Introduction to

Global Climate
Change
UNIT 3 NATURAL CAUSES OF CLIMATE
CHANGE
Structure
3.1 Introduction
3.2 Objectives
3.3 Earth’s tilt, Rotation and Orbital Changes
3.3.1 Earth’s Obliquity

3.3.2 Earth’s Eccentricity

3.3.3 Earth’s Precession

3.3.4 Sunspot Activity

3.4 Meteors and Volcanic Eruptions
3.4.1 Meteors

3.4.2 Volcanic Eruptions

3.5 Changes in Ocean Currents
3.6 El Niño, La Niña Cycle and the Arctic Oscillation (AO)
3.6.1 El Niño

3.6.2 La Niña Cycle

3.6.3 Arctic Oscillation (AO)
3.7 Tectonic Plates Movements
3.8 Greenhouse Gases Emissions
3.8.1 Emissions from Wetlands

3.8.2 Emissions from Soils

3.9 Let Us Sum Up
3.10 Key Words
3.11 Suggested Further Reading/References
3.12 Answers to Check Your Progress

3.1 INTRODUCTION
Earth's climate is determined by a compilation of many things and factors.
These effects include effects from the primary factors of Earth's axial tilt
angle, Earth's orbital eccentricity, and the precession, as well as some
secondary, external effects, such as meteorite/asteroid impacts on the earth's
surface and solar activity from the sun, including sunspots, solar flares, and
solar winds/geomagnetic storms. The Sunspot activities occurs on 11-year
cycle and during this time the Earth receives more shoots off solar flares, and
blasts with solar wind and geomagnetic activity from the Sun. Natural
catastrophes like meteors and volcanic eruptions plays important role in
54 bringing climate change. Volcanic eruptions have played important role in
making life possible on the Earth. Ashes and sulphate aerosols from the Atmosphere and
volcanoes play significant role in reducing insolation to the Earth and hence Climate

caused negative radiative forcing. Both surface ocean currents and deep
ocean currents plays important role in distribution of temperature across the
globe. Phenomena like El Niño, La Niña cycle and the Arctic oscillation
(AO) contributes significantly in perturbing global climate as well. The
tectonic plate movement’s theory was proposed by scientist Alfred Wegener
in 1912. The movement of tectonic plates has contributed to the climate
change in terms of geological time scale i.e., between 3.3 to 3.5 billion years
ago. Breaking up of Pangaea has created to shift some continents nearer to
the Equator whereas drifting away for others. Formation of mountains
seaway, ocean etc. has made changes in the climate what is today. Last but
not the least, wetlands which is also called “nature’s kidney” plays significant
role in carbon sequestration i.e., trapping of carbon in the form of biomass
and nutrient cycling. Water saturation of soil makes the place conducive to
form methane and nitrous oxide. Like, wetlands, soil plays a great role in
carbon sequestration and nutrient cycling too. In this unit, we would be
discussing the natural causes of climate change like earth’s obliquity,
eccentricity, precession, volcanic eruptions, changes in ocean currents, etc.

3.2 OBJECTIVES
After studying this unit, you should be able to:

• explain the Earth’s tilt, rotation and orbital changes;

• explain the role of volcanic eruptions on climate change;
• explain the El Niño, La Niña Cycle and the Arctic Oscillation and
• explain the role of tectonic plates movement on climate change.

3.3 EARTH’S TILT, ROTATION AND ORBITAL

CHANGES
The Sun is the source of all life on Earth, and it is an important factor in
climate change. The total amount of solar radiation in the uppermost
atmosphere depends not only on how much energy the Sun emits at any
given time, but also on the position and tilt of the Earth in relation to the Sun.
It is these variations in the position and tilt of the Earth which explain the
long-term changes in climate on Earth, including the large changes observed
during the Ice Ages.

3.3.1 Earth’s Obliquity

The angle made between the Earth's axes of rotation with the vertical is
defined as Earth's obliquity. It ranges from 22.3 degrees to 24.5 degrees with
the vertical. It oscillates by 1.5 degree every 41,000 years. Today the
obliquity is about 23.5 degrees. This tilt decides the spatial difference of
incoming solar radiation during different months and so decides seasons on 55
Introduction to
Global Climate various locations at the Earth. More is the tilt greater is the extremes of the
Change climate. Increase in Earth's axial tilt with an angle more than 45 degrees can
lead to hotter summers and extremely cold in the northern hemisphere as
sunlight will be available for longer period of time and becoming closer to
the sun made it a better receptor of sunlight. In last 6,000–7,000 years, the tilt
of the Earth’s axis has decreased resulting in decrease solar irradiance during
the summer in the Northern Hemisphere, while the Tropics received less
incoming solar radiation.

Why tropics were colder at ancient times than now? One of the reasons
behind it was the larger axial tilt and as result had stronger monsoon
downpour than now and so the Sahara was a lush rainforest at that point of
time. Situation was reverse in case of northern hemisphere and so the
seasonal variations were much more then in comparison to now and so place
like Norway slowly started to form large glaciers and one of the such
examples could be Folgefonna which exists today but were not present in the
past.

3.3.2 Earth’s Eccentricity

Earth moves around the Sun in an elliptical path. The eccentricity in the orbit
of rotation makes the Earth as a whole sometime nearer and sometimes
farther from the Sun. Currently, Earth's eccentricity is about 0.0167, that is
nearer to the circular side of the eccentricity range Earth cycles through. In
last 100,000 years, Earth's eccentricity varied within the range of 0.005 to
0.0607. Eccentricity along with the axial tilt gives the seasonal variation to
the planet Earth.

3.3.3 Earth’s Precession

The Earth functions like a spinning top, rotates completely on its own axis in
24 hours. Earth’s spin axis never points towards the same direction relative to
the fixed stars. Instead, it slowly rotates. Due to this phenomenon, called
the precession of the equinoxes, the season (or day) when the Earth is at
perihelion (the point on the orbit that places Earth closest to the Sun) changes
with a periodicity of about 26,000 years. This precession movement is the
result of two other processes. “The first is Earth's wobbling motion
(slow axial precession), Ruddiman likens it to a top, how the top spins
rapidly, revolves around a point on the surface it's spinning on, and also
‘wobbles’ at the top of the top. Axial change of the Earth on its axis as it
rotates is called wobbling. The second process is called to as apsidal
precession i.e., the precession of the ellipse. In this second process, the entire
ellipse of Earth's orbital path rotates around the sun. When these two
processes are put together, they cause the solstices and equinoxes to
effectively move around the earth's orbital path to change how much solar
irradiation the hemispheres get during any given season”
(https://en.infon.in/33903903/1/orbital-effects-on-climate.html).
56
The precession of solstices and equinoxes plays an important role in Earth’s Atmosphere and
climate change. The solstices and equinoxes cause the seasons to occur at Climate

different times in Earth's revolution around the sun throughout a cycle at a

periodicity of about every 26,000 years. For example, in the Northern
Hemisphere, when the Earth is at its aphelion, farthest from the sun causes
the less temperature variation between winter and summer and vice-versa is
the case in the southern part. On the contrary, when the earth is at its
perihelion, closest to the sun, about 5,750 years later, then the differences are
most remarkable. At present the Earth is at aphelion, so the southern
hemisphere climate is more extreme whereas in the northern hemisphere
summers and winters are moderate.

3.3.4 Sunspot Activity

The total solar irradiance varies over time and can be related to the well-
known 11-year sunspot cycle. Higher sunspot activity yields increased solar
irradiance towards Earth, and vice versa. Actual observations of sunspots on
the sun’s surface reveal that the last half of the 1600s were a period of
abnormally little sunspot activity. Following this period, called the “Maunder
minimum”, sunspot activity has increased. However, direct measurements of
solar irradiance by satellites have not indicated any positive trends since
1978. This means that changes in solar irradiance alone cannot explain the
recent observed global warming.

“Our sun has a solar activity cycle of about 11 years. During which time, the
sun gets sunspots, shoots off solar flares, and blasts earth with solar wind
and geomagnetic activity. Despite the appearance that these events seem
random, they do overall follow a fairly steady cycle of approximately 11
years. The difference in average solar irradiation received by the earth due
to these ‘random’ events, though, is merely 0.1%. Overall, the total
irradiation generated by the sun, and received by the earth is a major factor
affecting Earth climate” (https://en.infon.in/33903903/1/orbital-effects-on-
climate.html). The total solar irradiation received by Earth's surface can be
calculated mathematically.

This can be done through the following equation:

Gt = GND + Gd + GR …………………………………………….3.1

Where,

Gt = Total solar irradiation received by Earth's surface;

GND = Direct irradiation from the sun;

Gd = Diffuse irradiation from nearby surroundings being heated up by the

sun; and

GR = The reflected irradiation from other nearby surfaces.

57
Introduction to
Global Climate 3.4 METEORS AND VOLCANIC ERUPTIONS
Change

3.4.1 Meteors
Meteors or asteroids are two important external forces that affect Earth's
climate. Just to imagine, asteroids only about two km in diameter can create
craters of 40 km i.e., 20-times in diameter at Earth's surface. Phenomena of
such an impact could throw huge amount of dust into the atmosphere as well
that prevents incoming solar radiation to reach upon the earth. Further, it also
perturbs the sea level, precipitation, temperature, ocean currents, and
atmospheric circulation.

“Asteroids and meteors are not, however, the only external forces to affect
Earth climate change. Variations in solar output can also bring about
climate change on the Earth. More specifically, varying amounts of sun
activity, including sunspots, solar flares, solar wind, and massive solar
radiation, can all be grouped together as geomagnetic storms, which
together, act to affect Earth's climate”
(https://en.infon.in/33903903/1/orbital-effects-on-climate.html).

3.4.2 Volcanic Eruptions

Volcanic eruptions are one of important natural factors that impact the
weather and climate. Volcanic activities emit huge amount of ashes, SO2,
HCl, CO2 and steam into the atmosphere. The impact has been recorded for
two-years or even more after the eruption. The volcanic activities have not
only injected the SO2 gas directly into the atmosphere but also the
transformation of it into sulphate aerosols.

There are various ways through which volcanic forcing affects or impacts the
climate. There is 1st phenomenon called aerosol-radiation interaction.
Sulphate aerosols are tiny enough and scatter back the incoming solar
radiation and so contribute as negative radiative forcing (RF) agent. 2nd
phenomena created as a result of creation of differential vertical or horizontal
heating which produces gradients and changes the circulation. Thirdly,
interactions with other modes of circulation, such as El Niño-Southern
Oscillation (ENSO) contribute to radiative forcing. 3rd impact is upon ozone
(O3) layer depletion. Depletion of stratospheric O3 triggers the heating up of
this layer provided availability of free-chlorine got enhanced and vice-versa.
Additionally, the reduced direct solar radiation impacts the vegetation and
hence impacts the global carbon cycle as well. Impact is not only upon the
carbon cycle but also upon hydrological cycle by impacting aerosol–cloud
interaction. The sulphate aerosols impact the clouds in the troposphere as
well. Lava, carbon dioxide (CO2), ash and particles got expelled under the
volcanic activity. Though CO2 has a positive radiative forcing effect but
average volcanic CO2 emissions contribution is less than 1% of emissions as
compared to anthropogenic contributions. Large volumes of gases, ash and
58 sulphate aerosols can influence climatic patterns for years by enhanced
planetary reflectivity causing overall atmospheric cooling i.e., negative Atmosphere and
radiative forcing. The last major volcanic eruption occurred was Mt Pinatubo Climate

in 1991and this has caused a decrease of 0.5 °C in the global temperature.

Even several volcanic eruptions of lesser magnitude have caused a RF for the
years 2008–2011 of –0.11 (–0.15 to –0.08) W m–2. This negative RF is
thought to have been an important factor in cooling the Earth’s surface during
the period called the little ice age (ca. 1550-1800AD).

3.5 CHANGES IN OCEAN CURRENTS

Hydrosphere in general and oceans in particular plays a crucial role in global
climate. The ocean has an interconnected current, or circulation system
powered by wind, tides, the Earth’s rotation (Coriolis effect), the sun (solar
energy), and water density differences. Ocean currents are of two types i.e.,
surface current and deep water. The topography and shape of ocean basins
and nearby landmasses impacts ocean currents as well. Surface currents are
driven by global wind systems that are governed by insolation from the sun.
Factors like wind direction, Coriolis force and the position of landforms that
interact with the currents impacts the surface current. Surface wind-driven
currents forms upwelling currents along with landforms, creating deep water
currents. Surface currents are located at the ocean surface whereas deep
water currents prevail below 300 meters. Deep water current can move water
both horizontally and vertically and occurrences could be on both local and
global levels. Deep ocean currents are density-driven and differ from surface
currents in scale, speed, and energy. Water density is affected by the
temperature, salinity (saltiness), and depth of the water. The colder and saltier
the ocean water, the denser it is. The more is the density gradient between
different layers in the water column, the greater the mixing and so is the
circulation. Density differences in ocean water contribute to a global-scale
circulation system, also called the global conveyor belt. Together, these
currents transport heat from the tropics to the higher latitudes. Warm water
from the tropics flows towards the poles in wind-driven surface-currents. On
cooling, it becomes denser and heavier, and got sink which began flowing
back toward the equator in a relatively slower but deep in the ocean. The
global conveyor belt includes both surface and deep ocean currents that
circulate the globe in a 1,000-year cycle. The global circulation system of the
ocean not only plays a key role in distributing heat energy, regulating
weather and climate, but also in transportation of nutrients and oceanic
productivity. In recent past, scientists have observed that the Atlantic Ocean's
circulation has slowed by about 15 %, and if it continues then it can have
serious implications on Earth's inhabitants by having much colder winters
and hotter summers in Europe, altered rainfall patterns in the tropics, and
warmer water building up along the U.S. coast. In year 2015, decline in cod
fishery recorded as a result of rapidly warming water in the Gulf of Maine,
which fits the pattern of slowing Atlantic circulation. Recede of warm water
from the East Coast also got related to 2011's destructive Hurricane Irene, as
59
Introduction to
Global Climate well as Superstorm Sandy in 2012.
Change
3.6 EL NIÑO, LA NIÑA CYCLE AND THE
ARCTIC OSCILLATION (AO)
Changes in climate are not due to the external factor alone. Climate system
itself can trigger a change in climate as well and positive feedbacks could be
the one. Phenomena like El Niño–La Niña cycle, which can cause warming
and cooling for a shorter span.

3.6.1 El Niño
During an El Niño event, the surface waters in the central and eastern Pacific
Ocean become warmer. El Nino is the “warm phase” of a
larger phenomenon called the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). El Niño
has an impact on ocean temperatures, the ocean currents, coastal fisheries,
and local weather from Australia to South America and beyond. It occurs
irregularly at an interval of 2 to 7 years. However, El Niño is not a regular
cycle, or predictable in the sense that ocean tides are. It was first recognized
by fishers off the coast of Peru as the appearance of unusually warm water.
Spanish immigrants called it El Niño, meaning “the little boy” when
capitalized, it means “the Christ Child”, as this phenomenon often arrived
around Christmas-eve.

Later, Sir Gilbert Walker in the 1930s and other climatologists determined
that El Niño occurs in concurrence with the Southern Oscillation.
The Southern Oscillation is a change in air pressure over the tropical Pacific
Ocean. Warmer the coastal water over the eastern tropical Pacific (El Niño)
lesser is the atmospheric pressure above the ocean. Climatologists define
these linked phenomena as El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO).

The Oceanic Nino Index (ONI) is used to measure deviations from normal
sea surface temperatures. During El Niño events the sea surface temperature
increases of more than 0.9° Fahrenheit for at least five successive three-
month seasons. The intensity of El Niño depends upon the temperature
change. It can have moderate or local effect on climate if temperature
increases by about 4–5° F to global if temperature increases by 14–18° F.

In reverse, La Nina, the “cool phase” of ENSO, is a pattern that describes the
unusual cooling of the region’s surface waters. El Niño and La Niña are
considered the ocean part of ENSO, while the Southern Oscillation is
its atmospheric changes. El Niño devastated western South American
fisheries and fertilizer industry. The South American fertilizer industry is run
by the droppings of seabirds, whose population declines during El Niño
events due to a reduction in their food source (fish). Similarly, El Nino has
devastating impact on agricultural-based Indian economy too by suppressing
monsoon rainfall.
60 El Niño does not support Upwelling!
Strong trade winds blow westward across the tropical Pacific. The tropical Atmosphere and
pacific is the region of the Pacific Ocean which is located between the Tropic Climate

of Cancer and the Tropic of Capricorn. These strong trade winds push warm
surface water towards the western Pacific bordering Asia and Australia.

“Due to the warm trade winds, rise in ocean surface got recorded by about
0.5 m higher and 45° F warmer in Indonesia than Ecuador. As a result, it
pushes warmer water westward. Upwelling is defined as the westward
movement of warmer waters that causes cooler waters to rise up towards the
surface on the coasts of Ecuador, Peru, and Chile. It elevates cold, nutrient-
rich water to the euphotic zone, the upper layer of the ocean. Nutrients in the
cold water include nitrates and phosphates. Tiny organisms
called phytoplankton use them for photosynthesis, the process that creates
chemical energy from sunlight. Other organisms, such as clams, eat the
plankton, while predators like fish or marine mammals’ prey on clams.
Upwelling provides food for a wide variety of marine life, including most
major fisheries. Fishing is one of the primary industries of Peru, Ecuador,
and Chile. Some of the fisheries include anchovy, sardine, mackerel, shrimp,
tuna, and hake. The upwelling process also influences global climate. The
warm ocean temperature in the western Pacific contributes to increased
rainfall around the islands of Indonesia and New Guinea. The air influenced
by the cool eastern Pacific, along the coast of South America, remains
relatively dry” (https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/el-
nino/print/).

3.6.2 La Niña
La Niña is a weather pattern that occurs in the Pacific Ocean. In this pattern,
strong winds blow warm water at the ocean's surface from South America to
Indonesia. As the warm water moves west, cold water from the deep rises to
the surface near the coast of South America.

3.6.3 The Arctic Oscillation (AO)

The Arctic oscillation (AO), is a large-scale mode of climate variability
which is also called as the Northern Hemisphere annular mode. It is a climate
pattern associated with winds circulating counter clockwise around the
Arctic at around 55°N latitude. AO brings warmer weather to parts of Europe
and North America and colder Arctic than usual. In the other phase of the
AO, it resulted into the opposite conditions i.e., Arctic warmer-than-usual
and sub-polar regions became colder. Because of this see-saw effect, the AO
has little effect on global temperatures, but can significantly influence local
and regional weather.

3.7 TECTONIC PLATES MOVEMENTS 61

Introduction to
Global Climate The outer shell of the Earth is called the lithosphere which is divided into
Change pieces called tectonic plates. Tectonic movement led to crustal thickening,
isostatic uplift and deformation of lithosphere. The movement of tectonic
plates has contributed to the climate change in terms of geological time scale
i.e., between 3.3 to 3.5 billion years ago. The plate tectonic
movement theory was first proposed by the scientist Alfred Wegener in 1912.
Wegener proposed that the present continents were once a single landmass
called Pangaea. Breaking up of Pangaea has moved some continents nearer to
the Equator whereas drifting away for others.

At one place, plates converges and mountains formed whereas at places

where plates pulled apart oceans formed. The continents closer to the equator
received more insolation than those at a distance and so had differential
heating pattern. Continents even now continues to move at the rate of about 3
cm per year. Creation of ocean, mountains, etc., has created different level of
interactions:

• Land-ocean

The thermal retention property of land varies to that of ocean. The continental
region gets colder in winter and warmer in summer than an oceanic region.
Since, water absorbs heat during the day time and retains it for a longer
period than the land. So, difference registered in day and night temperature at
land is more to that of ocean.

• Rain shadow

Formation of mountain ranges as a result of plate tectonic activity changes

the rainfall through the effects of orography. This happens as a result of
formation of a rain shadow on the leeward side of mountain belts. The
mountains block the passage of rain-producing weather systems and cast a
"shadow" of dryness behind them.

• Ocean currents

Global climate is also strongly controlled by ocean currents. Ocean currents

depend on the geometry of the oceans and this is controlled by plate
tectonics. Hence, over geological timescales the movement of plates and
continents has a profound effect on the distribution of land masses, mountain
ranges and the connectivity of the oceans. As a consequence, plate tectonics
has a very direct and fundamental influence on global climate. We already
discussed about ocean currents, El Nino, La Nina and arctic oscillation.

• Formation of sea way

The climate of modern Antarctica is extreme. Being located over the South
Pole, the continent is covered by glacial ice. But case was not the same 50
million years ago. Possibly a shallow seaway between Antarctica and South
America was there but both continents were moving together. About 50
62 million years ago, both South America and Antarctica started moving
differentially and as a result split apart very rapidly and the subsequent Atmosphere and
formation of Drake Passage. The Antarctic Circumpolar Current that Climate

completely encircles Antarctica and gives rise to the stormy region of the
Southern Ocean known as the roaring forties. The Antarctic circumpolar
current facilitates inter-ocean exchange of seawater and have reduced heat
transport to Antarctica, triggering the Oligocene global cooling as a result of
sequestered atmospheric CO2, contributing to global cooling and Antarctic
glaciation.

Check Your Progress 1

Note: i) Use the space given below for your answers.

ii) Check your answers with those given at the end of the unit.

1) What is Earth’s obliquity?

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2) What is El Nino?

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3) What is Arctic Oscillation?

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3.8 GREENHOUSE GASES EMISSIONS

63
Introduction to
Global Climate 3.8.1 Emissions from Wetlands
Change
Wetlands are an interface between terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems. They
are also called “nature’s kidney”. They are water saturated either throughout
the year or part of it. Swamps, marshes peat lands are those wetlands where
water remain available throughout the year whereas floodplains are those
where water saturation remain seasonally. Wetlands are sensitive ecosystem
and its role is prime in terms of carbon sequestration i.e., synthesis of
biomass and nutrient cycling and dynamics and greenhouse gases emission as
well. Growth of plants is faster in this ecosystem type so it scavenges CO2
from the atmosphere at a faster rate. But soil here is deficient of oxygen as a
result of water saturation. So, carbon that gets incorporated into the soil
decomposes at a very slow rate and can be trapped for hundreds or even
thousands of years. Meeting few favourable conditions like anaerobic
condition under high temperature condition leads to the production of two
prominent GHGs, like CH4 and N2O. Wetlands not only produce but also
store huge amount of CH4 as well. The potential of unit amount of CH4 to
cause global warming as compared to unit amount of CO2 is defined as
global warming potential (GWP) and it varied in terms of time scale we
compare. On a 100-year time scale, CH4 possesses 25 times higher global
warming potential than CO2. Natural wetlands release 177 to 284 Tg CH4
annually. Increase in temperature accelerates the production of CH4. Through
receipt of nitrogen in various forms from different sources like from run-off
of excess fertilizers from lands, decay of plant biomass or availability of
atmospheric nitrogen, nitrogen got fixed by the process of nitrification. In
nitrification NH4+ gets oxidized into nitrate (NO3−) via nitrite (NO2−). At the
same it also gets released through the process of denitrification i.e., reduction
of nitrate (NO3−) into nitrous oxide (N2O) and N2. N2O is a potential GHG
and it’s per molecule GWP is 298 times to that of CO2 over 100-year time
scale. Though, wetlands are evident in terms of GHG sink but interference of
human has destroyed this sensitive ecosystem and as a result it becomes one
of the potent contributors, about 1/3rd of total natural and anthropogenic
emissions of CH4 and N2O. Through models, scientists have predicted that
wetland CH4 feedbacks translate to an increase in additional global mean
radiative forcing of 0.04 W·m−2 to 0.19 W·m−2 by the end of the 21st century.

3.8.2 Emissions from Soils

Like wetlands, soils sequester considerable amount of terrestrial carbon and
nitrogen through the process of photosynthesis and nitrification respectively.
So, it reduces the atmospheric CO2 burden and enhances carbon and total
nitrogen stored in the soil. Terrestrial top soil accounts for 1500 Pg and 136
Pg, carbon and nitrogen pool respectively. But conversely, an unsustainable
agricultural practice has forced the soil to release carbon in the form of
carbon dioxide (CO2) and emission of N2O through the process of
denitrification. Further, CH4 in soils gets generated under anaerobic condition
64
by methanogenesis and it is used as substrate by
methanotrophic microorganisms which use O2 and CH4 for their metabolism Atmosphere and
under aerobic conditions. Similarly, as already discussed the emission of N2O Climate

is produced mainly by denitrification under anaerobic conditions, where the

water-filled pore space is more than 50%.

3.9 LET US SUM UP

Earth's climate is influenced by both natural and anthropogenic factors. As
regards the natural causes of climate change, the factors such as Earth's axial
tilt angle, Earth's orbital eccentricity, and the precession, as well as external
effects, such as meteorite/asteroid impacts on the earth's surface and solar
activity from the sun, including sunspots, solar flares, and solar
winds/geomagnetic storms influence the earth’s climate. Earth's obliquity
ranges from 22.3 degrees to 24.5 degrees with the vertical. It oscillates by 1.5
degree every 41,000 years. Presently, the obliquity is about 23.5 degrees. As
regards the earth’s eccentricity, it is about 0.0167. The Sunspot activities
occurs on 11-year cycle and during this time the Earth receives more shoots
of solar flares, and blasts with solar wind and geomagnetic activity from the
Sun. Natural catastrophes like meteors and volcanic eruptions plays
important role in bringing climate change. Ocean currents play important role
in distribution of temperature across the globe. Also, phenomena like El
Niño, La Niña cycle and the Arctic oscillation (AO) contributes significantly
in perturbing global climate. In this unit, we have discussed the Earth’s tilt,
rotation and orbital changes, the role of volcanic eruptions on climate change,
the El Niño, La Niña Cycle and the Arctic Oscillation and also the role of
tectonic plates movement on climate change.

3.10 KEY WORDS

El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO): The El Niño was initially used to
describe a warm-water current that periodically flows along the coast of
Ecuador and Peru, disrupting the local fishery. It has since become identified
with a basin-wide warming of the tropical Pacific Ocean east of the dateline.
This oceanic event is associated with a fluctuation of a global scale tropical
and subtropical surface pressure pattern called the Southern Oscillation. This
coupled atmosphere–ocean phenomenon, with preferred time scales of two to
about seven years, is known as the El Niño-Southern Oscillation (ENSO).

Solar (‘11-year’) cycle: A quasi-regular modulation of solar activity with

varying amplitude and a period of between 8 and 14 years.

Sunspots: Dark areas on the Sun where strong magnetic fields reduce the
convection causing a temperature reduction of about 1500 K compared to the
surrounding regions. The number of sunspots is higher during periods of
higher solar activity, and varies in particular with the solar cycle.

3.11 SUGGESTED FURTHER

65
Introduction to
Global Climate READING/REFERENCES
Change
Barry RG and Chorley RJ.(2010). Atmosphere, weather and climate.8th
Edition. Routledge, New York. pp.421.

Burroughs WJ (2007) Climate Change: A multidisciplinary approach. 2nd

Edition.Cambridge University Press. Pp.390. ISBN: 978-0-521-69033-1

Dessler A (2016) Introduction to Modern Climate Change. 2nd

Edition.Cambridge University Press. ISBN: 978-521-17315-5

Fletcher C (2018) Climate Change: What the science tells us. 2nd
Edition.John Wiley & Sons. Pp.336. ISBN: 978-1-118-79306-0

Houghton JT (2015) Global Warming: The complete briefing. 5th

Edition.Cambridge University Press. Pp.456. ISBN: 978-0-521-70916.

IPCC, (2013) Climate Change 2013: The Physical Science Basis.

Contribution of Working Group I to the Fifth Assessment Report of the
Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change [Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K.
Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A. Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and
P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United
Kingdom and New York, NY, USA, 1535 pp.

IPCC, (2018) Summary for Policymakers. In: Global Warming of 1.5°C. An

IPCC Special Report on the impacts of global warming of 1.5°C above pre-
industrial levels and related global greenhouse gas emission pathways, in the
context of strengthening the global response to the threat of climate change,
sustainable development, and efforts to eradicate poverty [Masson-Delmotte,
V., P. Zhai, H.-O. Pörtner, D. Roberts, J. Skea, P.R. Shukla, A. Pirani, W.
Moufouma-Okia, C. Péan, R. Pidcock, S. Connors, J.B.R. Matthews, Y.
Chen, X. Zhou, M.I. Gomis, E. Lonnoy, T. Maycock, M. Tignor, and T.
Waterfield (eds.)]. World Meteorological Organization, Geneva, Switzerland,
32 pp.

IPCC, 2013: Annex III: Glossary [Planton, S. (ed.)]. In: Climate Change
2013: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the
Fifth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change
[Stocker, T.F., D. Qin, G.-K. Plattner, M. Tignor, S.K. Allen, J. Boschung, A.
Nauels, Y. Xia, V. Bex and P.M. Midgley (eds.)]. Cambridge University
Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA

Web Links

http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg1/

http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg2/

http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/wg3/

http://www.ipcc.ch/report/ar5/syr/
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https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/el-nino/ Atmosphere and
Climate
https://en.infon.in/33903903/1/orbital-effects-on-climate.html

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/encyclopedia/el-nino/print/

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/ocean-currents-and-climate/

https://www.nationalgeographic.org/media/ocean-currents-and-climate/

https://www.sofarocean.com/posts/understanding-surface-currents-vs-deep-
ocean-currents

https://www.ipcc.ch/sr15/

3.12 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress 1

1) The angle made between the Earth's axes of rotation with the vertical is
defined as Earth's obliquity. It ranges from 22.3 degrees to 24.5 degrees
with the vertical. It oscillates by 1.5 degree every 41,000 years.
Presently, the obliquity is about 23.5 degrees. This tilt decides the spatial
difference of incoming solar radiation during different months and so
decides seasons on various locations at the Earth.

2) El Nino was first recognized by fishers off the coast of Peru as the
appearance of unusually warm water. Spanish immigrants called it El
Niño, meaning “the little boy” when capitalized, it means “the Christ
Child”, as this phenomenon often arrived around Christmas-eve. During
an El Niño event, the surface waters in the central and eastern Pacific
Ocean become warmer. El Nino is the “warm phase” of a
larger phenomenon called the El Nino-Southern Oscillation (ENSO). El
Niño has an impact on ocean temperatures, the ocean currents, coastal
fisheries, and local weather from Australia to South America and
beyond. It occurs irregularly at an interval of 2 to 7 years. However, El
Niño is not a regular cycle, or predictable in the sense that ocean tides
are.

3) The Arctic oscillation (AO), is a large-scale mode of climate variability

which is also calledas the Northern Hemisphere annular mode. It is a
climate pattern associated with winds circulating counter clockwise
around the Arctic at around 55°N latitude. AO brings warmer weather to
parts of Europe and North America and colder Arctic than usual. In the
other phase of the AO, it resulted into the opposite conditions i.e., Arctic
warmer-than-usual and sub-polar regions became colder. Because of this
see-saw effect, the AO has little effect on global temperatures, but can
significantly influence local and regional weather.

UNIT 4 ANTHROPOGENIC CAUSES OF

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