BEHAVIORISM

Learning Objective
1. Describe key behaviorist theories and contributors, such as Pavlov, Thorndike,
Watson, and Skinner.
2. Explain neo-behaviorism and its contributors, including Tolman and Bandura.
3. Discuss Gestalt Psychology, Information Processing, and Gagne’s Conditions of
Learning.
4. Analyze Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal Learning/Subsumption Theory and Bruner’s
Constructivist Theory.
5. Apply the Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives and Sternberg’s
Successful Intelligence Theory to foster problem-solving and creativity in learning.
6. Evaluate the effectiveness of these theories in enhancing learner motivation and
development.

INTRODUCTION

Behaviorism is a theory in psychology that focuses on observable behaviors rather

than internal mental states. It suggests that all behaviors are acquired through
conditioning and can be understood and changed through these processes.

IVAN PAVLOV(1849-1936)
He was a Russian physiologist who won the Nobel prize in 1904 for his work on the
digestive system. He accidentally discovered the nature of reflex when he was studying
the digestive system of dogs.

Pavlov's Experiment. Before conditioning, ringing the bell neutral stimulus)

caused no response from the dog. Placing food conditioned conditioned
stimulus) in front of the
dog initiated salivation response). During conditioning, the bell was rung a few
seconds before the dog was presented with food. After conditioning, he ringing
of the bell (conditioned stimulus) alone produced salivation conditioned
response). This is classical
conditioning. See illustration below:
Stimulus Generalization.
Once the dog has learned to salivate at the sound of the bell, it will salivate at other
similar sounds.

Extinction.
If you stop pairing the bell with the food, salivation will eventually cease in response to
the bell.

Spontaneous Recovery.
Extinguished responses can be "recovered" after an elapsed time, but will soon
extinguish again if the dog is not presented with food
Discrimination.
The dog could learn to discriminate between similar bells (stimuli) and discern which
bell would result in the presentation of food and which would not.

Higher-Order Conditioning.
Once the dog has been conditioned to associate the bell with food, another
unconditioned stimulus, such as a light may be flashed at the same time that the bell is
rung. Eventually, the dog will salivate at the flash of the light without the sound of the
bell.

Edward L. Thorndike (1874-1949)

He is an American psychologist and educator who posited the theory of connectionism
in learning. He is credited for his experiments on the maze and the problem box that he
used on animals. He believed that animals learned through reward and punishment or
trial and error. Thorndike saw humans as the most advanced animal, because they
make more associations or connections. For him, learning encompasses the
development of associations or connections that becomes established according to the
law of effect (Hergenhahn & Olson, 2005). He developed standardized tests that aided
in determining student success. He put forward the stimulus-response techniques and
gave emphasis to different kinds of reinforcements and effects of behavior (Gordon &
Williams, 2017).
He came up with three primary laws:
Law of Effect.
The law of effect states that a connection between a stimulus and response is
strengthened when the consequence is positive (reward) and the connection between
the stimulus and the response is weakened when the consequence is negative.
Thorndike later on, revised this "law" when he found that negative rewards
(punishment) do not necessarily weaken bonds, and that some seemingly pleasurable
consequences do not necessarily motivate performance.
Law of Exercise.
This tells us that the more an S-R (stimulus- response) bond is practiced the stronger it
will become. "Practice makes perfect" seem to he associated with this. However, like
the law of effect, the law of exercise also had to be revised when Thorndike found that
practice without feedback does not necessarily enhance performance.
Law of Readiness.
This states that the more readiness the learner has to respond to the stimulus, the
stronger will be the bond between them. When a person is ready to respond to a
stimulus and is not made to respond, it becomes annoying to the person.

Principles Derived from Thorndike's Connectionism:

1. Learning requires both practice and rewards (laws of effect/ exercise)

2. A series of S-R connections can be chained together if they belong to the same
action sequence (law of readiness).

3. Transfer of learning occurs because of previously encountered situations.

4. Intelligence is a function of the number of connections learned.

John Watson. John B. Watson was the first American psychologist to work with Pavlov's
ideas. He too was initially involved in animal studies, then later became involved in
human behavior research.

John B. Watson 1878-1958

He considered that humans are born with a few reflexes and the emotional reactions of
love and rage. All other behavior is learned through stimulus-response associations
through conditioning. He believed in the power of conditioning so much that he said that
if he is given a dozen healthy infants he can make them into anything you want them
be, basically through making stimulus-response connections through conditioning.
Burrhus Frederick Skinner (1904-1990)
An American psychologist who asserted that he could transform any kind of behavior by
manipulating certain attributes of the environment. He put premium on rewards and
punishment as reinforcements for continuing or discontinuing behavior. When a child is
repeatedly praised or given a reward for something that he or she does, then this
behavior is repeated.
Operant Conditioning is based upon the notion that learning is a result of change in
overt behavior. Changes in behavior are the result of an individual's response to events
(stimuli) that occur in the environment. A response produces a consequence such as
defining a word, hitting a ball, or solving a math problem. When a particular Stimulus-
Response (S-R) pattern is reinforced (rewarded), the individual is conditioned to
respond.

Reinforcement is the key element in Skinner's S-R theory. A reinforcer is anything that
strengthens the desired response. There is a positive reinforcer and and a negative
reinforcer.

A positive reinforcer is any stimulus that is given or added to increase the response.
A negative reinforcer is any stimulus that results in the increased frequency of a
response when it is withdrawn or removed.

A negative reinforcer is different from a punishment because a punishment is a

consequence intended to result in reduced responses.

Skinner also looked

into extinction or non-
reinforcement:
Responses that are not reinforced are not likely to be repeated. For example, ignoring a
student's misbehavior may extinguish that behavior.

Shaping of Behavior
~~An animal on a cage may take a very long time to figure out that pressing a lever will
produce food. To accomplish such behavior, successive approximations of the behavior
are rewarded until the animal learns the association between the lever and the food
reward. To begin shaping, the animal may be rewarded for simply turning in the
direction of the lever, then for moving toward the lever, for brushing against the lever,
and finally for pressing the lever.

Behavioral chaining
comes about when a series of steps are needed to be learned. The animal would
master each step in sequence until the entire sequence is learned. This can be applied
to a child being taught to tie a shoelace. The child can be given reinforcement (rewards)
until the entire process of tying the shoelace is learned.

Reinforcement Schedules.
Once the desired behavioral response is accomplished, reinforcement does not have to
be 100%; in fact, it can be maintained more successfully through what Skinner referred
to as partial reinforcement schedules. Partial reinforcement schedules include interval
schedules and ratio schedules.

Fixed Interval Schedules.

The target response is reinforced after a fixed amount of time has passed since the last
reinforcement. Example, the bird in a cage is given food (reinforcer) every 10 minutes,
regardless of how many times it presses the bar.

Variable Interval Schedules.

This is similar to fixed interval schedules but the amount of time that must pass between
reinforcement varies. Example, the bird may receive food (reinforcer) different intervals,
not every ten minutes.

Fixed Ratio Schedules.

A fixed number of correct responses must occur before reinforcement may recur.
Example, the bird will be given food (reinforcer) everytime it presses the bar 5 times.
Ratio Schedules
The number of correct repetitions of the correct response for reinforcement varies.
Example, the bird is given food (reinforcer) after it presses the bar 3 times, then after 10
times, then after 4 times. So the bird will not be able to predict how many times it needs
to press the bar before it gets food again.

Variable interval and especially, variable ratio schedules produce steadier and more
persistent rates of response because
the learners cannot predict when the reinforcement will come although they know that
they will eventually succeed.
Implications of Operant Conditioning. These implications are given for
programmed instruction.

1. Practice should take the form of question (stimulus) answer (response) frames which
expose the student to the subject in gradual steps.

2. Require that the learner makes a response for every frame and receives immediate
feedback.

3. Try to arrange the difficulty of the questions so the response is always correct and
hence, a positive reinforcement.
4. Ensure that good performance in the lesson is paired with secondary reinforcers such
as verbal praise, prizes and good grades.

Principles Derived from Skinner's Operant Conditioning:

1. Behavior that is positively reinforced will reoccur; intermittent reinforcement is

particularly effective.

2. Information should be presented in small amounts so that responses can be

reinforced ("shaping").
3. Reinforcements will generalize across similar stimuli ("stimulus generalization")
producing secondary conditioning.

Neo Behaviorism
What is Neo Behaviorism?
Neo-behaviorism bridges the gap between behaviorism and cognitivism. Like
Thorndike, Watson, and Pavlov, the neo-behaviorists believe that the study of learning
and a focus on rigorously objective observational methods are crucial to a scientific
psychology.

Edward C. Tolman
He was an American psychologist and a professor of psychology at the University of
California, Berkeley. Through Tolman's theories and works, he founded what is now a
branch of psychology known as purposive behaviorism.
Tolman's Purposive Behaviorism
Tolman believed that learning is a cognitive processes which means learning involves
forming and obtaining knowledge about the environment and then revealing the
knowledge through purposeful and goal directed behavior. Tolman stated in his theory,
that an organism learns by pursuing signs to a goal, example: learning is acquired
through meaningful behavior. He stressed the organized aspect of learning: "The stimuli
which are allowed in are not connected by just simple one-to-one switches to the
outgoing responses. Rather the incoming impulses are usually worked over and
elaborated in the central control room into a tentative cognitive-like map of the
environment. And it is this tentative map, indicating routes and paths and environmental
relationships, which finally determines what responses, if any, the animal will finally
make."
Tolman's form of behaviorism stressed the relationship between stimuli rather than
stimulus-response. Tolman said that a new stimulus (the sign) becomes associated with
already meaningful stimuli (the significate) through a series of pairings; there was no
need for reinforcement in order to establish learning.

Tolman Key Concept

Learning is always purposive and goal-directed.
Tolman asserted that learning is always purposive and goal- directed. He held the
notion that an organism acted or responded for some adaptive purpose. He believed
individuals do more than merely respond to stimuli; they act on beliefs, attitudes,
changing conditions, and they strive towards.

Cognitive maps in rats.

In his most famous experiments, one group of rats was placed at random starting
location in a maze but the food was always in the same location. Another group of rats
had the food placed in different locations which always required exactly the same
pattern of turns from their starting location. The group that had the food in the same
location performed much better than the other group, supposedly demonstrating that
they had learned the location rather than a specific sequence of turns. This is tendency
to "learn location" signified that rats somehow formed cognitive maps that help them
perform well on the maze. He also found that organism will select the shortest or easiest
path to achieve a goal.

Latent learning
Latent learning is a kind of learning that remains or stays with the individual until
needed. It is learning that is not outwardly manifested at once. According to Tolman it
can exist even without reinforcement. He demonstrated this in his rat experiments
wherein raw apparently "learned the maze" by forming cognitive maps of the maze, but
manifested this knowledge of the maze only when they needed to.

The concept of intervening variable.

Intervening variables are variables that are not readily seen but serve as determinants
of behavior. Tolman believed that learning is mediated or is influenced by expectation
perceptions, representations, needs and other internal or environmental variables.
Example, in his experiments with rats he found that hunger was an intervening variable.
Reinforcement not essential for learning.

Tolman concluded that reinforcement is not essential for learning, although it provides
an incentive for performance. In his studies, he observed that a rat was able to acquire
knowledge of the way though a maze, to develop a cognitive map, even in the absence
of reinforcement.
Albert Bandura
He was a psychologist who developed social learning theory. He studied children in
order to understand how they learn from others. His studies showed that children imitate
each other because they observe the actions of others and copy them. This process is
called observational learning.

Bandura Social-Learning Theory

Social learning theory focuses on the learning that occurs within a social context. It
considers that people can learn from one another, including such as concepts of
observational learning, imitation, and modeling.
Observational learning - is a major component of Albert Bandura's social learning
theory, this method of learning consists of observing another individual’s behavior,
attitudes, or emotional expressions.
Imitation - is the action of using someone or something as a model.
Modeling - is an Instructional strategy wherein the teacher engages students by
showing them how to perform a skill or something related to the topic while describing.

1. People can learn by observing the behavior of others and the outcomes of those
behaviors.
2. Learning can occur without a change in behavior. Behaviorists that learning has to
be presented by a permanent change in behavior, in contrast, social learning theorists
say that because people can learn through observation alone, their learning may not be
necessarily be shown in their performance. Learning may or may not result in a
behavior change.
3. Cognition plays a role in learning. Over the last 30 years social learning theory has
been increasingly cognitive in it's Interpretation of human learnings.
4. Social learning theory can be considered a bridge or a transition between behaviorist
learning theories and cognitive learning theories.

● The observer is reinforced by the model.

● The observer is reinforced by a third person.
● The imitated behavior itself leads to reinforcing consequences.
 ● Consequences of models behavior affect the observers behavior vicariously. This
is known as vicarious reinforcement.

Conditions necessary for effective modeling to occur.

Bandura mentions four conditions that are necessary before an individual can
successfully model the behavior of someone else.

1. Attention - The person must first pay attention to the model.

2. Retention - The observer must be able to remember the behavior that has been
observed. One way of increasing this is using the technique of rehearsal.
3. Motor reproduction - The third condition is the ability to replicate the behavior that
the model has just demonstrated.
4. Motivation - The final necessary ingredient for modeling to occur is motivation.

Effects of modeling on behavior

Modeling teaches new behaviors.
Modeling influences the frequency of previously learned behaviors.
Modeling may encourage previously forbidden behaviors.
Modeling increases the frequency of similar behaviors.
 Gestalt Psychology

Objective:
• Describe the different gestalt principles.
• List ways of applying gestalt psychology in the teachinglearning
process.
• Demonstrate appreciation of the usefulness of gestalt
principles in the teaching-learning process.
INTRODUCTION
Gestalt psychology was at the forefront of the cognitive psychology. It served as the
foundation of the cognitiveperspective to learning.

Gestalt theory was the

initial cognitive
response to
behaviorism. It emphasized the importance of sensory wholes and the dynamic nature
of visual perception. The
term gestalt means "form" or "configuration." Psychologists Max Wertheimer, Wolfgang
Kohler and Kurt Koffka studied perception and concluded that perceivers (or learners)
are not passive, but rather active.

GESTALT PRINCIPLE
INSIGHT LEARNING
Gestalt psychology adheres to the idea of learning taking place by discovery or insight.
The idea of insight learning was first developed by Wolfgang Kohler in which he
described experiments with apes where the apes could use boxes and sticks as tools to
solve problems. In each of these problems, the important aspect of learning was not
reinforcement, but the coordination of thinking to create new organizations (of
materials). Kohler referred to this behavior as insight or discovery learning.

Gestalt Principles and the Teaching – Learning Processing

The six gestalt principles not only influence perception but it also impact on
learning. Other psychologists like Kurt Lewin expounded on gestalt psychology. His
theory focusing on “life space” sheered to gestalt psychology. He said that an
individual has inner and outer forces that affect his perceptions and also his
learning. Inner theces include his own motivation, attitudes and feelings. Outer
forces may include the attitude and behavior of the teacher and classmates. All
these forces interact and impact on the person’s learning. Mario Polito, an Italian
psychologist, writes about the relevance of gestalt psychology to education.

INFORMATION PROCESSING
INTRODUCTION
Information processing is a cognitive theoretical framework that focuses on how
knowledge enters and is stored in and is retrieved from our memory. It is one of the
most significant cognitive theories in the last century and it has strong implications on
the teaching-learning process.

• Cognitive psychologists believe that cognitive processes influence the nature of what
is learned. They consider learning as largely an internal process, not an external
behavior change (as behaviorist theorists thought). They look into how we receive,
perceive, store and retrieve information. They believe that how a person thinks
about and interprets what s/he receives shape what he/she will learn. All these notions
comprise what is called the information processing theory.
TYPES OF KNOWLEDGE
• General vs. Specific: This involves whether the knowledge is useful in many tasks, or
only in one.
• Declarative- This refers to factual knowledge. They relate to the nature of how things
are. They maybe in the form of a word or an image. Examples are your name, address,
a nursery rhyme, the definition of IPT, or even the face of your crush.
• Procedural- This includes knowledge on how to do things. Examples include making
a lesson plan, baking a cake, or getting the least common denominator.
• Episodic – This includes memories of life events, like your high school graduation.
• Conditional- This is about “knowing when and why to apply declarative or procedural
strategies.

STAGES IN THE INFORMATION PROCESSING THEORY

The stages of IPT involve the functioning of the senses, sensory register, short-term
memory and the long-term memory. Basically, IPT asserts three primary stages in the
progression of external information becoming incorporated into the internal cognitive
structure of choice (schema, concept, script, frame, mental model, etc.).

THREE (3) PRIMARY STAGES in IPT

1. Encoding – Information is sensed, perceived and attended to.
2. Storage - The information is stored for either a brief or extended
period of time, depending upon the processes following encoding.
3. Retrieval – The information is brought back at the appropriate time
and reactivated for use on a current task, the true measure of
effective memory.

SENSORY REGISTER
• Capacity: Our mind receives a great amount of information but it is more than what
our minds can hold or perceive.
• Duration: The sensory register only holds the information for an extremely brief
period- in the order of 1 to 3 seconds.
• There is a difference in duration based on modality: auditory memory is more
persistent than visual.

The Role of Attention

• To bring information into consciousness, it is necessary that we give attention to it.
Such that, we can only perceive and remember later those things that pass through our
attention "gate".
• Getting through this attentional filter is done when the learner is interested in the
material; when there is conscious control over attention, or when information involves
novelty, surprise, salience, and distinctiveness.
• Before information is perceived, it is known as “precategorical” information. This
means that until that point, the learner has not established a determination of the
categorical membership of the information. To this point, the information is coming in as
uninterpreted patterns of stimuli. Once it is perceived, we can categorize, judge,
interpret and place meaning to the stimuli. If we fail to perceive, we have no means by
which to recognize that the stimulus was ever encountered.

Long-Term Memory (LTM)

The LTM is the final or permanent storing house for memory information. It holds the
stored information until needed again.
• Capacity: LTM has unlimited capacity.
• Duration: Duration in the LTM is indefinite
Executive Control Processes
The executive control processes involve the executive processor or what is referred to
as metacognitive skills. These processes guide the flow of information through the
system, help the learner make informed decisions about now to categorize, organize or
interpret information. Examples of processes are attention, rehearsals and organization.

Forgetting

Forgetting is the inability to retrieve or access information when needed.

There are two main ways in which forgetting likely occurs:
• Decay - Information is not attended to, and eventually ‘fades” away. Very prevalent in
Working Memory.
• Interference – New or old information ‘blocks’ access to the information in question.

Methods for Increasing Retrieval of Information

• Rehearsal – This is repeating information verbatim, either mentally or aloud.
• Meaningful Learning – This is making connections between new information and
prior knowledge.
• Organization – It is making connections among various pieces of information. Info
that is organized efficiently should be recalled
• Elaboration – This is adding additional ideas to new information based on what one
already knows. It is connecting new info with old to gain meaning
• Visual Imagery – This means forming a “picture” of the information.
• Generation – Things we produce’ are easier to remember than things we ‘hear.
• Context – Remembering the situation helps recover information.

Other Memory Methods

Serial Position Effect (recency and primacy) – You will remember the beginning and
end of a ‘list more readily.

Part Learning – Break up the “list’ or “chunk” information to increase memorization.

Distributed Practice - Break up learning sessions, rather than cramming all the info in
at once (Massed Practice).
Mnemonic Aids – These are memory techniques that learners may employ to help
them retain and retrieve information more effectively. This includes the loci technique,
acronyms, sentence construction, peg-word and association techniques, among others
Gagne’s Conditions of Learning
Objective:
• Explain Gagne’s conditions of learning.
• Make a simple lesson outline (teaching sequence) using Gagne’s
instruction events.
• Articulate the benefits of using Gagne’s principles in teaching

INTRODUCTION
Gagne’s Condition of Learning
Gagne’s theory deals with all aspects of learning. However, the focus of the theory is on
intellectual skills. The theory has been utilized to design instruction in all domains.

Gagne’s Principles
1. Different instruction is required for different learning outcomes.Gagne’s theory
asserts that there are several different types or levels of learning. Furthermore, the
theory implies that each different type of learning calls for different types of instruction,
which is Gagne named it the five categories of learning: verbal information, intellectual
skills, cognitive strategies, motor skills and attitudes.
2. Learning hierarchies define what intellectual skills are to be learned and a
sequence of instruction. Gagne suggests that learning tasks for intellectual skills can
be organized in a hierarchy according to complexity: stimulus recognition, response
generation,
procedure following, use of terminology, discriminations, concept formation, rule
application, and problem solving.

3. Events of learning operate on the learner in ways that constitute the conditions
of learning.These events should satisfy or provide the necessary conditions for
learning and serve as the basis for designing instruction and selecting appropriate
media.
Gagne’s Five(5) Categories of Learning

Categories of learning Example of Learning Condition of Learning

outcome
Verbal Information Slating previously learned 1. Draw attention to
materials such as facts, distinc- tive features
concepts, principles and by variations in print
procedures, e.g., listing the or speech.
14 learner-centered 2. Present information
psychological principles so that it can be
 made into chunks.
3. Provide a
meaningful context
for effective
encoding of
information
4. Provide cues for
effective recall and
generalization.

Intellectual Skills: Discriminations: 1. Call attention to

Discriminations, Concrete Distinguishing objects, distinctive features.
Concepts, Defined features or symbols, e.g., 2. Stay within the limits
Concepts, Rules, Higher distinguishing an odd of working memory.
Order Rules number 3. Stimulate the recall
of previously
Concrete Concepts: learned component
Identifying classes of skills.
concrete objects, features 4. Present verbal cues
or events, e.g., picking out to the ordering or
all the red beads from a combination of
bowl of beads . component skill.
5. Schedule
Defined Concepts: occasions for
classifying new examples practice and spaced
 of events or ideas by their review.
definition, e.g., noting “she 6. Use a variety of
sells sea shells” as context to promote
alliteration Order Rules: transfer
Applying a new
combination of rules to
solve a complex problem,
e.g.. generating a balanced
budget for a school
organization

Cognitive strategy Employing personal ways 1. Describe or

to guide leaming, thinking, demonstrate the
 acting and feeling, e.g.. strategy.
constructing concept maps 2. Provide a variety of
of topics being studied occasions for
practice using the
strategy.
3. Provide informative
feedback as to the
creativity or
originality of the
strategy or outcome.

Attitude Choosing personal actions 1. Establish an

based on internal states of expectancy of
understanding and feeling, success associated
e.g., deciding to avoid soft with the desired
drinks and drinking a least attitude.
8 glasses of water 2. Assure student
everyday identification with an
admired human
model.
3. Arrange for
communication or
demonstration of
choice of personal
action.
 4. Give feedback for
successful
performance;or
allow observation of
feedback in the
human model.

Motor Skills Executing performances 1. Present verbal or

involving the use of other guidance to
muscles, e.g.. doing the cue the executive
steps of the singkil dance subroutine.
2. Arrange repeated
practice.
 3. Furnish immediate
feedback as to the
accuracy of
performance. 4.
Encourage the use
of mental practice.

Gagne’s Nine(9) Instructional events

Instructional events Learning Rationale

 Example/Condition of
Learning outcome

1. Gaining Attention Teacher tells learners how Giving background

she has used in the information creates validity
classroom, Shows an The use of multimedia
example of a powerpoint grabs the audience ‘s
Asks learners questions attention Asking questions
about using PowerPoint in the beginning creates an
interactive atmosphere

2.Informing the Learner Teacher says, “Today we Make learners aware of

of the objective are going to work on using what to expect so that they
 a multimedia presentation are aware and prepared to
software, Microsoft receive information
PowerPoint

3. Stimulating Recall of For this particular group of When learning something

Prior Learning learners, they have learned new, accessing prior
previously about Microsoft knowledge is a major
Windows, particularly factor in the process of
Microsoft Word. Teacher acquiring new information.
associates this knowledge
with lesson at hand
4.Presenting the Teacher gives students The goal is information
Stimulus hands- on, step-by-step acquisition, therefore, the
tutorial on using Microsoft stimulus employed is
PowerPoint written content and the
actual software program.

5.Providing Learner Teacher demonstrates how Teacher uses “discovery

Guidance to create a presentation. learning” because learners
Teacher moves around are adults and it gives
and shows students how to them the freedom to
use the tools to type in explore. Teacher facilitates
text, add links, add the learning process by
symbols and clip art, insert giving hints and cues when
 videos and diagrams, use needed. Since the
sounds, etc. Learners are audience are pre-service
allowed to try the tools with some basic level of
demonstrated in partners technology skills and the
on their computers. software program is easy
to follow and understand,
guidance is minimal

6.Eliciting Performance Teacher asks students to Requiring the learner to

demonstrate Powerpoint produce based on what
tools. has been taught enables
the learner to confirm
his/her leaming. Regular
 feedback enhances
learning.

7. Giving Feedback Teacher gives immediate apply it. Assessing such

feedback to learners after gives instructors a means
eliciting responses. of testing student learning
outcomes.

8. Assessing Assign a practice activity Independent practice

Performance Create an electronic story forces students to use
book using Microsoft what they learned and
powerpoint. Teacher
checks work.
9. Enhancing Retention Teacher asks learners to Applying learning in reallife
and Transfer create activities using situations is a step towards
Powerpoint presentation Mastery Learning.
for 6th grade pupils.
Teacher also assigns
learner to teach another
learner how to make
powerpoint presentations
 Ausubel’s Meaningful Verbal
Learning/ Subsumption Theory
Objective:
• explain Ausubel’s subsumption theory.
• Determine the uses of graphic organizers.
• Use advance graphic organizers for a topic presentation.

Introduction

Ausubel’s theory knowledge is hierarchically organized; that new information is

meaningful to the extent that it can be related (attached, anchored) to what is already
known. It is about how individuals learn large amounts of meaningful material from
verbal/textual presentations in a school setting. He proposed the use of advance
organizers as a tool for learning.

Focus of Ausubel’s Theory

 1. quantity, clarity and organization of the learner’s present knowledge. This
present knowledge consists of facts, concepts, propositions, theories and raw
perceptual data that the learner has available to him/her at any point in time.

2. Cognitive structure.The way to strengthen the student’s cognitive structure is

by using advance organizers that allow students to already have a bird’s eye
view or to see the “big picture” of the topic to be learned even before going to the
details.

Ausubel’s belief of the use of advance organizers is anchored on the of learning was
principle of subsumption. He thought that the primary way of learning was
subsumption: a process by which new material is related to relevant ideas in the
existing cognitive structure.

Four Processes:
• Derivative subsumption. This describes the situation in which the new
information you learn is an example of a concept that you have already
learned

• Correlative subsumption. The elaboration, extension, or modification of the

previously learned concept or propositions by the subsumptions of the incoming idea
(Driscoll, 2000).
• Superordinate learning. Describes the situation in which the new
information I learn is a concept that relates known examples of a concept.

• Combinatorial learning. This is when newly acquired knowledge combines with prior
knowledge to enrich the understanding of both concepts.

Advance Organizers
Is an instructional unit that is used before direct Instruction, or before a new topic:this is
sometimes called a hook, set induction, or anticipatory set.
Gives you two benefits: (1) You will find it easier to connect new information with
what you already know about the topic, and (2) you can readily see how the
concepts in a certain topic are related to each other.

Types of advance organizers

1. Expository describes the new content.
2. Narrative presents the new information in the form of a story to students.
3. Skimming is done by looking over the new material to gain a basic
overview
4. Graphic organizer visuals to set up or outline the new information. This
may include pictographs, descriptive patterns, concept patterns, concept
maps.
 The Revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of Educational Objectives

Objective
•Formulate learning outcomes reflecting the different levels of the revised
taxonomy.
•Explore the use of technology apps in applying the revised taxonomy.

INTRODUCTION
This Module will present the original and the revised Bloom’s Taxonomy of
Educational Objectives. Although the revised taxonomy came out years ago, it is
important to still present both the old and the revised to have a complete
understanding and better appreciation of the taxonomy’s use in education.

Benjamin Bloom (1913-1999)

He was the Associate Director of the Board for Examination in the University of
Chicago. They needed a way of classifying questions shared by faculty members
to form a test bank. For six years, from 1949 to 1956, he led a group of experts to
come up with a framework to classify objectives.
OLD TAXONOMY (1956)
Cognitive Domain was published. Initially, the purpose was simply to have a framework
to classify test questions that faculty members shared. It became so relevant and
useful in education. Since then, it has been used in planning the curriculum, planning
learning activities and assessment.

Bloom’s taxonomy was a model that described the different levels of learning
outcomes that target what skills and competencies the teachers aim to develop in
the learners.The taxonomy in the cognitive domain contains the six(6) level
progress.

knowledge-teaching with facts, stating memorized rules, principles or definitions

Comprehension-understanding concepts, rules and principles
Application-using them in real-life situations
Analysis-understanding and mastery of these applied concepts, rules and
principles.Students may compare, contrast, classify, further investigate, etc.
Synthesis- A higher level of thinking is when students put together elements of what
has been learned in a new way
Evaluation-They come up with a holistic, complete, more integrated, or even a new
view or perspective of what was learned.
Revised Taxonomy

After 45 years since the publication of Bloom's taxonomy, Lorin Anderson (Bloom's
former student) and David Krathwohl led a new group of experts to work together. The
result was what is now called the revised taxonomy.

Differences between the old and the revised taxonomies:

1. Levels or categories of thinking in the old taxonomy were nouns, while in the revised
taxonomy they are verbs. The use of action words instead of nouns was done to high
highlight that thinking is an active process. For example, evaluate instead of evaluation,
or analyze instead of analysis.

2 . While the revised taxonomy remains to be in hierarchical levels of increasing

complexity, it is intended to be more flexible, in that it allows the categories to overlap.
For example some action words in understand level, like explain, may appear to be
more complex than the action word, show in the apply level. However, when we look
into the six levels from remember to create, we will still find that, over-all, the taxonomy
proceeds in a hierarchical order.

3.The knowledge level was changed to remember. The change was made because
knowledge does not refer to a cognitive or thinkinglevel.Knowledge is the object of the
thinking. Remember is a thore appropriate word for the first thinking level which involves
recalling and retrieving knowledge.

4. The comprehension level was changed to understand. Teachers ate likely to use the
word understand when referring to their work rather than comprehension.

5. Synthesis was changed to create and was placed as the highest level,

6. The cognitive domain now includes two dimensions: the cognitive dimension and the
knowledge dimension. The knowledge dimension of the revised taxonomy was based
on subcategories of knowledge in the old taxonomy.
Practical Guide in Using the Revised Taxonomy
Sternberg's Successful Intelligence Theory and WICS Model

Objective
● explain Sternberg's Successful Intelligence Theory and WICS Model.
● demonstrate enjoyment of working on WICS-based tasks and activities.
● prepare a lesson guide that is based on the WICS model.

INTRODUCTION
Robert Sternberg did extensive work in the field of intelligence. As a youngster, he had
difficulty with intelligence tests. He did not perform well on such tests. This might have
fueled his interest in the field that led him to come up with the Triarchic Theory of
Intelligence in the 1980's.

Roberto J sternberg
is currently the Provost and Professor of Psychology at the Oklahoma State University
Ph.D. Stanford University, 1975 (Psychology) BA summa cum laude, Yale University,
1972 (Psychology) has 13 honorary doctorate degrees including one conferred by De
Le Salle University, Mahila Philippines in 2011.
Successful Intelligence Theory
1. Memory skills help us recall facts and pieces of information. It helps us retain the
knowledge we acquire.

2. Analytical skills help the person determine if a certain idea is good.

3. Creative skills allow a person to come up with a new idea, usually to answer a need
or solve a problem. It makes one flexible and able to adjust to changes in one's
situation.

4. Practical skills enable a person to apply what one has learned.

The WICS Model
intelligence is viewed as a set of fluid abilities to learn from experience and to adapt to
one's surroundings. Individuals possess abilities that can be nurtured into competencies
and further cultivated into expertise. The WICS is a more recent model of how humans
think and reason that can help us understand how students will learn.

WICS stands for Wisdom, Intelligence, Creativity, Synthesized. Sternberg (2010).

The basic idea is that citizens of the world need creativity to form a vision of where they
want to go and to cope with changes in the environment, analytical intelligence to
ascertain whether their
creative ideas are good ones, practical intelligence to implement their ideas and to
persuade others of the value of their ideas, and wisdom in order to ensure that the ideas
will help achieve some ethically-based common good, over the long and short terms,
rather than just what is good for them and their families and friends.

Your role as a teacher is not to educate the mind alone, but to educate the soul as
well. Accept this not just as a job but embrace it as a mission.
Sternberg proposed that while education develop analytical and practical intelligence as
well as creativity, wisdom should be an integral part of the whole process. Whatever
topic you will be teaching, it is important to integrate questions, tasks or activities that
target the development of wisdom. You should also come up with creative ways for your
learners to put together or synthesize intelligence, creativity and wisdom.
Applying the WICS Model
reflect and make choices on the tasks and activities that you will give to teach and
assess your students.Your choice can be based on the preferences and strengths of
your learners. This is useful for any level, from preschool to higher education.

Analytic Intelligence
1. Analyze
2. Critique
3. Judge
4. Compare and contrast
5. Evaluate
Creative Intelligence
1. Create
2. Invent
3. Discovery
4. Imagine if..
5. Supposed that…
6. Predict