. Overall, Chevallareau contributes to advancing underwater navigation strategies by
incorporating bio-inspiration and precise control mechanisms for effective exploration and operation.

Joseph R. Stetter [9] introduces the Electrochemical Society (ECS) as a key player in advancing sensor science and
technology. He emphasizes ECS's significant presence in science and engineering, highlighting its dedication to solid
state and electrochemical science. Stetter underscores ECS's contributions to sensor development, including
chronicling advancements in various sensor types. Furthermore, he highlights ECS's worldwide membership and its
commitment to sensor research across diverse disciplines. Overall, Stetter highlights ECS's crucial role in driving
innovation and progress in sensor technology.

 Robot – Design and Fabrication:

Azis [10] explains about the Unmanned Underwater Remotely Operated Vehicles (ROVs) face a range of challenges
including control system complexity, under actuated conditions, pose recovery, coupling issues, and communication
difficulties. These challenges are compounded by the crucial need for depth control and station keeping, which ensure
stability and efficient recovery in hazardous underwater environments. ROVs, connected by umbilical cables to
operators on the surface, vary in size and capabilities, making it essential to address these challenges through
interdisciplinary approaches. Azis’s contribution highlights the critical importance of station keeping for ROVs,
emphasizing its role in ensuring operational efficiency and safety amidst environmental disturbances.

The underwater metal detecting robot, as introduced by Snehal Chaure [11], boasts a sophisticated design featuring
components such as an ARM7 LPC2138 microcontroller, ZigBee module, pH sensor, temperature sensor, metal
detector, camera, DC motors, and L293D drivers. This setup enables wireless control and monitoring, facilitated by
ZigBee communication, for tasks including metal detection, pH measurement, temperature sensing, and live video
transmission. Chaure's contribution enhances the system's capabilities, emphasizing its effectiveness in efficient
underwater monitoring and metal detection operations through the integration of advanced sensors and wireless
communication technologies.

J. Yuh [12] encapsulates the burgeoning interest in autonomous underwater vehicles (AUVs) within underwater
robotics research. Yuh delineates the diverse applications propelling this interest, spanning environmental, scientific,
and military domains. Moreover, Yuh delves into the technical intricacies of underwater robot control, including
factors like added mass and hydrodynamic coefficients, underscoring the challenges of nonlinear dynamics and
uncertainties in hydrodynamics. Additionally, Yuh emphasizes the imperative for fault-tolerant systems in AUV
development, stressing the need for robust detection and accommodation of hardware and software faults. Overall,
Yuh's contribution provides a comprehensive overview of the motivations, technical challenges, and essential
considerations driving advancements in underwater robotics, enriching our understanding of this evolving field.

Cristian Nita [13] outlines an underwater system composed of three main components: the surface control interface,
intermediate device, and the robot itself. This system is equipped with 8 electric motors for movement control and two
video cameras for navigation and surveillance, making it suitable for diverse underwater tasks. Nita emphasizes its
broad utility in educational research, ocean exploration, and military operations. Additionally, Nita highlights the
system's connectivity to ships via an umbilical cord, often enhanced with a Tether Management System (TMS) for
deep underwater activities. Overall, Nita's introduction provides a comprehensive overview of the system's
architecture, capabilities, applications, and connectivity options, enriching our understanding of its significance in
underwater exploration and operations.

Andres El-Fakd [14] introduces a long-standing project aimed at engaging secondary school students in engineering
through the construction of underwater exploration robotic vehicles using low-cost materials. Through hands-on
project-based learning, students delve into various STEM disciplines including physics, engineering, electronics,
programming, and robotics. Over 13 years, the project has involved over 800 students, resulting in the creation of
about 200 underwater vehicles. Notably, the project introduces advanced concepts like Autonomous Underwater
Vehicles (AUVs) using open-source electronic platforms like Arduino boards for programming and testing.
Additionally, the project emphasizes safety and practicality by incorporating motor encapsulation techniques to enable
the safe usage of common 12 V DC motors underwater. El-Fakd highlights the project's significant contribution to
STEM education, fostering students' interest in engineering while providing hands-on experience in underwater
robotics.

Evgeny S. Ogurtsov [15] introduces the pressing global challenge of developing navigation and motion control
systems for underwater robots. He highlights the GNOM system, developed by the Shirshov Institute of Oceanology,
which comprises a main unit, cable, above-water unit, and manual Sony control panel. This system, based on the
MCS-51 microcontroller family, incorporates essential components like the quartz resonator, receiver-transmitter,
inverter, and switchboard for motor control. Operating in basic and computing modes, it facilitates data input, master
controls generation, and motor rotation control. Ogurtsov's contribution enriches our understanding of advancements
in underwater navigation technology, emphasizing the GNOM system's significance in addressing the challenges of
underwater exploration and research.

Louis L. Whitcomb [16] introduces the evolving field of commercial underwater robotics, highlighting advancements
and challenges. He emphasizes the development of new vehicle classes for specific deep-water tasks and
advancements in propulsion, power distribution, and telemetry systems to enhance performance and reliability.
Navigation and control system research aims to automate complex tasks for both AUVs and ROVs. Whitcomb also
stresses the importance of high power efficiency in AUV design to extend mission capabilities. His contribution
provides valuable insights into the industry's efforts to meet the demands of deep-water operations through innovation
and technological advancement.

Yu Minh Hung [17] outlines a remote control system designed for a 6 degrees of freedom (DOF) underwater robot,
employing acoustic transducers for communication. The system utilizes two coding methods, frequency, and pulse
coding, for communication flexibility. Components include a transmitter, receiver, and control algorithm for seamless
operation. Signal processing is facilitated by a 4-pole band pass filter, ensuring clarity and accuracy. The transmitter
comprises a processor, keypad interface, and coding algorithms for generating pulse signals. Hung's contribution
provides a comprehensive insight into the design and functionality of the remote control system for underwater
robotics applications.
Agus Budiyono [18] introduces recent advancements in unmanned underwater vehicles (UUVs), highlighting
increased interest in their design and development for diverse missions. He emphasizes key technological progress in
battery technology, fuel cells, communication, propulsion systems, and sensor fusion, enabling UUVs to extend their
capabilities comparable to manned vehicles. Budiyono also discusses recent advancements from modelling, control,
and guidance perspectives, underscoring innovative approaches to enhance UUV performance and the importance of
modelling in control synthesis. His contribution sheds light on the evolving landscape of UUV technology,
emphasizing efforts to improve control, navigation, and overall capabilities for underwater missions.

Matthew Joordens and M. Jamshidi [19] introduce the concept of consensus control in underwater swarm robotics,
emphasizing its decentralized nature for collaboration among robots. They highlight the communication challenges in
underwater environments, necessitating prediction-estimation algorithms and lower frequencies for effective control.
The use of Video Ray robots for experiments due to communication issues is mentioned, with plans to transition to
larger bodies of water for better performance. Additionally, they discuss the challenges posed by communication time
delays, impacting data accuracy and coordination among robots. Overall, their contribution addresses the complexities
of communication in underwater swarm robotics and proposes strategies to overcome these challenges for effective
collaboration.

Marco Controzzi's [20] paper addresses the need for a versatile gripping system in deep-sea environments for efficient
sampling procedures with ROVs. It identifies challenges including grasping force regulation, dimensions, closure
range, and closure speed. The investigation highlights the lack of a systematic treatise on manipulation procedures for
marine sampling and emphasizes the importance of understanding specific needs for technology development.
Controzzi's contribution lies in identifying task-related requirements for designing an innovative gripper and shared
control algorithms, emphasizing the need for efficient and versatile technologies to enhance deep-sea sampling
operations. The paper provides valuable insights into the challenges and requirements of deep-sea sampling
procedures and proposes solutions to improve efficiency and effectiveness.

Easton Potokar [21] introduces HoloOcean, an open-source underwater simulator on Unreal Engine 4. It features
multi-agent support and various underwater sensors, including a novel sonar sensor model using octree representation
for realistic imagery generation. The simulator allows easy customization of missions via JSON configuration,
enhancing flexibility. Future plans include adding more sonar sensors, GPU implementation of imaging sonar, ROS
wrapper for sensor data, and improved sensor noise simulations. HoloOcean's contribution lies in providing a versatile
platform for realistic underwater robotics simulations, fostering innovation and research in the field.

Huthaifa Ahmad Al-Issa [22] introduces the vital role of underwater robotics in exploring marine life and
environmental conditions. The prototype developed employs various hardware components for wireless remote
control, demonstrating practical implementation. The robot can navigate freely in three dimensions underwater,
offering both automatic and manual control mechanisms for self-protection and navigation. Al-Issa highlights the
robots' multitasking capabilities, providing valuable information on underwater conditions. Additionally, he traces the
historical evolution of robots from science fiction to practical applications across industries. Al-Issa's contribution
offers a comprehensive perspective on the significance and evolution of underwater robotics.

Piotr Szymak [23] proposes two projects, SLEDZIK and SABUVIS, aimed at developing Biomimetic Underwater
Vehicles (BUVs) with specific goals and timelines. The SLEDZIK project targets two BUV technology demonstrators
by 2016, while SABUVIS aims for a final demonstration by 2018, focusing on autonomous movement and obstacle
avoidance. Comparison tests between BUVs and traditional UUVs are planned to evaluate performance, and there's
international interest in Polish proposals for further BUV swarm control research. Overall, Szymak's contribution
highlights ongoing efforts to advance biomimetic underwater vehicle technology and international collaboration in
underwater robotics research.

Ruilin Wang [24] introduces a small underwater observation robot designed to detect deep water areas and sample
water quality. The robot utilizes a piston bucket for floating and diving and propellers for driving and assistance.
Equipped with cameras, depth sensors, and other instruments, it efficiently samples underwater data. It can hover at
any depth using internal pistons and propellers, with depth control managed through a PID algorithm. The robot's
tumbler performance, anti-roll function, and its resilience to water fluctuations and waves up to 1.25m, showcasing its
versatility and robustness in underwater exploration.

Howard H. Wang [25] introduces OTTER, an underwater robot serving as a testbed for autonomous technologies.
OTTER's hardware and software systems enable the development and testing of various underwater robotics concepts.
Its design parameters evolve from diverse technical requirements, and it employs commercial off-the-shelf propellers
optimized for efficiency and thrust production. OTTER was developed at MBARI's facility in California,
incorporating lessons from previous generations. Howard H. Wang's contribution emphasizes OTTER's role as a
versatile platform driving advancements in underwater robotics research and development.

Lapierre Lionel [26] introduces the field of underwater robotics, emphasizing the significance of control surface
actuation for high-velocity missions. Mission control systems must be reactive and deterministic to ensure safety in all
situations, considering environmental disturbances and dynamic model approximations. The goal is to prevent UUV
loss and ensure mission quality under nominal conditions. Lionel's introduction offers insights into the challenges and
considerations of underwater robotics control systems, emphasizing the need for robust and reliable control
mechanisms in this domain.

Laughlin D. L. Barker [27] introduces a comprehensive review covering scientific motivations, challenges, and
navigation systems for under-ice deployments. The use of various navigation systems such as Ultra-Short Baseline
(USBL), Two Way Travel Time (TWTT), and One Way Travel Time (OWTT) for communication with autonomous
underwater vehicles (AUVs). It also explores specific deployments of AUVs like Autosub Long Range AUV Boaty
McBoatface and UBC-Gavia in Antarctica, utilizing Dead Reckoning (DR) navigation solutions for ice shelf and
seabed morphology studies. Additionally, the paper touches upon the deployment of the Polar Autonomous
Underwater Laboratory (PAUL) in Fram Strait, employing a ship-mounted iXBlue GAPS USBL for mid-water
navigation aiding. Overall, Barker's contribution offers valuable insights into the scientific motivations, challenges,
and navigation techniques involved in under-ice deployments, serving as a comprehensive resource for researchers in
the field.

 Visual Inspection – Image Processing:

Huimin Lu [28] provides a comprehensive overview of underwater image processing methods, encompassing
techniques such as de-scattering, colour restoration, and quality assessment. The paper categorizes these methods into
software-based approaches and quality assessment methods, highlighting the diversity of strategies used in this field.
Additionally, Lu discusses physical model-based and non-physical model-based methods developed to address
scattering issues in underwater images, offering insights into overcoming challenges associated with underwater
imaging. Furthermore, the paper introduces various quality assessment measures, including the structural similarity
index and human perception methods, emphasizing the importance of evaluating the effectiveness of image processing
techniques. Overall, Lu's contribution serves as a valuable resource for understanding and evaluating underwater
image processing methods and their applications.

Rajasekar M [29] introduces a novel image processing algorithm aimed at detecting corrosion in underwater
infrastructure. This algorithm combines the Poisson-Gaussian-Mixture distribution, Fuzzy Segmentation, and weak-
classifier Colour based (WCCD) algorithms. The WCCD algorithm, highlighted for its superior performance
compared to other methods, efficiently identifies corroded areas in images using a bi-dimensional histogram of HS
values. With corrosion detection labels provided within 7-25 milliseconds, this algorithm offers a rapid and accurate
solution for identifying corroded regions in underwater structures. Overall, Rajasekar’s contribution provides an
innovative approach to corrosion detection, promising efficient and effective solutions for maintaining the integrity of
underwater infrastructure.

Stéphane Bazeille [30] introduces an automatic algorithm designed to enhance underwater image quality through pre-
processing. The algorithm addresses challenges such as non-uniform illumination, noise suppression, contrast
enhancement, and colour adjustment. It incorporates curvelets-based methods for contrast enhancement and image
demonising, along with deconvolution techniques. The separation of illumination and reflectance components is
achieved using logarithmic transformation and high-pass filtering. Anisotropic filtering, following Perona and Malik's
algorithm, is applied to reduce noise and enhance edges. The pre-processing results in improved edge definition, noise
reduction, and overall image quality, as evaluated through gradient magnitude histograms and a robustness criterion.
Bazeille's contribution offers a comprehensive and innovative approach to enhancing underwater image quality,
promising advancements in underwater imaging applications.

R. Prasath [31] introduces a variety of techniques used in underwater image processing to address challenges such as
low visibility and colour distortion. These techniques include Dark Channel Prior, histogram-based equalization, and
particle swarm optimization. The paper discusses filtering, adaptive contrast correction, and demonising using
algorithms like Karhunen-Loeve Transform and Wavelet Transform to enhance image quality and reduce noise.
Additionally, enhancement techniques such as histogram equalization, HSV colour space, and white balance
adjustments are explored for improving overall image quality. Prasath's contribution provides a comprehensive
overview of the methods employed in underwater image processing, providing valuable insights into addressing the
unique challenges of underwater imaging and enhancing visual quality.

Chikara Masuzaki [32] introduces a method combining template matching with Zero Mean Normalized Cross-
Correlation (ZNCC) for precise target detection and Proportional-Integral-Derivative (PID) control for vehicle
movement in tidal streams. The algorithm aims to maintain the target in front of the camera by capturing images,
processing them, and converting displacement to pulse width for output. Challenges include depth direction control
and attitude maintenance due to buoyancy force limitations, which can lead to tilted positions near the target. Future
considerations involve overcoming image processing restrictions in water and improving template matching by
enhancing the scaling of target images. Overall, provides an innovative approach to target detection and vehicle
movement control in underwater environments, while also identifying areas for further research and improvement.

Amjad Khan [33] introduces a novel method for estimating corrosion in subsea pipelines using image restoration and
enhancement techniques for degraded underwater images. The approach employs Wiener deconvolution filtering and
colour intensity distribution analysis for frequency domain processing. Tested on various datasets, including images of
corroded pipes from an offshore lab facility, the method shows high accuracy in corrosion estimation under different
blurring conditions. By applying de-hazing, colour compensation, and depth estimation techniques, image quality is
enhanced, enabling precise corrosion estimation. Khan's contribution offers an efficient and effective solution for
assessing corrosion in subsea pipelines through advanced image processing methods.

Muwei Jian [34] introduces the challenges and solutions in underwater image processing. Challenges include
underwater turbulence, diffusion, absorption, and scattering, leading to low contrast and colour distortion. Existing
methods encompass enhancement, noise reduction, segmentation, and colour constancy. Difficulties in obtaining
ground truths for underwater images are acknowledged, along with issues like turbidity and light refraction. Jian
mentions available datasets like RUIE and UIEB for research purposes. Various enhancement models, including deep
learning and colour correction, have been proposed to address these challenges. Jian's contribution provides of a
comprehensive overview of underwater image processing, providing insights into both the obstacles and
advancements in the field.

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