Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 10 (2024) 100825

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Case Report

Research progress and state-of-the-art on solar membrane desalination

Maryam Nooman AlMallahi a , Jawad Mustafa b, c , Ali H. Al-Marzouqi b , Mahmoud Elgendi a, d, *
a
Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, College of Engineering, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
b
Chemical and Petroleum Engineering Department, UAE University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
c
Chemical Engineering Department, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
d
National Water and Energy Center, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, P.O. Box 15551, United Arab Emirates

A R T I C L E I N F O A B S T R A C T

Keywords: The global problem of water scarcity continues to grow because of population growth and climate change.
Renewable energy Membrane distillation (MD) stands out as a progressing technology, demonstrating the potential for integration
Scientometrics with operating systems powered by solar energy. Despite the increasing interest in solar-powered MD, existing
Water purification
literature primarily focuses on the technical aspects of the technology. There is a notable lack of comprehensive
Machine learning
analyses that explore broader research trends, key contributors, and thematic evolution within this field. This
paper addresses this gap by employing bibliometric analysis and machine learning approaches to explore trends
in solar membrane desalination based on publications from 2014 to 2023. 991 publications were analyzed from
various aspects, such as publications, countries, institutions, and research trends. Hot keywords include
“membrane distillation”, “reverse osmosis”, “energy efficiency”, and “evaporation”. China had the highest
number of publications and h-index, followed by the United States, and Saudi Arabia. The study clustered the
keywords into three themes: membrane distillation, membrane materials, and reverse osmosis. Analysis of the
thematic map reveals seven main research topics in solar-powered membrane desalination, classified according
to their degree of relevance. Finally, future directions of membrane desalination are highlighted, including
exploring economic and environmental aspects.

1. Introduction supply will result in approximately 700 million people displaced by

2030. Another study predicts a substantial rise in freshwater consump­
According to a report from the United Nations, the world’s popula­ tion due to the projected expansion of the global middle class, which is
tion will increase by 2 billion over the next 30 years, with a growth rate expected to reach 4.9 billion by 2030. The International Energy Agency
exceeding 0.84 % annually [1]. Therefore, approximately 9.7 billion warns that global energy consumption will increase by 35 % by 2035,
people will live on Earth by 2050 and 10.4 billion by 2080 [2], indi­ leading to a 15 % rise in water usage [6]. Fig. 1 illustrates the anticipated
cating a significant risk of freshwater scarcity for humanity. UNICEF water stress at the country level by the year 2050. Therefore, desalina­
reports that under our current water usage policies, at least two-thirds of tion can save the population by providing safe, hygienic fresh water.
the world’s population faces severe water scarcity for at least one month The process of desalinating brackish and seawater is experiencing
each year [3]. Presently, around 2 billion individuals reside in areas significant growth, primarily to meet the water needs of urban and in­
where the water supply is insufficient for their daily needs. By 2025, dustrial expansions in arid/semi-arid regions and remote areas, where
approximately 1.8 billion people will inhabit regions plagued by water is either unavailable or expensive [8]. The expansion of this
extreme water scarcity [4]. Additionally, as the global population grows market is fueled by various factors: water scarcity resulting from limited
by approximately 1 billion individuals, agriculture worldwide will water supplies, population growth, improved lifestyles leading to
require 1 trillion cubic meters of water annually, equivalent to 20 times increased water demand, climate changes, and human activities
the annual flow of the Nile River [2]. diminishing water availability [9,10]. The desalination process involves
A UN study suggests that around 2025, as few as 30 countries could extracting salts from saline feedwater, rendering it suitable for drinking
experience a severe water crisis on a global scale [5]. Inadequate water [11]. There are two main categories of desalination technologies:

* Corresponding author. Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering, College of Engineering, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, United Arab
Emirates.
E-mail address: [email protected] (M. Elgendi).

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.cscee.2024.100825
Received 14 May 2024; Received in revised form 12 June 2024; Accepted 23 June 2024
Available online 24 June 2024
2666-0164/© 2024 The Authors. Published by Elsevier Ltd. This is an open access article under the CC BY-NC license (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-
nc/4.0/).
M.N. AlMallahi et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 10 (2024) 100825

Fig. 1. Forecast of water stress by 2050 [7] (CC-BY-ND).

thermal and membrane. Thermal desalination methods, such as Multiple Text mining (TM) is locating and extracting implicit, undetermined,
Effect Distillation (MED) and Multi-stage Flash (MSF), utilize heat to and possibly significant information from a large-scale data collection
separate distilled water from saline water [12]. However, membrane utilizing ML, natural language processing (NLP), and statistics [20].
desalination contributed 73 % of the global installed and operational Despite the increasing interest in solar-powered membrane distillation,
capacity in 2016, while thermal techniques only contributed 27 % [13]. the existing literature primarily focuses on the technical aspects of the
Since the inception of reverse osmosis (RO) membranes in the 1960s, technology. There is no comprehensive analysis that explores the
continuous developments in membrane separation have propelled RO to broader research trends, key contributors, and thematic evolution in this
a dominant position within the desalination market [14]. Outside the field. Consequently, there is a lack of studies that systematically analyze
Middle East, membrane-based desalination processes, particularly RO, the field using tools such as bibliometric analysis and machine learning.
hold a significant advantage in installation capacity [15]. However, in This review maps the landscape of solar membrane distillation over the
North Africa and the Middle East, the shift from thermal desalination to past decade (2014–2023). Utilizing clustering algorithms reveals the­
membrane technology is taking place at a slower pace due to the pres­ matic clusters within the literature. This review is a comprehensive
ence of economically viable fuel and co-generation plants [16]. In the reference for researchers, policymakers, and industry professionals
last decade, electrodialysis (ED) has emerged as a prominent interested in solar membrane desalination. By consolidating the existing
membrane-based technique that has captured a substantial portion of knowledge and research efforts, it provides a holistic overview of the
the market [17]. Additionally, emerging desalination methods such as advancements, challenges, and potential applications of solar mem­
membrane distillation (MD) and forward osmosis (FO) have growth brane desalination for sustainable water management.
potential.
Bibliometric analysis is a popular way to obtain a statistical overview 2. Background
of a topic. This method identifies the topic’s maturity and original
research themes and processes [18]. Over the previous ten years, there 2.1. Desalination significance in water scarcity mitigation
has been a tremendous expansion in the field of bibliometric research.
Most bibliometric analysis evaluates the results of countries, authors, Desalination is pivotal in mitigating the water scarcity problem, of­
journals, and affiliations using machine learning (ML) and visualization fering a practical solution to regions grappling with insufficient fresh­
tools. The most often used program for scientometric analysis is the water resources [21]. The increasing global concern over water
Biblioshiny tool, a part of the Bibliometric package in the R program­ scarcity—driven by population growth, climate change, and
ming language. Clustering is a machine learning technique in which over-exploitation of traditional water sources—underscores the critical
similarity between variables is found using unsupervised learning importance of desalination [22]. Desalination provides a valuable
methods [19]. Clustering techniques have several uses in understanding alternative in areas with limited access to conventional freshwater res­
data structure. ervoirs, such as rivers and lakes [23]. It addresses the mounting water

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M.N. AlMallahi et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 10 (2024) 100825

demand accompanying population growth and urbanization, particu­ development in membrane materials and system designs continuously
larly in coastal regions where seawater is readily available. enhance the efficiency and sustainability of these crucial systems [42].
Furthermore, desalination enhances climate resilience in regions This transition signifies a significant stride toward more sustainable
prone to droughts and other climate-related challenges by tapping into a water management practices, aligning with broader goals of reducing
consistent seawater source unaffected by weather patterns. Ongoing greenhouse gas emissions and fostering a resilient and eco-friendly
technological advancements in desalination have improved efficiency, water infrastructure.
making it a more sustainable solution [24,25]. Despite its benefits, it is
essential to acknowledge the challenges of desalination—including 2.3. Solar technologies for membrane desalination
environmental impacts, high energy requirements, and costs. Therefore,
while recognizing the significance of desalination in water scarcity Efficient utilization of solar energy is paramount in examining the
mitigation, a comprehensive and sustainable water resource manage­ contribution of solar power to membrane desalination. Unlike thermal
ment approach should integrate desalination with conservation efforts: desalination, which relies on essential heating, membrane desalination
efficient water use practices and the exploration of diverse water sources systems predominantly benefit from solar technologies associated with
[26]. electricity generation [43,44]. However, it is worth noting that in spe­
The expansion of desalination is driven by the widespread water cific cases, such as membrane distillation, heating remains a crucial
scarcity experienced in numerous countries. In July 2016, the cumula­ aspect. This section focuses on two pivotal solar tech­
tive global capacity for desalination in freshwater production reached nologies—Photovoltaic (PV) and Solar Thermal—underscoring their
95.6 million cubic meters per day, facilitated by 18,983 projects significance in membrane desalination.
worldwide [27]. This cumulative capacity reflects the combined output
of contracted projects and installed plants. As of the end of 2017, the (a) Photovoltaic Technology (PV): Harnessing Solar Energy for
global cumulative desalination capacity reached 99.8 million cubic Electricity Generation
meters per day, encompassing the total plants considered for analysis
since 1965. The estimated operational capacity of desalination plants Photovoltaic (PV) technology directly transforms solar energy into
constituted 93 % of the total installed capacity [28]. electricity by employing solar panels comprised of diverse layers to
capture photons and initiate the photovoltaic effect [45–47]. This phe­
2.2. Membrane desalination technologies nomenon results in the liberation of electrons from atoms in the semi­
conductor, generating an electric current. Typically, the produced DC is
The progression of membrane technology has instigated a trans­ converted into AC through an inverter for seamless integration with the
formative shift in the desalination domain, gradually displacing con­ grid [48]. PV systems can incorporate batteries to store energy, ensuring
ventional thermal desalination methods [29]. Historically, processes a consistent power supply during periods of diminished solar radiation
like thermal vapor compression and multi-effect distillation were prev­ [49]. Key factors influencing PV performance encompass solar radia­
alent in seawater desalination. Still, membrane-based technologies, tion, panel technology, dimensions, irradiance temperature, shade, and
particularly reverse osmosis (RO), have emerged as more soiling. The modular design of PV systems facilitates a broad spectrum of
energy-efficient and sustainable alternatives [30]. capacities, ranging from small-scale applications to large-scale power
A key factor driving the gradual displacement of thermal desalina­ plants [48,50].
tion by membrane technology is the substantial reduction in energy Recent strides have positioned solar PV as a financially viable
consumption. The significant progress in membrane technology is the renewable energy source. In the last ten years, there has been a signif­
primary reason for the notable difference in energy consumption be­ icant 80 % decrease in the costs of PV modules, and projections suggest
tween these technologies [31]. Approximately 69 % of the installed an additional 59 % reduction, potentially lowering the global average
desalination capacity comprises reverse osmosis, and recent contracts price to $0.05–$0.06 per kWh [51]. Solar PV is expected to make up 20
prioritize membrane desalination technologies. In thermal desalination % of the worldwide energy supply by 2050, and projections indicate a
processes, water is heated to generate vapor, which is then condensed to potential 50 % reduction in global CO2 emissions by 2100 [52]. More­
produce fresh water. It demands significant energy, often derived from over, installing solar PV systems represents more than 50 % of the new
fossil fuels, making it energy-intensive and environmentally burden­ capacity added to renewable power, marking a substantial shift in the
some [32]. dynamics of global energy production [52].
In contrast, reverse osmosis, the most widely used membrane desa­
lination technology, utilizes semipermeable membranes to selectively (b) Solar Thermal Technologies: Extracting Heat for Membrane
permit water molecules to pass through while rejecting salts and im­ Desalination
purities [33]. This mechanism facilitates a more energy-efficient sepa­
ration process, requiring lower temperatures and reduced energy inputs Solar thermal technologies utilize the radiant heat emitted by the
compared to thermal desalination [34]. Consequently, reverse osmosis sun’s radiation. A prominent embodiment of this concept is the solar
has become the preferred method for many desalination plants thermal collector, a sophisticated device designed to effectively absorb
worldwide. solar radiation and efficiently transfer its thermal energy to a fluid
Other noteworthy membrane desalination technologies encompass traversing it [53]. The captured heat can be harnessed for various pur­
Nanofiltration (NF), Electrodialysis (ED), Forward Osmosis (FO), poses, including low-temperature heating applications or powering a
Membrane Distillation (MD), and Pressure Retarded Osmosis (PRO) heat engine, generating electricity [54].
[35]. Each technology has distinctive characteristics and applications Recent research has explored the feasibility of utilizing solar thermal
tailored to different salinity levels, water quality, and project re­ systems for industrial heating due to technological advancements. Solar
quirements. For instance, FO employs a draw solution to pull water collectors exhibit thermal efficiencies ranging from 60 % to 75 %. The
through a membrane. Electrodialysis employs an electric field to sepa­ levelized cost of thermal energy (LCOEth) produced by solar thermal
rate ions, and MD vaporizes water through a hydrophobic membrane systems typically falls from $0.05 to $0.09 per kWh. However, this can
[36]. PRO utilizes osmotic pressure for power generation, showcasing an vary significantly due to collector efficiency and cost, government
innovative approach [37–40]. subsidies, and taxation [55].
These membrane technologies offer energy efficiency and exhibit In direct heating applications, evacuated tube and flat plate collec­
modularity, scalability, and cost-effectiveness compared to large-scale tors are prominent choices in the contemporary market [56]. Evacuated
thermal desalination facilities [41]. Ongoing research and tube collectors comprise tubes containing a vacuum layer between

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M.N. AlMallahi et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 10 (2024) 100825

Fig. 2. Integration of solar energy with membrane desalination processes.

borosilicate glass layers. Solar energy is captured by the inner tube and independence and resilience, particularly in remote or off-grid locations
transmitted to the internal liquid, while the vacuum layer minimizes [60].
heat loss [57]. In contrast, flat plate collectors, often utilized in The convergence of cutting-edge membrane technologies with
solar-heated water systems, possess a flat, dark surface that absorbs solar renewable energy sources represents a synergistic approach toward
radiation and transfers heat to the fluid within the tubes. This type of achieving sustainable and eco-friendly desalination [61]. Ongoing
collector employs transparent screens and thermal insulation measures research and development endeavors in both domains aim to optimize
to minimize heat loss. the efficiency of these integrated systems, rendering them more
Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) is an innovative solar thermal competitive and accessible on a global scale. The commitment to
technology for electricity generation. This method harnesses the power incorporating renewable energy, such as solar power, underscores a
of mirrors to focus sunlight, effectively converting it into heat energy. dedication to mitigating environmental impact and fostering a more
This heat energy drives a turbine, generating electrical power [58]. In sustainable future for freshwater production.
Concentrated Solar Power (CSP) systems, the primary collectors, namely Desalination can be achieved using solar energy in two ways, either
power towers and parabolic troughs, play a crucial role in harnessing directly or indirectly, depending on the chosen solar energy harnessing
solar energy. These collectors heat a heat transfer fluid, which then technique [62].
carries the thermal energy to generate electricity via a turbine or store it In direct solar desalination, there is no need for extensive auxiliary
in a thermal energy storage (TES) system. In a parabolic trough system, systems to convert solar thermal energy or electricity from solar panels
sunlight is concentrated onto a receiver tube positioned along the focal into other forms of energy. On the other hand, indirect solar desalination
line using a reflective parabolic shape. The receiver tube, composed of involves collecting solar energy and converting it into another form of
an absorbent material, is enclosed within a glass tube to minimize heat energy used in the desalination process [63]. The selection of desali­
loss [58]. nation processes usually considers factors such as feed water quality,
product purity, climatic conditions, environmental impacts, and site
2.4. Integration of solar energy into membrane desalination specifications [64]. The relationship between the type of solar energy
and various desalination processes is depicted in Fig. 2.
While recent advancements in membrane technologies, notably Harnessing solar energy presents an appealing prospect for the future
reverse osmosis (RO), have made remarkable progress in enhancing [65]. Solar energy can be a highly effective strategy for powering
energy efficiency, the widespread adoption of membrane desalination various desalination processes, including reverse osmosis, nano­
processes emphasizes the critical need for integrating renewable energy filtration, forward osmosis, electrodialysis, and membrane distillation.
sources, particularly solar power. Despite the strides in efficiency, large- These processes rely on auxiliary systems such as compressors, pumps,
scale desalination projects still demand significant cumulative energy, heat exchange systems, and chillers. These auxiliaries can be efficiently
reinforcing the urgency of incorporating sustainable practices [59]. powered by harnessing solar energy, enabling the desalination processes
Infusing solar energy into membrane-based desalination operations to operate effectively and sustainably. These energy requirements can be
is imperative to elevate these systems’ sustainability and environmental met by PV modules or CSP electricity. The second type of solar energy,
credentials. As a clean and renewable energy source, solar power is heat, is crucial in most desalination processes. These processes involve
pivotal in mitigating the energy consumption associated with desalina­ supplying heat to water, and the vapor separated from the water is used
tion. Solar energy reduces dependence on conventional electricity grids in membrane distillation. The energy needed to generate water vapor
and non-renewable energy sources by directly powering pumps and can be directly obtained from the heat generated by a CSP configuration,
other membrane system components. This integration is especially vital eliminating the need for additional cycles and costs to convert heat into
in regions blessed with abundant sunlight, where solar-powered desa­ electricity.
lination aligns with environmental objectives and ensures energy

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M.N. AlMallahi et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 10 (2024) 100825

Fig. 3. Methodology flowchart.

2.5. Commercial hydrophobic membranes performed using Scopus and the Web of Science database to conduct this
bibliometric analysis. The search terms used “solar” AND “membrane”
Commercial microporous hydrophobic membranes have been AND “desalination”. The search was limited to articles published be­
extensively used in membrane distillation (MD) technology. These tween 2014 and 2023 to capture the most recent developments in the
membranes are constructed of polypropylene (PP), polyvinylidene field. The retrieved articles (1037) were analyzed using bibliometric
fluoride (PVDF), and polytetrafluoroethylene (PTFE, Teflon) [66]. They techniques to identify trends, patterns, and key contributors in the
are available in capillary or flat-sheet forms. For example, Millipore’s research on solar membrane desalination.
GVHP PVDF membrane has a thickness of 110 μm, an average pore size The information collected was processed and visualized using
of 0.22 μm, and a porosity of 75 %. However, Gelman’s TF450 mem­ various tools, such as Python for text mining and machine learning, R
brane is a PTFE/PP flat sheet with a thickness of 178 μm, an average code Biblioshiny tool (Bibliometrix package), and VOSviewer. Fig. 3
pore size of 0.45 μm, and a porosity of 80 % [67]. Furthermore, the PP depicts the methodology’s process. The obtained datasets from Scopus
capillary membrane S6/2 from AkzoNobel has dimensions appropriate and Web of Science were reduced to 991 publications. The duplicates
for MD applications and a high porosity of 70 % [67]. The desired were removed, and manual screening was conducted to filter non-
characteristics for MD membranes include high liquid entry pressure related topics to solar-powered membrane desalination.
(LEP), high permeability, and low thermal conductivity. These factors
highly influence the membrane’s performance and durability [66,68, 4. Results and discussion
69].
4.1. Primary information on the dataset collected
3. Methodology
The results of the data collected for the bibliometric analysis of
A comprehensive search of relevant scientific literature was research on solar-powered membrane desalination from 2014 to 2023

Fig. 4. Main information on the data collected.

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M.N. AlMallahi et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 10 (2024) 100825

Fig. 5. Annual trend of publications in this field.

Fig. 6. (a) Document type distribution (b) Subject category distribution.

are shown in this section. The distribution of topic categories, journals,

nations, and affiliation performances was highlighted with the evolution
trend. Thematic maps and keyword analysis have also received much
attention as essential indications for directing future research areas. The
most frequently cited publications, as well as perspectives, were dis­
cussed. The fundamental details of the data gathered from Scopus and
Web of Science databases are displayed in Fig. 4.

4.2. Evolution trend

Over the last decade, 991 papers on solar-powered membrane

desalination have been published in the Web of Science and Scopus
databases. The evolution trend in the number of publications, including
book chapters, journal articles, and conference papers, is depicted in
Fig. 5. Generally, this has been an upward trend since 2016. This growth
can be explained by the increasing interest in integrating solar energy
into membrane desalination. Therefore, the utilization of solar power
has significant benefits to the economy and the environment. Environ­
mental concerns are one of the leading forces behind the move towards Fig. 7. Core sources by Bradford’s Law.
sustainable and energy-efficient processes, including desalination. Using
solar energy for desalination may significantly mitigate the negative conference papers, book chapters, and others is shown in Fig. 6(a). Most
impacts of conventional fuels. publications (733) had the highest percentage of 74 %. 12 % (118) are
review papers, and 8 % (79) are conference papers. Moreover, the most
4.3. Analysis of publication type and subject categories active areas of research are shown in Fig. 6(b). The main research areas
include engineering, environmental science, energy, chemical engi­
The percentage distribution of publication types: articles, reviews, neering, materials science, and chemistry. From the distribution of

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M.N. AlMallahi et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 10 (2024) 100825

Table 1
Top ten sources and their impacts.
Journal name h-index g-index m-index Total Citations Number of Publications Publication Year

Desalination 38 67 3.8 4638 96 2014

Energy Conversion and Management 18 29 2.25 885 38 2016
Journal of Materials Chemistry A 17 21 2.429 1525 21 2017
Journal of Membrane Science 16 22 1.6 714 22 2014
Journal of Cleaner Production 14 22 1.75 517 22 2016
Applied Energy 13 17 1.3 1529 17 2014
Desalination and Water Treatment 13 21 1.3 512 51 2014
Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews 13 16 1.444 1861 16 2015
ACS Applied Materials and Interfaces 12 18 1.714 693 18 2017
Chemical Engineering Journal 12 22 2.4 527 22 2019

Fig. 8. Top 10 countries in the number of publications.

values, a relatively balanced distribution is conveyed. The percentages field of solar-powered membrane desalination. Bradford’s Law states
are closely aligned, with no dominant subject area across the main that if the journals are arranged in descending order of the number of
categories. articles on the subject, then successive zones of periodicals containing
the same number of articles on the subject form the simple geometric
series 1:nS:n2S:n3S can be used to identify the core sources. Papers on
4.4. Journal collaboration
this topic have been published in 327 journals throughout the range
period.
Fig. 7 displays Bradford’s Law in sources of the top ten journals in the

Fig. 9. Country collaboration map.

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M.N. AlMallahi et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 10 (2024) 100825

Arabia, India, Australia, and Egypt follow. China is the leader in solar-
powered membrane desalination.
A considerable number of publications have shown the development
of membrane desalination. Also, China has received the highest number
of citations among other countries. Additionally, Fig. 9 displays the
collaboration map between countries. China leads the world in part­
nerships, followed by the United States. Additionally, Fig. 10 shows the
country of the corresponding authors. The corresponding author is the
author who sends the article to the journal editor and deals with all
journal correspondence. In the case of China, 79 publications are MCP,
and 264 are SCP.

4.6. Affiliation collaboration

From 2014 to 2023, several universities from different countries

have made significant contributions to the field of solar membrane
desalination, as shown in Fig. 11. The top 10 countries have demon­
strated exceptional productivity in quantity of publications. These
countries have made substantial contributions to advancing solar
Fig. 10. Corresponding author’s country. Intra-country (SCP) and inter- membrane desalination technologies. The Ministry of Education of the
country (MCP) collaboration. People’s Republic of China leads with an impressive 72 publications.
The high number of publications demonstrates China’s commitment to
Table 1 shows that the top five journals were Desalination, Energy research and development in solar membrane desalination. Closely
Conversion and Management, Journal of Materials Chemistry A, Journal behind is the Chinese Academy of Sciences, which has 30 publications.
of Membrane Science, and Journal of Cleaner Production. This data Their research efforts have contributed significantly to the knowledge
demonstrates that research on solar-powered membrane desalination and understanding of this technology.
includes energy and desalination domains that are frequently multidis­ Another notable institution is the CIEMAT-Plataforma Solar de
ciplinary. Desalination Journal dominates in several publications and Almeria, located in Spain, which has produced 27 publications. Their
total citations obtained in this field. Also, several indicators other than research has played a crucial role in advancing solar membrane desa­
citations show the productivity and impact of the researcher’s work. The lination technologies. The King Abdullah University of Science and
h-index measures an author having at least h citations for h papers; the Technology in Saudi Arabia has contributed significantly with 26 pub­
remaining publications have h citations each. An additional metric for lications. Their research has helped to understand solar membrane
assessing the significance of a researcher’s work is the g-index. It con­ desalination further and to apply it.
siders how citations are spread throughout an author’s body of work. If g Other countries that have shown notable productivity in this field
papers have gotten g2 citations overall, then the researcher’s g-index is include the Universidad de Almeria in Spain with 24 publications, the
g. A suggested update to the h-index that attempts to overcome some of Harbin Institute of Technology in China with 23 publications, and
its shortcomings is the m-index. It provides a more sophisticated gauge Donghua University in China with 20 publications. These institutions
of a researcher’s influence by including the average number of citations have contributed valuable contributions to developing solar membrane
per article. desalination technologies. Furthermore, Zhejiang University in China
and King Saud University in Saudi Arabia produced 18 publications.
Their research has contributed to the advancement of solar membrane
4.5. Country collaboration desalination and has helped to address the global water scarcity issue.
Lastly, the Centro de Investigaciones Energeticas, Medioambientales y
Fig. 8 displays the top contributing countries in this subject ac­ Tecnologicas in Spain, has produced 17 publications, further high­
cording to the number of publications. With more than 350 publications, lighting the country’s commitment to research in this field.
China leads the world in publication count. The United States, Saudi In Fig. 12, the Sankey diagram displays the author affiliation

Fig. 11. Top 10 universities and research centers producing publications from 2014 to 2023.

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M.N. AlMallahi et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 10 (2024) 100825

Fig. 12. Three-field plot analysis illustrating the relationships among author affiliation (AU_UN), author country (AU_CO), and document keyword (DE) during the
period 2014–2023.

Fig. 13. Frequency distribution of keywords and word cloud representation of top keywords.

(AU_UN), author’s country (AU_CO), and document keyword (DE). This mentioned countries. It signifies that Chinese universities, with their
diagram effectively demonstrates the dynamic relationship between expertise in solar desalination, have established partnerships or shared
these research keywords, the author’s affiliation, and their respective their knowledge with counterparts in different countries, contributing to
countries. Notably, the diagram reveals that several Chinese universities advancing and adopting desalination practices worldwide. Overall, the
have a prominent presence in the field of solar desalination. The con­ Sankey diagram in Fig. 12 provides valuable insights into the global
nections established by these universities to various countries, such as landscape of solar desalination research, highlighting the influence of
China, Saudi Arabia, Australia, Egypt, the USA, India, and Spain, indi­ Chinese universities and their impact on countries across the globe.
cate the relevance and applicability of their research in these nations.
These connections suggest potential collaborative efforts, knowledge
sharing, and the implementation of desalination technologies in the

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Fig. 14. Word cloud visualization of three distinct clusters of keywords.

4.7. Keywords and thematic hotspots bibliometric analysis, keyword analysis refers to the examination and
interpretation of keywords used in scholarly articles or publications to
Keyword analysis is an essential component of bibliometric analysis, understand the content and focus of the research. The keyword analysis
which involves studying patterns and trends in scientific publications. In provides insights into the frequency of occurrence for a range of

Fig. 15. Dynamic use of words from 2014 to 2023.

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M.N. AlMallahi et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 10 (2024) 100825

Fig. 16. Thematic map of the degrees of relevance and development maturity.

keywords within the field of study between 2014 and 2023. The developing novel membrane materials and exploring their impact on
numbers associated with each keyword in Fig. 13 represent the total enhancing the efficiency of desalination techniques through evapora­
occurrences of that specific word within the specified period. For tion. Cluster 3 focuses on the keywords "water," "solar," "reverse
instance, "desalination" appeared 1077 times, indicating its prominence osmosis," "membrane," and "system." The representative sentence sug­
and extensive research focus during this period. gests that solar energy has shown great potential in addressing global
Similarly, "distillation" appeared 550 times, highlighting its signifi­ water scarcity through reverse osmosis methods. This cluster highlights
cance as a topic of investigation. The presence of "solar energy" with 442 research on integrating solar energy into water treatment systems,
occurrences suggests a substantial interest in exploring renewable en­ explicitly emphasizing the use of reverse osmosis membranes.
ergy sources. Other keywords such as "evaporation" (288), "membranes" In bibliometric analysis, the dynamic use of words refers to exam­
(243), and "membrane distillation" (221) also garnered considerable ining how specific keywords or terms change in frequency and usage
attention. These frequency counts offer a quantitative measure of the over time within a particular field of research. It involves analyzing the
prevalence of these keywords within the analyzed dataset. However, it’s trends and patterns of word usage in scholarly literature, typically
important to note that the frequency alone does not provide insights into through analyzing publication titles, abstracts, and keywords. By
the associated research’s quality, context, or significance. Further studying the dynamic use of words, researchers can gain insights into the
analysis and interpretation are needed to understand the broader evolving research landscape, emerging trends, and shifting research
research landscape and the relationships between these keywords more priorities within a particular field. It allows for identifying key concepts
nuancedly. and prominent themes and the evolution of terminology over time.
Fig. 14 shows the keyword clusters. Keyword clustering groups Fig. 15 demonstrates the dynamic use of words from 2014 to 2023
similar keywords based on their semantic similarity or contextual rele­ related to solar membrane desalination. The analysis reveals a general
vance. The goal is to organize the keywords into meaningful clusters or pattern of growth in the frequency of the keywords "water," "membrane,"
categories representing distinct themes or topics within the research "desalination," "energy," and "solar" over the analyzed period. The initial
dataset. Therefore, clustering helps identify the underlying structure and increase from around 100 occurrences in 2014 to 180 in 2015 indicates a
content of the research landscape. In Fig. 14, three different clusters of rising research interest.
keywords have been identified, each representing a specific research However, subsequent years show fluctuations in frequency, with
focus within the field of study. Cluster 1 revolves around the keywords some years experiencing higher growth rates than others. The most
"membrane distillation," "performance," "water," "temperature," and remarkable observation is the substantial surge in keyword frequency in
"solar thermal." The representative sentence highlights the integration of 2020 and 2021. The frequency jumped from 350 in 2019 to 550 in 2020
solar thermal energy to enhance membrane distillation performance, and nearly 700 in 2021. While the overall trend shows growth, there is a
ensuring efficient water treatment at elevated temperatures. This cluster minor dip in frequency from around 880 in 2022 to close to 850 in 2023.
suggests a research emphasis on optimizing membrane distillation pro­ This reduction may be attributed to changes in research focus, shifts in
cesses using solar thermal energy, potentially leading to more effective funding priorities, or the emergence of alternative or related keywords
and sustainable water treatment solutions. that gained attention during that year.
Cluster 2 centers around the keywords "membrane," "material," Fig. 16 shows the relationship among thematic clusters, emphasizing
"evaporation," "desalination," and "surface." The representative sentence their relevance and maturity. Centrality serves as an indicator of the
underscores the significance of innovative membrane materials in robustness of connections with other clusters. Higher centrality implies
improving the efficiency of evaporation-based desalination processes increased significance within the research space, signifying a broader
while considering surface interactions. This cluster indicates a focus on relevance and influence. This suggests a significant growth in research

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M.N. AlMallahi et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 10 (2024) 100825

Table 2 Table 2 (continued )

Top 10 highly cited papers in this field. Ref. Summary of the article Total Corresponding Publication
Ref. Summary of the article Total Corresponding Publication Citations Country Year
Citations Country Year
membrane with a
[70] The study investigates 1586 China 2016 hydrophobic surface for
the three-dimensional stable solar desalination.
self-assembly of The study focuses on the
aluminum nanoparticles, hydrophobic
presenting an original characteristics of the
approach for solar membrane to block salt.
desalination boosted by
plasmons.
[71] The review contributes to 966 Canada 2019
understanding the role of
desalination in resolving
the global issue of water
shortage by providing an
overview of the
worldwide landscape of
desalination methods
and the associated
production of brine.
[72] This study presents solar 655 China and The 2017
energy harvesting United States
technology
developments to
manufacture steam by
implementing a solar
steam generating system.
[73] This review article 627 The United 2015
explores issues of fouling States
and scaling in membrane
distillation and the
potential problems that
affect desalination
applications.
[74] The review examines 483 India 2015
many solar energy-driven Fig. 17. Relationship between the percentage of authors and the number of
desalination systems and publications (Lotka’s Law) for this field.
evaluates their
improvements,
activity and attention towards these keywords during that period. It may
applications, and guiding
principles. indicate the emergence of new trends, technological advancements, or
[75] Recent developments in 430 United Arab 2018 increased funding and interest in the field. One of the emerging trends
using renewable energy Emirates involves integrating multi-objective optimization techniques on mem­
sources to power water
brane fouling. This signifies a growing recognition within the research
desalination facilities are
discussed. The study
community of the need for comprehensive solutions that address mul­
investigates the tiple objectives concurrently with membrane fouling. This demonstrates
possibilities for a solid drive to enhance efficiency, sustainability, and reliability in
environmentally friendly water desalination technologies.
and sustainable
approaches to problems
related to water shortage. 4.8. Most cited publications (key studies)
[76] The paper evaluates the 363 The United 2016
social, economic, and States This section examines the most frequently cited research on solar-
environmental factors to powered membrane desalination in the scientific literature while
manage the world’s
water problems and
considering elite scholars who contributed to the field. Table 2 presents
provides insights into the top ten highly cited publications ranked according to the number of
how desalination citations. It is essential to note the papers at the top of the table, where it
techniques evolve. is verified that the paper with the highest number of citations is by L.
[77] The paper explores 356 China 2017
Zhou, Y. Tan et al. entitled "3D self-assembly of aluminum nanoparticles
integrating solar energy
into a dual-purpose for plasmon-enhanced solar desalination" with 1586 citations (198.25/
application of steam and year).
electric generation. Lotka’s law [80] is shown in Fig. 17, which illustrates the frequency
[78] The review investigates 340 Chile 2017 of the author’s number of publications on the topic. Most authors on
the implications for
improved water
solar-powered membrane desalination (3990 authors with 1 article
desalination process and each) have few publications, while the percentage of authors with up to
the ongoing efforts made 13 papers is lower. Prof. Ghaffour Noreddine is the leading author in this
towards sustainability field, with 13 publications over the last ten years. This body of work
through water treatment
highlights the substantial contributions to advancing knowledge in the
technologies
[79] The paper developed a 335 China 2018 field. Fig. 18 shows the top ten scholars contributing to this field.
2D Ti3C2 MXene

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M.N. AlMallahi et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 10 (2024) 100825

Fig. 18. Top 10 authors in publication productivity.

5. Research limitations Furthermore, the study identified emerging trends, such as inte­
grating multi-objective optimization techniques and membrane fouling
The primary research constraint of this study was that the dataset considerations. In conclusion, this bibliometric analysis provides a
utilized for analysis was only sourced from the Scopus search database. comprehensive overview of the current state and trends in solar-
Consequently, the articles covered by Scopus and Web of Science may powered membrane desalination research. The findings offer valuable
influence the study’s findings. Moreover, only English-language publi­ guidance for researchers, policymakers, and stakeholders, paving the
cations and comparable works could be accessible in other language way for future collaborative endeavors and advancements in addressing
specialties. Additionally, the literature search was conducted using global water scarcity challenges. Key directions involve enhancing the
particular keywords that could not have fully represented the depth of performance of solar membrane desalination systems by optimizing
the topic matter. Additional keywords may be included in future ana­ membrane efficiency, material sustainability, and the overall design of
lyses. Furthermore, even while author contributions are examined, solar collectors. Also, the scalability of solar membrane desalination
certain writers may be members of a larger group, which may not reflect technologies for widespread is crucial for commercialization potential.
individual contributions as much as a broader collaborative connection. A thorough assessment of the environmental impact of solar membrane
For this reason, bibliometric analysis is a helpful tool for field research, systems can hold significant importance. Finally, exploring different
but it’s crucial to be aware of its limits. membrane materials enhances durability and selectivity while consid­
ering biomass materials. These future directions can contribute to the
6. Conclusion effectiveness, accessibility, and sustainability of addressing global water
challenges.
This comprehensive bibliometric analysis delved into the evolving
landscape of solar-powered membrane desalination research from 2014 CRediT authorship contribution statement
to 2023. The results and discussions covered diverse aspects, including
the evolution trend, publication types, subject categories, journal Maryam Nooman AlMallahi: Writing – review & editing, Writing –
collaboration, country collaboration, affiliation collaboration, and dy­ original draft, Visualization, Software, Investigation, Conceptualization.
namic use of words. The evolution trend has illustrated a continuous Jawad Mustafa: Writing – review & editing, Writing – original draft,
upward trajectory in publications since 2016, which aligns with the Visualization, Investigation, Conceptualization. Ali H. Al-Marzouqi:
increasing interest in integrating solar energy into membrane desali­ Writing – original draft, Project administration, Funding acquisition,
nation. Journal collaboration demonstrated the multidisciplinary nature Conceptualization. Mahmoud Elgendi: Writing – review & editing,
of research, with Desalination, Energy Conversion and Management, Writing – original draft, Supervision, Project administration, Investiga­
and Journal of Materials Chemistry A leading the publications. Country tion, Conceptualization.
collaboration highlighted China’s leadership in publication count and
citations, with the United States, Saudi Arabia, India, and Australia Declaration of competing interest
following closely. Keyword and thematic analysis revealed three distinct
clusters of keywords, emphasizing themes such as membrane distilla­ The authors declare that they have no known competing financial
tion, membrane materials, evaporation, and reverse osmosis. The dy­ interests or personal relationships that could have appeared to influence
namic use of words demonstrated an overall growth in research interest, the work reported in this paper.
with a notable surge in 2020 and 2021.

13
M.N. AlMallahi et al. Case Studies in Chemical and Environmental Engineering 10 (2024) 100825

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