REIM IV

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
METHODOLOGIES
Leedy & Ormrod Chapter 7
 QUALITATIVE RESEARCH
• Qualitative research approach encompasses several approaches
to research that are, in some respects, quite different from one
another.
• However, all qualitative research approaches have two things in
common, namely:
- They focus on phenomena that occur in natural settings, i.e. in the
real world.
- They involve studying those phenomena in all their complexity.
• Qualitative researchers try to portray the issue in its multifaceted
form.
• Most researchers strive for objectivity in their research.
• They believe that their observations should be influenced as little as
possible by any perceptions, impressions, biases they may have.
• Maintaining objectivity maximise the chances of determining the
ultimate truth.
• But some qualitative researchers are an exception in this regard
(social sciences issues cannot be studied in the same way as
physical events).
• Qualitative researchers believe that the researcher’s ability to
interpret and make sense of what he/she sees is critical for
understanding any social phenomenon.
• In a qualitative research, the researcher is an instrument of research.
• Academic disciplines using qualitative studies include:
- Anthropology;
- Sociology;
- History;
- Political science;
- Medicine;
- Psychology; and
- education
• Many researchers believe that all enquiry starts out in a
qualitative form.

• When little information exists on a topic, when variables are

unknown, when a relevant theory base is inadequate or missing,
a qualitative study can help define what is important, i.e. what
needs to be studied.
The nature of the Research Problem and
Planning in Qualitative Research
• Qualitative researchers often formulate only general research
problems and ask only general questions about the phenomenon
they are studying.
• As a study proceeds, the qualitative researcher gains increasing
understanding of the phenomenon under investigation and so
becomes increasingly able to ask specific questions and formulate
specific hypotheses.
• Because qualitative researchers tend to ask open-ended questions at
the beginning of an investigation, they may sometimes have difficulty
to identify ahead of time the exact methods they will use.
• Initially, they may select only a general approach suitable for the
purpose, and ultimately, perhaps select a case study,
phenomenology, ethnography, grounded theory or content analysis.
• As they learn more about what they are studying, so can ask more
specific questions, and so too, can better specify the methods
they should use to answer the research questions.
• Clearly, the methodology in a qualitative research evolves over the
course of the investigation.
• However, it should be emphasised that qualitative research
requires considerable preparation and planning.
• The researcher must be well trained in observation techniques,
interview strategies.
• The researcher must have a firm grasp of previous research
related to the problem so that he/she observes.
• Researcher must also be adept at wading through huge
amounts of data and finding a meaningful order in what, to
someone else, may seem like chaos.
• For these reasons, a qualitative study can be a challenging task
indeed. It is definitely not the approach to take if you are looking
for quick results and easy answers.
 When to Choose a Qualitative
Approach?
• Qualitative research studies typically serve one or more of the
following purposes:
- Descriptive. They can reveal the nature of certain situations,
settings, processes, relationships, systems, or people.
- Interpretation. They enable a researcher to:
(a) gain new insights about a particular phenomenon,
(b) Develop new concepts or theoretical perspectives about the
phenomenon,
(c) Discover the problems that exist within the phenomenon.
- Verification. They allow a researcher to test the validity of
certain assumptions, claims, theories, or generalisations within
real-world contexts.
- Evaluation. They provide a means through which a researcher
can judge the effectiveness of particular policies, practices, or
innovations.
• As a general rule, qualitative studies do not deal with cause-
effect relationships. For instance, what caused what? Why did
such and such happen?
• Quantitative research is suitable to answer such questions.
 SAMPLING DESIGNS:
Probability Sampling
• With regard to probability sampling, the researcher can specify
in advance that each segment of the population will be
represented in the sample.
• This is what makes probability sampling different from
nonprobability sampling.
• In practice, the components of the sample are chosen from the
larger population by a process known as random selection.
• Random selection means choosing a sample in such a way that
each member of the population has an equal chance of being
selected.
• In this way, the researcher can assume that the characteristics of the
sample approximate the characteristics of the total population.
• Example (sample from the class - characteristics).
• There are many methods of random selection. Example:
- We could assign each person in the population a different number,
then use arbitrary/random method of picking certain numbers.
- Drawing out of the hat, or
- Using a computer’s random number generator.
- A table of random numbers. (random numbers table, page 200).
Specific Probability Sampling
Techniques
• Simple Random Sampling: The sample is chosen by simple random
selection, whereby every member of the population has an equal chance
of being selected.
• It is easy when the population is small and all of its members are known.
• Stratified Random Sampling:
- Think of Grades 4, 5 and 6 in public school. This is a stratified population.
- It has three different layers (strata) of distinctly different types of
individuals.
- In stratified random sampling, the researcher samples equally from each
one of the layers in the overall population.
- Example: Figure 9.9, page 203.
• Proportional Stratified Sample:
- Note. In the simple stratified random sampling design, all the strata of the
population are essentially equal in size.
- In proportional stratified sample, the situation is different.
- For example, a survey is conducted using a certain community made up of
the following people: 1000 Jewish, 2000 Catholics, and 3000 Protestants.
- For every Jewish person, there should be two Catholics and three
Protestants.
- In this situation, the people are not obviously segregated into the different
strata, so the first step is to identify the members of each stratum and
then select a random sample from each one. (Figure 9.10, page 204).
• Cluster Sampling:
- Sometimes the population of interest could be spread out over a
large area to such an extent that it may not be feasible to make up a
list of every person living within the area, and select a sample for a
study through normal randomization procedures.
- In this case, we should have a map of the area showing political
boundaries or other subdivisions.
- We can then subdivide an expansive area into smaller units (Wards)
- In cluster sampling, it is important that the clusters be as similar to
one another as possible, with each cluster containing an equally
heterogeneous mix of individuals.
- A subset of the identified clusters is randomly selected. The
sample should consist of the people within each of the chosen
clusters.

- Using community religious groups, let’s assume the community

is a large city that we have divided into 12 areas, or clusters.

- We randomly select clusters 1, 4, 9 and 10, and their members

become our sample. Figure 9.11, page 204.
• Systematic sampling
- Involves selecting individuals or clusters according to a
predetermined sequence.
- The sequence must originate by chance.
- For instance tossing a coin; heads dictates that we start with
first with the odd-numbers, while tails dictates we start first with
the even numbers.
- If comes down tails, we start with 2, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12.
- Figure 9.12 page 205
 Nonprobability Sampling
• Here the researcher has no way of forecasting or guaranteeing that each element
of the population will be represented in the sample.

• This means some members of the population have little or no chance of being
sampled.

• 3 Types of nonprobability sampling are:

- Convenience sampling
- Quota sampling
- Purposive sampling
• Convenience Sampling (also known as accidental sampling).
• Makes no pretense of identifying a representative subset of a
population.
• It takes people or other units that are readily available. For example the
class of Btech at Walter Sisulu.
• Convenience sampling may be appropriate for some less demanding
research problems.
• Not all research need to be collected through careful, thoughtful
sampling procedures.
• But without such safeguards, the conclusions drawn from the research
may not be trustworthy.
• Quota Sampling
- Is a variation of convenience sampling.
- It selects respondents in the same proportions that they are
found in the general population, but not in the random fashion.
- For example let’s say a population of Walter Sisulu University
students, number of gentlemen equal that of ladies.
- Quota sampling will choose, say, 20 gentlemen and 20 ladies
without any attempt to select these individuals randomly from
their overall population.
• Purposive Sampling
- In this sampling technique, people or other units of analysis are
chosen, as the name implies for a particular purpose.
- For example, we might choose people who we have decided are
“typical of a group or those who represent diverse perspectives on
an issue”.
- Agencies that forecast elections frequently use purposive sampling:
they may choose a combination of voting districts that, in past
elections, have been quite useful in predicting the final outcomes.
- For example: Makinor – using urban areas.
- Purposive sampling may be very appropriate for certain
research problems.
- However, the research should always provide a rationale
explanation why he or she selected the particular sample of
participants.