UNIT I

Mobile Communications: An Overview- Mobile Communication-guided transmission,

unguided transmission- signal propagation frequencies, antennae, modulation, modulation
methods and standards for voice-oriented data communication standards, modulation
methods and standards for data and voice communication, mobile computing- novel
applications and limitations, mobile computing architecture, mobile system networks.

Mobile devices and systems: Cellular networks and frequency reuse, Mobile smart phones,
Smart mobiles and systems, handheld pocket computers, Handheld devices, Smart systems,
Limitations of mobile devices.

Overview of Mobile Computing

Mobile Computing is a technology that provides an environment that enables users to

transmit data from one device to another device without the use of any physical link or
cables.

In other words, you can say that mobile computing allows transmission of data, voice and
video via a computer or any other wireless-enabled device without being connected to a fixed
physical link. In this technology, data transmission is done wirelessly with the help of
wireless devices such as mobiles, laptops etc.

This is only because of Mobile Computing technology that you can access and transmit data
from any remote locations without being present there physically. Mobile computing
technology provides a vast coverage diameter for communication. It is one of the fastest and
most reliable sectors of the computing technology field.

The concept of Mobile Computing can be divided into three parts:

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o Mobile Communication
o Mobile Hardware
o Mobile Software

Mobile Communication

Mobile Communication specifies a framework that is responsible for the working of mobile
computing technology. In this case, mobile communication refers to an infrastructure that
ensures seamless and reliable communication among wireless devices. This framework
ensures the consistency and reliability of communication between wireless devices. The
mobile communication framework consists of communication devices such as protocols,
services, bandwidth, and portals necessary to facilitate and support the stated services. These
devices are responsible for delivering a smooth communication process.
Mobile communication can be divided in the following four types:

1. Fixed and Wired

2. Fixed and Wireless
3. Mobile and Wired
4. Mobile and Wireless

Fixed and Wired: In Fixed and Wired configuration, the devices are fixed at a position, and
they are connected through a physical link to communicate with other devices.

For Example, Desktop Computer.

Fixed and Wireless: In Fixed and Wireless configuration, the devices are fixed at a position,
and they are connected through a wireless link to make communication with other devices.

For Example, Communication Towers, WiFi router

Mobile and Wired: In Mobile and Wired configuration, some devices are wired, and some
are mobile. They altogether make communication with other devices.

For Example, Laptops.

Mobile and Wireless: In Mobile and Wireless configuration, the devices can communicate
with each other irrespective of their position. They can also connect to any network without
the use of any wired device.

For Example, WiFi Dongle.

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Mobile Hardware

Mobile hardware consists of mobile devices or device components that can be used to receive
or access the service of mobility. Examples of mobile hardware can be smartphones, laptops,
portable PCs, tablet PCs, Personal Digital Assistants, etc.
 These devices are inbuilt with a receptor medium that can send and receive signals. These
devices are capable of operating in full-duplex. It means they can send and receive signals at
the same time. They don't have to wait until one device has finished communicating for the
other device to initiate communications.

Mobile Software

Mobile software is a program that runs on mobile hardware. This is designed to deal capably
with the characteristics and requirements of mobile applications. This is the operating system
for the appliance of mobile devices. In other words, you can say it the heart of the mobile
systems. This is an essential component that operates the mobile device.

This provides portability to mobile devices, which ensures wireless communication.

Types of Transmission Media


A transmission medium is a physical path between the transmitter and the receiver i.e. it is
the channel through which data is sent from one place to another. Transmission Media is
broadly classified into the following types:
 Types of Transmission Media

1. Guided Media
Guided Media is also referred to as Wired or Bounded transmission media. Signals being
transmitted are directed and confined in a narrow pathway by using physical links.
Features:
 High Speed
 Secure
 Used for comparatively shorter distances
There are 3 major types of Guided Media:
Twisted Pair Cable
It consists of 2 separately insulated conductor wires wound about each other. Generally,
several such pairs are bundled together in a protective sheath. They are the most widely used
Transmission Media. Twisted Pair is of two types:
 Unshielded Twisted Pair (UTP): UTP consists of two insulated copper wires twisted
around one another. This type of cable has the ability to block interference and does not
depend on a physical shield for this purpose. It is used for telephonic applications.

Unshielded Twisted Pair

 Shielded Twisted Pair

Shielded Twisted Pair (STP): This type of cable consists of a special jacket (a copper braid
covering or a foil shield) to block external interference. It is used in fast-data-rate Ethernet
and in voice and data channels of telephone lines.

Coaxial Cable
It has an outer plastic covering containing an insulation layer made of PVC or Teflon and 2
parallel conductors each having a separate insulated protection cover. The coaxial
cable transmits information in two modes: Baseband mode(dedicated cable bandwidth) and
Broadband mode(cable bandwidth is split into separate ranges). Cable TVs and analog
television networks widely use Coaxial cables.

Optical Fiber Cable

Optical Fibre Cable uses the concept of refraction of light through a core made up of glass or
plastic. The core is surrounded by a less dense glass or plastic covering called the cladding. It
is used for the transmission of large volumes of data. The cable can be unidirectional or
bidirectional. The WDM (Wavelength Division Multiplexer) supports two modes, namely
unidirectional and bidirectional mode.

2. Unguided Media
It is also referred to as Wireless or Unbounded transmission media. No physical medium is
required for the transmission of electromagnetic signals.
Features of Unguided Media
 The signal is broadcasted through air
 Less Secure
 Used for larger distances
There are 3 types of Signals transmitted through unguided media:
Radio Waves
Radio waves are easy to generate and can penetrate through buildings. The sending and
receiving antennas need not be aligned. Frequency Range:3KHz – 1GHz. AM and FM radios
and cordless phones use Radio waves for transmission.

Further Categorized as Terrestrial and Satellite.

Microwaves
It is a line of sight transmission i.e. the sending and receiving antennas need to be properly
aligned with each other. The distance covered by the signal is directly proportional to the
height of the antenna. Frequency Range:1GHz – 300GHz. Micro waves are majorly used for
mobile phone communication and television distribution.

Microwave Transmission

Infrared
Infrared waves are used for very short distance communication. They cannot penetrate
through obstacles. This prevents interference between systems. Frequency Range:300GHz –
400THz. It is used in TV remotes, wireless mouse, keyboard, printer, etc.
 Signal propagation frequencies:-

Signal

The physical representation of data by the transmission of which communication takes

place is known as signal. The representation can be electrical, electronic or optical. Voice,
images, letters or numbers can be represented using signals. Signal can be analog or digital.

Factors affecting strength and path of EM waves

 Distance between transmitter and receiver

 Frequency/wavelength of wave
 Earth’s atmosphere
 Environmental objects

Signal Propagation modes

A signal on its journey from transmitter to receiver propagates in three modes. Type of
Propagation is determined by the carrier frequency.
 Ground waves or surface waves propagation
 Sky waves or Ionospheric propagation
 Space waves or Line-of-sight propagation

Ground Waves Propagation also known as Surface Wave (<2MHz)

Waves with low frequencies follow the earth’s surface. Due to very less frequency range,
also known as low frequency/medium waves. Antennas are bigger in size and located near
the ground. They follow curvature of the Earth. These waves are used
in Submarine Communication, A.M radio

 Electromagnetic waves induce a current in the earth’s surface due to which it gets
slowed down(attenuated) due to absorption near the earth causing the waves to tilt
downward and hence follow earth’s curvature
 In this range, the electromagnetic wave is scattered by the atmosphere layers in such a way
that they do not penetrate the upper atmosphere
 Diffraction causes waves to bend
 More the frequency, more is the attenuation
 Distance travelled is short
 For high frequency waves, ionospheric propagation is used

Sky Wave Propagation or Ionospheric Propagation (2-30 MHz)

Atmosphere consists of different layers. When cosmic rays from sun fall on atmospheric
layers, atoms get ionised. At higher layers, the density is less; less ions are produced. Solar
radiation penetrates that layer and reaches the middle layer. Middle layer is denser; more ions
are produced. Radiation penetrates further; but less radiation reaches the lower layers; though
denser less ions are produced. Middle layer maximum ionisation; known as Ionosphere. High
frequency waves (3-32 MHz) when reaches this layer and gets reflected to the ground station
hence covering large distance.
 Distance traveled by sky waves depends on

 Angle of Radiation: If the angle of radiation from the transmitting antenna towards sky is
travel short distance and if angle of radiation is more, sky waves will travel longer distance
 Strength of Ionosphere: If the strength of Ionosphere is more, attenuation of waves will be
less, (this is how sky wave broadcast travel all over the world) they will travel longer distance
and if strength is less, it will offer more attenuation to the sky waves hence they will be
received at a shorter distance
 Power of transmitter: More the power, more the distance from transmitter to receiver

Space waves or Line-of-sight propagation:-

Factorseffecting distance travelled by space waves

 Line of sight distance : Distance between transmitting antenna and receiving antenna at
which they can see each other, which is also called range of communication
 Curvature of the earth: LOS waves gets blocked by curvature of earth

To increase range, the heights of transmitting and receiving antennas should be increased.
The height should be above the horizon If R is radius of the earth, antenna height should be ht
= √ ht Maximum LOS distance= √ ht + √ hr Where ht and hr are heights of sender and
receiving antennas.
 Phenomena effecting signal propagation

When a signal travels in free space, it behaves like light. It travels straight from sender to
receiver. But in real scenario signal in mobile communication, Wi-Fi and other networks
have to come across various objects in atmosphere, environment and other surroundings like
mountains, buildings, furniture, rain water molecules of atmosphere layer and many others.
These objects pose different effects on the propagation of signals namely

 Reflection
 Diffraction
 Refraction
 Scattering

Antenna:-

An antenna is a metallic device for radiating or receiving radio waves. It is the transitional
structure between free space and guiding device. The guiding device may take the form of
coaxial line, which transport electromagnetic energy from the transmitting source to the
antenna or from antenna to receiver.

Figure 1: Antennas

Classification of Antenna

There are numbers of basis on which the antennas are classified. Mainly the bases are
Radiation, Frequency, Aperture and Polarization.
Isotropic Antenna

An isotropic antenna is a fabricated

antenna. It radiates uniformly in all

directions.

An isotropic antenna is a hypothetical

lossless antenna. An isotropic antenna is
used as reference antenna with which Isotropic Antenna
practical antennas are compared.
Omnidirectional Antenna

They are used to send and transmit equal

intensity signals in all the directions. These antennas

will cover equally in azimuth direction and having
angle in elevation direction. Mostly the wire antennas
are having Omnidirectional radiation pattern. Figure 4
shows Omnidirectional antenna.
Omnidirectional Antenna

Directional Antenna

They are used when signals are required to propagate in

one directional only.

 Yagi Antenna-> emits a wider less focused RF

energy beam.
 Parabolic dish antenna-> emits a narrow more
concentrated energy beam.
 Patch antenna-> emits a horizontal wider beam but
vertically taller.

Directional Antenna
 Dish Antenna
Yagi Antenna
2) Frequency

The antennas are working with some specific frequency. The frequency range is defined as
under:

 Very Low Frequency (VLF) & Low frequency (LF) antenna

 Medium Frequency (MF) antennas
 High Frequency (HF) antennas
 Very High Frequency (VHF) & Ultra High Frequency (UHF) antennas
 Super High Frequency (SHF) & Extremely High Frequency (EHF) antennas

3) Aperture based antennas:

These are sophisticated antennas which utilizes higher frequencies. They are mainly used in
aircraft and spacecraft.

Wire Antennas

These are common antennas virtually seen

everywhere – aircraft, building, car etc.
There are different shapes of these antennas
dipole, loop and helix.
(a) Wire dipole (b) Monopole (c) Loop

Horn Antenna

It is most widely used microwave antenna. It is

having different forms. It is basically a hollow pipe of
different cross sections, which has been pointed towards
a larger opening. The type, direction and amount of
opening will affect the overall performance. Typically
there are four forms of Horn antennas such as E-plane,
E-Plane (b)Conical H-plane, Pyramidal and Conical.
Parabolic Antenna

A parabola is a two dimensional plane

curve. It is having three dimensional
curved surfaces. It is formed by rotating a
parabola about its axis. The surface is
known as paraboloid or microwave dish or
parabolic reflector.

The antenna consists of a primary antenna

(dipole or horn) situated at the focal point Parabolic Antenna
of a paraboloid reflector.

Microstrip Antenna

They became popular in 1970 for space borne

applications. They are low profile antennas, appropriate
for plane and non plane surfaces.

Its main application is in spacecraft or aircraft where

size, weight, cost, performance, ease of installation all
Microstrip Antenna
different constraints exist.

4) Polarization

Every sine wave has some orientation while exiting from antenna. The orientation of a wave
leaving the antenna is called polarization.

Vertical Polarization Antenna

If antenna is transmitting or receiving Vertical E

field vector, then antenna is said to be vertically
polarized antenna.

Vertical Polarized Antenna

 Horizontal Polarization Antenna

If antenna is transmitting/receiving horizontal

E field vector, then antenna is said to be
horizontally polarized antenna.

Horizontal Polarized Antenna

Circular polarization antenna

If the antenna is able to transmit or receive field

vectors of any orientation, then antenna is said to be
Circularly polarized antenna.

Circular Polarized Antenna

Modulation:-

Modulation is a process of mixing signals with a sinusoid to produce a new form of signals.
The newly produced signal has certain benefits over an un-modulated signal. Mixing of low-
frequency signal with a high-frequency carrier signal is called Modulation.

In other words, you can say that "Modulation is the process of converting one form of
signals into another form of signals." For example, Analog signals to Digital signals or
Digital signals to Analog signals.

Modulation is also called signal modulation.

Advantages of Modulation

Following is the list of some advantages of implementing Modulation in the communication

systems:

o By implementing Modulation, the antenna size gets reduced. Before modulation

technology, the antenna used for transmission had to be very large. The range of
communication gets limited as the wave cannot travel to a distance without getting
modulated.
o The range of communication has increased.

o The reception quality is immensely improved.

o Receivers are allowed to adjust to the bandwidth.
o Multiplexing of signals occurs.
o No signal mixing occurs.

Types of Modulation

Primarily Modulation can be classified into two types:

o Digital Modulation
o Analog Modulation

Digital Modulation

Digital Modulation is a technique in which digital signals/data can be converted into analog
signals. For example, Base band signals.

Digital Modulation can further be classified into four types:

o Amplitude Shift Key(ASK) Modulation

o Minimum Shift Key (MSK) Modulation
o Frequency Shift Key (FSK) Modulation
o Phase Shift Key (PSK) Modulation
Amplitude Shift Key (ASK) Modulation

o As the name suggests, in Amplitude Shift Key or ASKS Modulation, the amplitude is
represented by "1," and if the amplitude does not exist, it is represented by "0".
o Using Amplitude Shift Key Modulation is very simple, and it requires a very low
bandwidth.
o Amplitude Shift Key Modulation is vulnerable to inference or deduction.

Minimum Shift Key (MSK) Modulation

o The Minimum Shift Key or MSK Modulation is the most effective technique of
Modulation and can be implemented for almost every stream of bits. It is easy and
effective than Amplitude Shift Key, Frequency Shift Key and Phase Shift Key.
o MSK is mostly used because of its ability and flexibility to handle "One(1)" and
"Zero(0)" transition of binary bits.

Frequency Shift Key (FSK) Modulation

In Frequency Shift Key or FSK Modulation, different notations f1 and f2 are used for
different frequencies.

o Here, f1 is used to represent bit "1," and f2 represents bit "0".

 o It is also a simple modulation technique but uses different frequencies for different
bits; bandwidth requirement becomes high.

Phase Shift Key (PSK) Modulation

o In Phase Shift Key or PSK Modulation, the phase difference is used to differentiate
between the "1" and "0" bits.
o If the bit is "1", a simple wave is drawn, and if the bit becomes "0", the phase of the
wave is shifted by "180 or π".
o PSK Modulation is more complicated than ASK and FSK Modulation, but it is robust
too.

Analog Modulation in Mobile Computing

Analog modulation is a process of transferring analog low-frequency baseband signal such as
an audio or TV signal over a higher frequency carrier signal such as a radio frequency
band. Baseband signals are always analog to this modulation.

In other words, you can say that "Analog Modulation is a technique which is used in analog
data signals transmission into digital signals."

An example of Analog Modulation is Broadband Signals.

There are three properties of a carrier signal in analog modulation i.e., amplitude, frequency
and phase. So, the analog modulation can further be classified as:

o Amplitude Modulation (AM)

o Frequency Modulation (FM)
o Phase Modulation (PM)

Amplitude Modulation

Amplitude modulation or AM is a modulation technique that is used in electronic

communication. It is most commonly used for transmitting messages with a radio carrier
wave. It varies the instantaneous amplitude of the carrier signal or waves according to the
message signal's instantaneous amplitude.

If we denote the message signal as m(t) and c(t)= Acoswct, then amplitude modulation
signal F(t) will be written as:

F(t)= Acoswct+m(t) coswct

F(t)=[A+m(t)] coswct

Frequency Modulation:-

Frequency Modulation or FM is the process of encoding the information in a carrier wave by

varying the instantaneous frequency of the wave. It varies the instantaneous frequency of the
carrier signal according to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal.
If we denote the message signal as m(t) and c(t)= Acoswct, then Frequency modulation
signal F(t) will be written as:

F(t)= Acos(wc t+kf ∫m(α)dα)

Phase modulation (PM)

Phase modulation or PM is the technique of varying the carrier signal's instantaneous phase
according to the instantaneous amplitude of the message signal. It encodes the message signal
as changes occurred in the instantaneous phase of a carrier signal.

If we denote the message signal as m(t) and c(t)= Acoswct, then Phase modulation signal
F(t) will be written as:

F(t)= Acos(wct+kpm(t))
modulation methods and standards for voice-oriented data communication standards

Wireless communication is the transfer of data and information without wire through
some distance. The distance can be short (within room like TV), long(one place to another
place which in KM through Radio transmission). It encompasses around various types of
fixed devices, mobile devices or two way radio cellular devices.

Zero Generation (0G)

It refers to pre cellular mobile telephone technology. It was used in 1970s. These phones
usually mounted in car, truck. Briefcase models were used at that time. It is used by Finland
and Germany in 1971 and 1972 respectively.

First Generation (1G)

1G was introduced in 1980s and continued until being replaced by 2G.It is circuit oriented
communication system. First generation mobile system used analog transmission for speech
services. 1G system gives handover and roaming services but this network was unable to give
international roaming. This was one of the inevitable disadvantages of the first
generation mobile network.

 Major standards are Analog cellular or AMPS, TACS, NMT900, NTT.

 AMTS is advanced mobile phone service.
 The AMPS system is a circuit oriented communication system that operates in the 824
MHz to 894MHz frequency range.

Up link: 825 MHz to 845 MHz

Down link: 870 MHz to 890 MHz

Second Generation (2G)

2G systems were introduced by 1990. It uses digital multiple access technology such as
TDMA and CDMA. It offers low bit rate data services above the traditional speech service. It
supports Digital voice and low speed data. It uses modulation technique GMSK, DPSK and
QPSK. It assigns fixed frequency. It supports international roaming. It has ability to support
low powered handheld terminals. It has high security and higher capacity.

Features of 2G:

 Going all digital allowed for the introduction of digital data services like SMS & E-
mail.
 2G phones are immensely more private than 1G phone.
 Phone last much longer between charges.
 Low powered radio signals required loss battery power, so batteries can smaller.
 Low power emissions helped to address health concerns
  It use to GSM-900 standards.

Up link: 890 MHz to 915 MHz (25 MHz)

Down link: 935 MHz to 960 MHz (25 MHz)

Third Generation

WCDMA is 3G technology evolve from GSM and in Europe it is called UMTS

(Universal Terrestrial Mobile System). 3G network helps operators to give various
wider range services to the users by achieving higher network capacity by improved spectral
efficiency. Additional features also include HSPA data transmission capabilities able to
deliver speeds up to 14.4 Mbps on the downlink and 5.8 Mbps on the uplink.

Features of 3G:

 Wide band CDMA (UMTS) Universal Mobile Telecommunication System uses direct
sequence spread spectrum.
 It’sspeed up to 2.048 Mbps on the down link.
 Uses both FDD and TDD mode.
 Minimum forward channel bandwidth of 5 MHz
 Automatic global roaming
 Broadband wireless data.
 Uses smart antenna.
 Support multimedia services.
 Permanent web connection at 2Mbps
 HSPDA (high speed packet data access)
 Internet, phone and multimedia: 3 in 1.

Fourth Generation

4G is an IP-based integrated system which is capable to provide high mobility and low
mobility, with end-to-end QoS and provide high security, to various services at any time as
per user requirements, anywhere with seamless interoperability at affordable cost. The user
services include IP telephony, ultra broadband Internet access, gaming services, video calls,
mobile TV and HDTV streamed multimedia.

Features of 4G:

 Good Connectivity- wireless and wire line

 Interoperability
 Data rates : 100 Mbps and more
 Provide interactive multimedia, streaming video, internet
 High speed, High capacity, and low cost per bit
 International roaming
 Enhanced spectral efficiency
 Improved scheduling
Fifth Generation (5G)

It is the next stage of mobile telecommunication. It is faster than 4G. It has a expected speed
of 1 Gbps. The ETSI is working on 5G standards, which will be framed by 2019. Major
Telecom Giant such as Nokia, DoKoMo and Fujitsu are working for the innovations in 5G
technologies

Features of 5G:

 Artificial intelligence in wearable devices

 International standards
 Computing everywhere
 1Gbps or higher bandwidth
 Best Quality Of Service (QoS).
 Pages will upload almost instantly
 Provide interactive multimedia, streaming video, Internet etc

Comparison of 1G, 2G, 3G, 4G & 5G

Technology 1G 2G 3G 4G 5G
Start 1970 1980 1990 2000 2014
Deployment 1984 1999 2002 2010 2020
Data 2Kbps 15-64 Kbps 2Mbps 200 Mbps 1Gbps
Bandwidth
Technology Analog Digital Cellular CFMS/IP Unified IP 4G+WWWW
Cellular Technology
Multiplexing FDMA TDMA/CDMA CDMA CDMA CDMA
Switching Circuit Circuit + Packet Packet Packet
Switching Packet Switching Switching Switching Switching
Internet No Internet Narrowband Broadband ltra Ultra
Services broadband broadband
Advantages Simple MMS,SMS High Security , Global High Security,
network features International mobility, Best Quality of
Roaming High Speed Service
Disadvantages Limited Low network More power Hard to Complicated
capacity, range consumption, implement hardware
large Low network required
phone size coverage
Application Voice Voice calls, SMS, Mobile TV, Wearable Wearable
Calls MMS GPS devices devices with
AI
Summary

 Standards are mandatory for any industry.

  International
Telecommunication Union is the widely recognized body for telecom industry.
 Three major sectors are Radio transmission(R), Standardization (T) and Development
 The revolution in Telecommunication industry started from 1970.
 1G supported only voice calls while now we are using 4G which is supports voice,
video, internet etc.
 5G is the next generation of the telecommunication.

methods and standards for data and voice communication

Wireless Personal Area Networks (WPANs)

The market for wireless personal area networks is expanding rapidly. As people use more
electronic devices at home and in the office, and with the proliferation of peripherals, a clear
need for wireless connectivity between these devices has emerged. Examples of the devices
that need to be networked are desktop computers, handheld computers, printers,
microphones, speakers, pagers, mobile phones, bar code readers, and sensors. Using cables to
connect these devices with a PC and with each other can be a difficult task in a stationary
location. When you add mobility into the mix, the challenge becomes daunting. If the setup
and administration of a WPAN becomes simple and intuitive in the future for the end user,
then the most concrete scenario for WPAN technology is cable replacement. This provides a
compelling reason to use WPAN technology, and will open the door for more advanced
applications in the future. Here are the main characteristics of a WPAN:
 Short-range communication
 Low power consumption
 Low cost
 Small personal networks
IrDA
IrDA, the acronym for Infrared Data Association, is an international organization that creates
and promotes interoperable, low-cost infrared data connection standards. IrDA has a set of
protocols to support a broad range of appliances, computing, and communication devices.
These protocols are typically aimed at providing high-speed, short-range, line-of-sight, and
point-to-point wireless data transfer. IrDA protocols use IrDA DATA as the data delivery
mechanism, and IrDA CONTROL as the controlling mechanism.
Bluetooth
Bluetooth is a standard for enabling wireless communication between mobile computers,
mobile phones, and portable handheld devices. Unlike IR, Bluetooth does not require a line
of sight between devices to be effective. It is able to communicate through physical barriers,
typically with a range of 10 meters, although with power amplifiers, 100 meters is possible.
Bluetooth uses the unlicensed 2.4-GHz spectrum for communication, with a peak throughput
of 720 Kbps. It is expected that this throughput will increase to around 10 Mbps with future
Bluetooth specifications.
The origins of Bluetooth date back to 1994 when Ericsson was researching ways to enable
mobile phones to communicate with peripherals. Four years later, in 1998, Ericsson, along
with Nokia, Intel, Toshiba, and IBM, formed the Bluetooth Special Interest Group (SIG) to
define a specification for small form-factor, low-cost wireless communication. Since then,
3COM, Lucent, Microsoft, and Motorola have joined the Bluetooth SIG as Bluetooth
promoters. In addition, well over 2,000 companies have joined the SIG as Bluetooth
Adopter/Associate members.

.
Mobile communication using an 802.11 WLAN standard

APPLICATIONS OF MOBILE COMPUTING

In many fields of work, the ability to keep on the move is vital in order to utilise time
efficiently. The importance of Mobile Computers has been highlighted in many fields of
which a few are described below:

a. Vehicles: Music, news, road conditions, weather reports, and other broadcast
information are received via digital audio broadcasting (DAB) with 1.5 Mbit/s. For
personal communication, a universal mobile telecommunications system (UMTS) phone
might be available offering voice and data connectivity with 384 kbit/s. The current
position of the car is determined via the global positioning system (GPS). Cars driving in
the same area build a local ad-hoc network for the fast exchange of information in
emergency situations or to help each other keep a safe distance. In case of an accident, not
only will the airbag be triggered, but the police and ambulance service will be informed
via an emergency call to a service provider. Buses, trucks, and trains are already
transmitting maintenance and logistic information to their home base, which helps to
improve organization (fleet management), and saves time and money.
 b. Emergencies: An ambulance with a high-quality wireless connection to a hospital can
carry vital information about injured persons to the hospital from the scene of the
accident. All the necessary steps for this particular type of accident can be prepared and
specialists can be consulted for an early diagnosis. Wireless networks are the only means
of communication in the case of natural disasters such as hurricanes or earthquakes. In the
worst cases, only decentralized, wireless ad-hoc networkssurvive.

c. Business: Managers can use mobile computers say, critical presentations to major
customers. They can access the latest market share information. At a small recess, they can
revise the presentation to take advantage of this information. They can communicate with the
office about possible new offers and call meetings for discussing responds to the new
proposals. Therefore, mobile computers can leverage competitive advantages. A travelling
salesman today needs instant access to the company’s database: to ensure that files on his or
her laptop reflect the current situation, to enable the company to keep track of all activities of
their travelling employees, to keep databases consistent etc. With wireless access, the laptop
can be turned into a true mobile office, but efficient and powerful synchronization
mechanisms are needed to ensure data consistency.

d. Credit Card Verification: At Point of Sale (POS) terminals in shops and

supermarkets, when customers use credit cards for transactions, the intercommunication
required between the bank central computer and the POS terminal, in order to effect
verification of the card usage, can take place quickly and securely over cellular channels
using a mobile computer unit. This can speed up the transaction process and relieve
congestion at the POS terminals.

e. Replacement of Wired Networks: wireless networks can also be used to replace

wired networks, e.g., remote sensors, for tradeshows, or in historic buildings. Due to
economic reasons, it is often impossible to wire remote sensors for weather forecasts,
earthquake detection, or to provide environmental information. Wireless connections,
e.g., via satellite, can help in this situation. Other examples for wireless networks are
computers, sensors, or information displays in historical buildings, where excess cabling
may destroy valuable walls or floors.

f. Infotainment: wireless networks can provide up-to-date information at any

appropriate location. The travel guide might tell you something about the history of a
building (knowing via GPS, contact to a local base station, or triangulation where you
are) downloading information about a concert in the building at the same evening via a
local wireless network.
Another growing field of wireless network applications lies in entertainment and games to
enable, e.g., ad-hoc gaming networks as soon as people meet to play together.

Limitations of Mobile Computing

Resource constraints: Battery

Interference: Radio transmission cannot be protected against interference using

shielding and result in higher loss rates for transmitted data or higher bit error rates
respectively

Bandwidth: Although they are continuously increasing, transmission rates are still
very low for wireless devices compared to desktop systems. Researchers look for more
efficient communication protocols with lowoverhead.

Dynamic changes in communication environment: variations in signal power within

a region, thus link delays and connection losses

Network Issues: discovery of the connection-service to destination and connection

stability

Interoperability issues: the varying protocolstandards

Security constraints: Not only can portable devices be stolen more easily, but the
radio interface is also prone to the dangers of eavesdropping. Wireless access must
always include encryption, authentication, and other security mechanisms that must be
efficient and simple to use.

mobile computing architecture

mobile computing is enabled with three-tier architecture that has three major layers, so
here we will explore each one layer with its functions;
 Presentation Layer (UI): This layer lets users to face device handling and rendering.
 Application Layer (AL): It allows executing business logic and rules.
 Data Access Layer (DM): It lets to get access and management.

1-Tier Presentation Layer

 This presentation layer lets to execute all applications on the client devices and provide
complete user interfaces.
 It has main responsibility is to present information to edge-user.
 Users are able to grab all information via speakers, vibration, screens, etc.
 Users can sent the information with helping of input devices like pen drives, mouse,
keyboard, touch screens and so on.
 his layer is enabled with WAP browsers, customized client programs, web browsers, etc.
 Presentation layer allows accomplishing via client-side data source, Dynamic HTML and
data cursors.
 Presentation layer must be context aware and device-independent.
 2-Tier Application Layer
 In the application layer, business logic performs all tasks as server for client requests from
workstations. It works as business rules fetch or enter data through the Data Layer.
 It is enabled with few technologies such as PHP, .Net services, JSP, Java and so on.
 Presentation and database-independent
 This layer identifies that which types of data is required and performs as client in relation to a
third tier or programming that may be situated on a mainframe computer or locally.
 It takes decision on rendering, network management, security, data store access, need for
many types of middlewares.
 Their components are not linked to certain client, so they can be implemented by all
applications and can be proceed to other locations, as responding time
 frame and other needed rules.
3-Tier Data Access Layer
This layer is implemented to keep store data that is required by application and work as
repository for both temporary and permanent data.
 Data access layer is built up of DBMS that offers all data for above two layers.
 This layer is also known as ‘DBMS Access Layer’
 All data is stored into many format like as text files or relational DB.
 In this layer, to ignore the dependencies on the storage mechanism offers for getting to update
or change without the application tier clients that is affected by aware of change.

Mobile system networks

Cellular networks:-

Cellular networks provide users better benefits over earlier choices, such as more
capacity, lower battery consumption, a larger geographic coverage area, and less
signal interference. Common cellular technologies include code division, multiple
access, general packet radio service (GPRS), 3GSM, and the Global Network for
Mobile Communication.

Every base station is connected to the mobile switching centre to create a call and
mobility network by connecting mobile phones to wide area networks. On the other
hand, internet connectivity is achieved using wireless network devices. Cellular
networks rely on the availability of network ranges, while Wi-Fi has a limited range.

A cellular network is a communication network that uses radio waves to link mobile
devices to a central server or hub and each other. "Cellular" describes the network's
topology, which is separated into regions known as cells. Each cell's radio transceiver
equipment is a component of wider network architecture.
WLAN network and mobile IP

When we say WLAN in terms of technology, it usually mean the technology being used to
connect the mobile clients and Access Points in wireless communication method.

A WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) is basically a setup that lets you connect your
devices, like laptops, phones, or tablets, to the internet without using any cables. The
main parts of a WLAN are the Access Points (APs), the wireless devices, and the wired
backbone.

when you connect your device to the Wi-Fi, it talks to the APs, which then send your
data through the wired backbone to wherever it needs to go. This setup lets you use the
internet and share data without any cables, which is pretty convenient.

Access Points (APs) are like the middleman between your wireless devices and the wired
network. They create a Wi-Fi signal so you can connect your devices to the internet.
When you have a big space to cover, you might need multiple APs to make sure you get
good coverage everywhere.

Wireless devices are what you use to connect to the Wi-Fi, like your phone, laptop, or
tablet. They have a wireless adapter that lets them talk to the APs using Wi-Fi signals.

The wired backbone is what connects all the APs and other network stuff, like switches
or routers. It's kind of like the backbone of the whole system, making sure that data
gets where it needs to go. It uses Ethernet cables to link everything together, and
sometimes even fiber-optic cables for faster speeds and longer distances.

Ad-hoc networks:-

Ad hoc networks are mostly wireless local area networks (WLANs). The devices
communicate with each other directly instead of relying on a base station or
access points as in wireless LANs for data transfer co-ordination. Each device
participates in routing activity, by determining the route using the routing
algorithm and forwarding data to other devices via this route.